Steady-State

Applied Design
by Wayne C. Edmister and Joseph M. Marchello
4-1. Genwal. The basic equation for the steady eonduction of beat is obtained by taking Eq. 3-2, separating the variables, substituting for the th&mal conductivity, which vari% with temperak = f(t), and ture, the functional relationship integrating qs; Multiplying
t,) given t2

where:

le

A is the area, sq ft, tiormal to the direction of heat Aow IC,, is the mean thermal conductivity, Btu/ hr ft OF, for the temperature range tz.to tl tl - t% is the temperature differente, F Eq. 4-3 can be presented in another form, namely.

q=AC(tl-tal = -l;:(t)dt and dividing the right : Eq. 4-1 in whieh C = k,,;x

=A(t,-tz!/R

Eq.4-4 Eq. 4-5

si,de by (tr -

f iti dt te - t1 ct2 - w

9 s Noticing

x2 dx = s -~ A x1

t1

is the thmmal cmrd~uctmce of the wall, or the ability of the wall of thickness a to conduct heat and is expressed in Btu/sq ft F hr. The reciproca1 of C is designated by R and is the themd n%~&wxe which the wall offers to the ,flow of beat, R = x/k, Eq. 4-6

that the tenn[{z

f(t)

dt] /(tz -

111

is the mean value of k over the temperature range tl to tJ and designating it by k, give for the rate *of he:t flow

It should be noted that the use of k,, does not introduce any error regardless of the relation between 5 and A. 4-Z. Homogeneous piane z@Z. For a piane mall, SS shown in Fig. 3-1, with psrallelsurfaces z ft apart, the area A is constant and independent of the diatance 5. With a steady state, the surface temperature tl and tz on the warmer and colder sides are also constant. Because of the homogeneity is of the wall, the temperature gradient dt/dx eonstsnt throughout its thickness if it is assumed that nny changc of k with temperature may be neglected. In Eq. 4-2, x1 = 0 and xp = x, Fig. 3-1, and q=Ak,,,(tl-tz)ix .Eq.4-3

q=k,,, tz) x2 (tl /JxI -

dx,A

Eq. 4-2

Eq. 4-3 applies to a homogeneous body with a constant cross section in which heat flows only in one direction, perpendicular to the surfaces, and is flow. Therefore, Eq. referred to as u,nidirectional 4-3 may be used to c~alculate the heat conduetion through a piane wall only when there is no heat flom through the edges or if the beat-transfer area is so large compared with the perimeter that neglecting the heat conduetion through the edges will not result in a large error. Eq. 4-3 may be used also to calculate the axial heat conduction through a prismatic or cylindrical bar with parallel ends having temperatures tl and ti if the bar is insulated SOthat beat does not flow through the sides. As mentioned in Section 3-l and shown in Fig. Z-1, when calculating the beat slow from a hotter fluid to a colder one, separated by a wall, the temperatures to be used in Eq. 4-3 are those of the surfaces of the wall, and not of the fluids.
EXAMPLE 4-l. A brick building wall 12$$ in. thick has an inside surface temperature of 53 F and an Outside surface temperature of 15 F; the wall is 9 ft high and 32 ft long. Find: (a) the beat transfer by conduetion through the wall per hour, (b)

Petro/Chem Engineer

March 1965

43

the conductance of the wall, sistance of the nall.

(c)

the thermal

re-

SOLUTION: From Table 3-5, Eor brick with l?& moisture, k = 0.40; the area A = 9 x 32 = 288 aq ft; thickness z = 1X5/12 = 1.04 ft. (a) (b) by Eq. 3-3, Q = 288 x 0.4(53 = 4200 Btuihr 15)/1,.04

the wall as a whole, and its conductance C is given in tablca. The value of the reciproca1 of C from such data, in a,ccordance with Eq. 4-5 and 4-6, mut be used for the corresponding ierm in finding the over-z.11 conduetance by Eq. 4-8. EXAMPLE 4-Z. If the wall in Example 4-l is 12$5: jn. thick and built of 8 in. concrete blocks made of sand and grave1 aggregate with three ovrl COT~S with :$-in. stucco finish in the outside and :(Y-in. plsster on the inside, find: c.aj the conduct~ance of the wa~ll a,nd (h) the tntnl heat Mow, assuming the same surface temperntures. SOLUTION: From Table 3-5, assume for stucco li1 = 0.40 because the outside wa,ll may have ZLhigh, moisture content, for inside plsster & = 0.25 consideri,ng dry plaster; for the ccmcrete blocks C = 0.781. Ca) By Eq. 3-9 c = 1/(0.375/12 12 x 0.25) x 0.40 + liO. + 0.375/ = 0.675 Btu/sq ft hP F

By Eq. 3-5, C = 0.40/1.04 = 0.385 Btu/sq ft hr F Btu,!sq ft hr F By Eq,. 3-G, R = 1iC = 1.04/0.40 = 2.6 sq ft hr F/Btu

(cj

4-3. Composite @me ~wall. A wall made up of three layers iu illustrated in Fig. 4-l. Each layer consists of a homogeneous plane wall. Therefore, by Eq. 4-6 the thermal resistances of the Isyers are Ri = xJk2; R, = xl/k,; RB = xgk, Evidently, the resistance R of the composite wall ia equa1 to the sum of the separate resistances R = RI + R, + RS = x,/k, and the thermal C = l/R conductance + xz/kr + xajk:; Eq. 4-7

(b;) By Eq. 3-4, q = 288 x 0.675(53 15) = 7400 Btu/hr ai

of the wall -lmxakJ) Eq. 4-8

= l/(x,/k,

+ x/kz

Witl! C or R thus detevmined, the rate of beat flow is found by Eq. 4-4 using for the temperature differenee the extreme surface temperatura of the composite va11 (tl - t4).

With the 6urne temperature drop, the heat 10% is considerably higher because of a higher conductance of this composite wall. Actually, due to a higher heat Row, the inside surface temperature will be slightly lower tha,n 53 F and the outside surfaee temperature will be slightly higher than 15 F; thus the temperature drop will be less than 38 F and therefore the heat loss will be somewhat~ smaller than 7400 Btu/hr. The following example will bring out the influente of a small air space between two meta1 surfaces which cannot be avoided even with the most careful machining. EXAMPLE 4-3. Determine the conductance at room temperature of: (aj a l-in. Monel-clad niild-steel plnte having a Monel layer of 0.10 in. and (b) the same plate if the two lapers are not welded together but separated by an air space 0.0005 in. thick.

Figure 4-l. Heat composite wall.

transfer

by conduction

through

The interior surface temperatures may be calculated, notieing that with steady-state conditions the heat flow Q through each layer is the same and is equa1 to the tota1 beat flow, q = AC(t, - t,,J = A(kl/xl) (tl - tr) = A(k,x,) (tz - ta:l = .4(k&~) (t3 - tr) from which t, - tr = (t, La -ti = itl tl:)Cx,/k,; t,r)Cx,,ik, Eq. 4-9

SOLUTION: From Tsble 3-8, the eonductivity of 0 Monel at 70 F is 14.4 Bt.u/hr ft F; the conductivity of mild steel at 70 F is 25.4 Btu/hr ft F. isj By Eq. 4-6 and J-7, the tota1 resistance of the meta1 piate is 0.10 ~-t$x+m R = i2 x 14.4 = 0.00270 sq ft hr~FjBtu and by Eq. 3-5 = 0.00058 + 0.00212

If tl and tl are knonn, ts and t3 may be calculated Erom Eq. 4-9. Sometimes, in engineering constructions, composite walls are employed in which the surfaces of the layers are not planar oi the layers are not homogeneous, BS concrete blocks with holes. For standard types of such nalls, tests are made of

(bi

The additional resistance of the air space with k = 0.0151, Table 4-1, is by Eq. 4-6 0.00276 sq ft hr F/Etu of the two layers of meta1

R, = L!!!!L~ 12 x 0.0151 and the becomes conducta~nce

44

March 1965

Petro/Chem Engineer

1 = 183 Btu/hr c = o.00270 + 0.00276

sq ft F

and eancelling out k (tl - t2) giva 2A,j(D, - D,! = 2nLlln (Az/Al) from which the area ta be used hecomes A,,, = (nDiL - vrDrL)jln (Az - A1)/In (A,/A,) Eq. 4-13 is the logwithmic-mean by AI A, = (A, Ali/ln(An,/A~) (Az/Al) Eq. 4-13 wea designated

or less than one-half of that at condition (a). 4.4, Thick eylindrical wdl. Fig, 4-2 shows a cylinder with a thick, homogeneous wall with heat flowing radially from the inside outward. In the cross sectional plane, the heat flow is in al1 directions and is referred to as a tuo-dimensionai flow. If a cylinder with the length L is eonsidered at a radius r, its area is 27vL and the general Eq. 3-2 becomes q = k,,, (tl - tz, Integrating, pive.7 ti) ,ln(r&~) diameters instead of 5, r; dr/2rrL

As may be easily shown, AL is always smaller than the simple arilJ~maf.ic-vkcan area A,= (Ap+A1j/2 .Eq.4-14

However, if D2/D, = A2/A1 5 2, the error of using A, instead of Al is less than 4%; this securacy is sufficient far most problems in heat conduction. 4-5. Composite cylind~rical .wa~ll. Fig. 4-3 shows a composite cylindrieal wall sueh &s a meta1 pipe with a heat conductivity kl covered with a heavy layer of heat insulating materia1 having a conductivity ki, Under steady-state eonditions. assuming that a hot fluid is flowing in the pipe, the heat flow rate through the inner pipe and the insulating Shell will be the same, or by Eq. 4-10 4= ZrLk,(tlIn (DAI) tz) = 2?rLkz(tt - trj ln(DwDi) q In OhDz) 2?rLkz . Eq. 4.15 differenee

q = Z,rLk,, (tl

Using the more convenient radii giva q = 2~Lk,,(tl-t~)/In(DI/D,) a

Eq. 4-10

Multiplying both the~numerator and denominator of Eq -4 10 by & and noticing that rDzL represents the outside area A-, Eq. 4-10 may be presented SS

from which

t 1 _ t-1 = q ln(DwD~)andtz-t?
2nLkr Therefore, the over-al1 temperature

=p

tl - t3 = (tl&ln(D2/D),/k,
Figure 4-2. Homogeneous cylindrical wall.

t*) + ctz - t31 = + ln(Ds;Dz)/kz] + Eq. 4-16

Solving for q giva

q = 2rrL(tl-t3j/

[ln(D2/DlVk, In(D/Dx)/kzl

q=

Ah,,

(ti

td

0.5D,ln(De/D1)

Eq. 4-11

A comparison of Eq. 4-11 with the general Eq. 4-3 shows that the term 0.5DMD~/DJ is the equivalent thic!mess of the cylinder wall, z,, when the heat flow is computed referred to the outside cylinder surface. Similarly, using the inner surface, the heat flov may be comppted from the expression AI km (LI - 12) = o;5D, In(D,/D,) Eq. 4-12

In eonneetion with Eq. 4.11 and 4-12 it should be mentioned that while the tota1 heat flow through every concentric surface is constant in a thickwalled cylinder, the heat Aow per square foot decreases from the inner surface toward the outside. Instead of using Eq. 4-10 or its modifications, Eq. 4-11 or 4.12, one may use the basic Eq. 4-3 with a mean area A,,, for A. Equating the right sides of Eq. 4-3 and 4-10, substituting for the wall thickness z = CD2- DJ/2 and far the ratio of the diameters, the ratio of the inner and outer cylindrical surfaces

,
Figure 4-3. Composite cylindrical

It-Lwall.

Generalizing giva

this relation

for u case of n layers

q = Z?rL(t, - t,+l)/~lln(Di+~/Di)/k,l . Eq.

Please turn

4-17

to l>age 46

Petro/Chem Engineer

March 1965

45

EXAMPLE 4-4. A 5-in. standard steel steam pipe is insulated with a 3.in. layer of 8571, magnesia. The surface temperature on the inside of the pipe is 400 F; on the outside of the insulation it is 100 F. Calculate: (a) the rate of beat flow pei hour per foot of pipe length; (b) the temperature on the outside of t,he steel pipe; (cl the conductance C of the pipe and insulation, based on the inside surfaee area. SOLUTION: (aj For a 5-in. standard steel pipe, from Table 4-2, D1 = 5.047 in. and D, = 5.563 in. In Eq. 4-16, Da = 5.563 + 3 x 2 = 11.563 in.; the heat conductivity of steel (from Table 3-S) extrapolating for 400 F is kl = 26 - (26 - 211 (400 = 25.0 Btujhr ft F 212:~/(11iz 212)

q = A,k,,, (tl -

tz) /x

Eq. 4-21

Neglecting the mm11 temperature the pipe, the average temperature may be assumed as (400 i- lOO)/Z From Table 3-6, for t = 250 F; hr ft F. The ratios of diameters of units, therefore, with L = 1 ft,

drop through of the insulation = 250 F. ks = 0.035 Btu, are independent Eq. 4-16 giva

* = 2p(400-100j~[ln(5.563/5.047j/25.0 + ln(ll.563/5.563);0.035] = 108.2 Btu/hr (b) By Eq. 4-15, tl - t2 = 108.2 In (5.563/5.0472/ Zn 25.0 = 0.056 F and therefore, ta = 400 - 0.06 = 399.94 F (cj From Eq. 4-4, with A = m x 5.047 x 1112 = 1.32 sq ft C = 108/1.32 (400 ~ IOOj = 0.27 Btu,/hr sq ft F 4-6. Tlwee-dinwnsinnd beat flozo. When heat flows from a space in al1 directions, such as in the case of a furnaee or a refrigerator box, it is called a three-dim~ens%onaZheat flow, but Eg. 4-3 is still applicable. Hollo~o sphere. If heat is flowing radially in al1 direetions at a uniform steady rate through a hollow sphere with an inside radius ~1 and outside radius Q, Eq. 4-2 may be rewritten as ; s Substituting for A the expression far the surface at any radius 4vr and integiating between the limits ri and Q gives Wr l/rz) /47r = k,n(tl tz)/q l/rl and 1/ Eq. 4.19 area is Eq. 4-20 dr/A = k,,,(tl ti)/q Eq. 4-18

Various practieal shapes. Eq. 4-21 in connection with Eq. 4-20 may be applied with sufficient accuiacy also to other shapes if they more or lesa approach a sphere, as the beehioe shape of commercial coke ovens. 4-7. Hollow reetangul~ar ywallelepifleds. In the case of hollow cubes or generally of rectangular paiallelepipeds with thick walls, BS encountered in furnaces, only parts of the surfaces receive the heat flow at right angles; and Eq. 4-21, in connection with Eq. 4-20, wou,ld give an exaggerated oslue for the heat flow Q. Unfortunately, the use of the Eq. 4-2 is also impract~ical because of the complexity of integration of the term dz/A. In many cases however, the calculations may be made by Eq. 4-21, using instead of A,, the mean area A, computed from various empirica1 equations. The empirica.1 equations giva below agree closely with equations whieh Langmuir obtained from theoretieal analysis and which are also confirmed by lata tests. The first four equations apply to hollow reetangular parallelepipeds with al1 walls having the same uniform thickness and with al1 faces intersecting at right angles. Five cases mi11 be discussed, differing in respect to their relative inside dimensions L,, Lz, and Ls. Case 1. Al1 three dimenuions L 2 215: A,, = Al + 2.16 x (L, -I- L, -l- La) + 1.2X2 Eq. 4-22 where A is the inside surface of the parallelepiped. The second term in the right side of Eq. 4-22 is a correction for the edges and the third term - for the eight corners. Case 2. Two dimensions LI 2 z/5, La 2 x/5, and the dimension L,, < x/5: The corrections for the mal1 side can be neglected and Eq. 4-22 becomes A,,, = A, + 1.86 x (L, + L2) -+ 0.35x . Eq. 4-23, Case 3. One drnensmn L,,,,, two LS < x/5 and Li < x/5: 2 ~15, the other

A, = 6.4 L ,n_ x/ln (A,/Al) Eq. 4-24 where Al is the inside and Az is the outside surfaee of the parallelepiped. Case 4. Al1 three A, = 0.79vA1Ai dimensions L < x/5: Eq. 4-25

from which, eliminating the fractions i2, gives 4 = 4?rk,,, (t> - ta) il rJ(rz - il) Noticing that the yeonzetrica.hean As = 4m, rz

A, = \/A,

and that vz - rl = z, the thickness of the wall of the sphere, substituting these values gives an expression in the form of the basic Eq, 4-3:

EXAMPLE 4-5. A corkboard box has inside dimensions of 12 x 15 x 18 in. and walls 6 in. thick. The temperature of the inside surfaee is -26 F and of the outside surface is 50 F. Find: (a) the rate at which heat must be removed from the inside of the box in order to maint,ain these temperatures using the proper empirica1 equation; and (b) compare the results with those obtained by using mean surfaces. SOLUTION: Iivnin = 12 in.; z = 6 in.; L,,, = 22, therefore Eq. 4-22 should be used: LI = 12/12 =

46

March 1965

Petro/Chem Engineer

1 ft; Lz = 1.25 ft; L, = 1.5 ft, 5 = 0.5 ft.

Al = 1 x 1.25 x 2 + (1 x 2 + 1.25 x Z!
1.5 = 9.75 sq ft (a)
+

By Eq. 4-22.
1.2 x (0.512 = 14.1

A,,, = 9.75 + 2.16 x 0.5(1 + 1.25 + 1.51

sq ft k = 0.025 Btu/hr = 52.3 Btu/br From Table 3.4 for corkboard, ft F and by Eq. 4-21 4 = 14.1 x 0.025(50 2.5 = 30.25 sq ft By Eq. 4-14, the aritbmetic-mean area is

+ 25),0.5

(b) As = 2 x 2.25 x 2 + (2 x 2 + 2.25 x 21

A, = (9.75 + 30.25)/2
which would~ pive an error = 0.418 or t- 41.8%.

= 20.0 sq ft
of (20 14.1)/14.1

By Eq. 4-20, the geometrie-mean

area iS

A, = ,/9.75 x 30.25 = 17.2 sq ft

Table 4-1.
Spscific Heat Bi/lb-OF Density

Properties
Dynamic Viscosity

of Air*
lhermal. Cond;tilvlty Btu,/h;-fl3 --~ E38 0.0143 0.0148 E8 0.0162 0.0168 0:o::: 0.0182 %S 0.0216 0.0227 0.0239 0.0250 0.0271 Prandtl Number Modulus ax 10 0 14.7 psia 1,~ ft-OF 3.0 2.5 2.1 1.7 1.4 1.2 1.1 0.89 0.77 0.68 0.58 0.42 0.31 0.23 0.18 0.14 0.11 0.070 5% 0.024 0.017

CD

0.239
2: 40 60 80 0.240 0.240 0.240 0.240 0.240 0.240 0.240 0.241 0.241 0.241 0.242 0.242 0.243 0.245 0.246 0.247 0.250 0.253 0.257 0.760 0.263 0.269 o.ii4 0.279 0283 0.287 0.293 0.297

100 120 140 160 180 200 250 300

350 400 450 500 600

;ii 1000 1200 1400 1600

1800 %O 3000

Ib,C ft -,-~ Ib,Chr 0.0863 0.040 0.041 0.0827 0.0794 0.043 0.0763 0.044 0.0735 0.045 0.0709 0.046 0.0685 0.047 0.0662 0.049 0.0640 0.050 0,0621 0.051 0.0601 0.052 0.0559 0.055 0.0522 tE 0%; 0.062 0.0436 0.065 0.067 E4 0.072 0~0342 0.0315 %Y 0.0292 0.085 0.0272 0.0239 0% 0.0213 0.105 0.0193 X8 %6: 0.123 0.136 0.148 _.-. El:;: -~-

P 14.7 pia

qdk
0.72 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.69 0,69 0.69 068 0.68 067 0.67 0,66 0.66 0.66 0.66 065 0.65 065 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 063

0.0291
0.0312 0.0336

%%
0.0442 0.0481 0.0520 0%; 0.069

Nominalhmter, me, OD inches :i yg 1 0.540 0.675 0.840 1.050 1.315

inc;;

N;ni$ Ib/ft

Nominat size, inches

Diagmgeter, inches IO Ib/ft 2~875 3.500 4.500 5.563 6.625 8.625 10.750 3.068 2.469 5.047 4.026 6.065 8.071 10,136 5.79 7.58 :::i;

Heat Exchangers designed and built by THERMAL TRANSFER CORP. mean new materials, new engineering concepts and exact fulfillment of customer requirements and specifications. Heat Exchangers designed and built by THERMAL TRANSFER CORP. provide increased eficiency, greater durability and produce guaranteed resuks. Why not give your next heat wchanging problem to the THERMAL TRANSFER CORPs. design engineering staff for an easy solution.

0.364 0.493 0.622 %9

0,57 0.42 0.85 1.13 1.68 2.27 2.72, 3.65

2%
4" 2 10

18.97
;4::: 43.77

1% 1% 2

1.660 1.900 2.375

::;10
2.067

12

12.750

12.090

Monroeville.

Pennsylvania

15146

Petro/Chem Engineer

March 1965

FO, ,n,o,m.,io P,odr,r servire F,,h on Advertimd sae Faode, hd

47

This eorresponds to an error of (17.2 - 14.1) /14.1 = 0.22 or 22.0%. By Eq. 4.13, the logarithmic-mean area is
A, = (30.25 - 9.75),/ln(30.2a/9.75) = 18.1 sq ft This crrespnds t an error of (18.1 - 14.111 14.1 = 0.284 or 28.476. With a greater relative thiekness the errors would be still greater. Case 5. Different wall thieknesses. If ne or weral of the six walls have a different thickness the tota1 beat flow should be calculated by adding together the heat flows through each separate wall; A, should be calculated for each wall and the substituted separately in Eq. 4-21 ~instead of A,,. The edge, corrections thus will be figured twice and the corner corrections three time% therefore, to eliminate this duplication Eq. 4.22 should read.

Wax solidifies and shatters as it travels. Dottor scrapes it into granulator at discharge end.

biade

A, = Al + l.O&(L, and Eq. 4-23 should read

t L, + La) +~ 0.4~~ ..? Eq. 4-26 Eq. 4-27

A,, = A + 0.93x(L1 + L,) + 0.12~~.

EXAMPLE 4.6. Compute the amou,nt of heat that must bc furnished in Exnmple 4-5 if the thickness of the two largest sides is increased to 9 in. The inside area of the four thinner walls is

Water-Cooled Steel-Belt l Conveyor Solidifies Wax Polymers

. A Water-Bed steel-belt conveyor cools and solidifies wax polymers for flaking and packaging at the At,lantic Refining Co. refinery, Philadelphia. The relatively new wax product could not be flaked on drum fakers used for ordinary pet,roleum wax, because the drum flaker would not cool the high-viscosity product rapidly enough for flaking during the short period it would be in contact with the drum. Wax polymer blends, used primarily for coating food packa,ging papers, are piped to the conveyor at temperatures of from 150 to 250 F in wellinsulated steam-traced lines ,and flow onto the steel belt at ne end. They solidify and partially shatter in transit,~ are scraped off by a doetor biade at the discharge end, fa11 into a granulator, and are elevated to hoppers which discharge into automatic weighing and paekaging equipment. The load-carrying strand of the stainless steel belt floats on water eontained in four shallow pans. Chilled water at 45.50 F or water at atmospheric temperature may be circula,ted in any of the four pans, depending on the polymer blend being processed. Films of wax range in thickness from paper thin to l/lO in. thick, the thicker films beina more commori since they result, in greater produetion. Up to 3000 Ib/hr can be proeessed. The conveyor wa~ supplied by Sandvik Steel, Inc., Fair Lawn, N. J.! and meaaures 58 ft between terminal centers. The stainlesn steel belt is 48 in. wide by ,040 in. thick. Automatic tracking contro18 prevent the belt frm tracking off center beqond preset limits.

Ai = 1 x 1.25 x 2 + 1 x 1.5 x 2 = 5.5 sq ft The corresponding mea area, by Eq. 4-26, is

Am = 5.5 + 1.08 x 0.5,x 3.75 t 0.4 x 0.52 = 7.62 sq ft

and the corresponding

heat flow is, by Eq. 4-21,

Q = 7.62 x 0.025 x 7510.5 = 28.6 Btu/hr For the two walls with a thickness of 9 in. = 0.75 ft, the corresponding figura are
Al = 1.5 x 1.25 x 2 = 3.25 sq ft Al= 3.75 t 1.08 x 0.75 x 3.75 + 0.4 x 0.75% = 7.02 sq ft

Q = 7.02 x 0.025 x 75,0.75 = 17.6 Btu/hr and the tota1 heat flow is 4 = 28.6 + 17.6 = 46.2 Btu/hr a decrease of (52.9 -46.2)/52.9 = 0.127 or 12.7%. Using the principles laid down in this section, it is possible to handle almo& any problem of threedimensional beat flow encountered in practice. References
Heatin.g, Ventilating, Air Conditioning Gwide, Vol. 29. New York: American Society of Heating and Ventilsting Engineers, (1951) p. 178.

NEXT MONTH

Applied Heat Transfer

for

&l

48

March 1965

Petro/Chem Engineer

Figure 8. Nomograph

Used to Find Liquid Surge Height.

I

H,=------

m,,

.ICq,

where :

t ~ HI LIquid residence time, Qi, = Rate at which liq,uid The use of Step Step

Steu

far surge capacity, ft. min. is heing withdramn from the tower, hot gpm. quiekway sto wzt this dimension is by the Fig. 8. The stepu involved are: 1. Enter the nomograph at the left with the tower diameter. 2. Draw a line from the diameter through the liauid Row rate. Extend it ti11 it cute the IGdex Line. 3. Enterine with the design residence time, draw a-line from it through the Inde; Line. Extend it to the surge height scale. Read the required surge height.

Shell length

required

Solution: 4.ft, 6.in. (bj H,, Hb H, H,

(a) See Fig. 8 for the calculation. A length is required. = 3 ft, 3-in. ~(from Table 1) = 8 ft, O-in. = 2(5-l) = 2 ft, 6-in. (from Table 2) = 4 ft, 6-in. (from Fig. 8) Tangent Length =18 ft, 3-in. This phase of tower sizing is now complete diameter and tangent length are known. As sized, this tower is not necessarily the best oi most economie, design. Alternate designs would be looked at (different hole sizes, seal dam heights, number of liquid flowpaths, etc.) before the size is considered final. References 1. Davia, J. A. and Gordon, K. F., PETRO/CHEM ENGINEER 33, 54 (Octobei- 19Slj 2. Scheiman, A. D., Hydrocarbm Proceasiny and, Potml.eum Refiwr, 42, 165 (October 19631.

Example 5: (a) One-fourth of the baffle liquid (300 gpm) is withdrawn from the tower in the examples. (The remainder is recirculated.! What shell length is required for 4 minute residence

Erratum
Equntion 3 in the first part of EIow to Size Shower Deck Raffled Towers Quicker which read: 0.29 Q n := Tfig should have read n = -~,-? 15 h, I

time?
(b:) The tawer has a 4.in. liyuid inlet, an B-in. manhole, and a 16.in. vapor inlet. What is the tangent lenpth?

Petro/Chem Engineer

Apri1 1965

79

big Conduction in the Unsteady State - Part 5 Heat

Applied Heat Transfer Design for the klPl

by Wayne C. Edmister and Joseph M. Marche110
The net amount of this volume integra1 of heat carried across the boundary nmy be represented by the area 5-l. Introduction. When the temperature distribution within a body changes with time the beat conduction is said to be in the unsteady state. Unsteady-state conduetion takes piace in annealing, quenching or otherwise beat treating meta1 parts, vulcanizing rubber, thermosetting plastics, burning bricks, steaming lumber and many other industrial PrOCWSeS. As an illustration of this transient phenomena, Fig. 5-1 shows diagrammatically the temperature ehanges taking piace in a homogeneous solid body tl : 60 F exposed 12 in. in dism with a temperature to surroundings at a uniforni higher temperature tz = 260 F. As heating takes piace, the temperature at a certain point asymptotically approaches the temperature t, of the surroundings. Points near the surfaee quickly approach t2, whereas points further away show a time Jag depending upon their distante from the surface. Fig. 5-lb shows a replot of curves of Fig. 5.121 indicating how the temperature of the body inereased from the uniform leve1 t1 - tl to the temperature distribotion tz - a, after 2 hours, tz - b, after 4 hours, and SO on unti1 after 36 hours when it has effectively reached a uniform level, tp - tz. In this case heat fhws ih the body from the circumference to the eenter and is stored in the body, with a subsequent increase in temperature. As the temperature at any point in the body increases, the temperature differenee and henee the rate of beat flow decrease unti1 a nem steady state is reached. In the general case of heat transfer into a solid, liquid or gas, the accumulation of heat in the substante may be represent,ed by the volume integra1

A where ris t,he flux of heat e xms the boundary. Since -+ the area veetor, A, points outward norma1 to the surface, heat flowing into the volume will have a negative value and heating flowing out of the volume will have a positive value. Then the area integra1 of the flux across the boundary represents the net output minus the net input of heat for the volume. A heat balance over the volume st,stes that the input minus the output is equa1 to the accumulation of beat, that is ?.;ia A termed integra1 Eq. 5.1.

Distante surface,

from incha

Figure 5.lb. Replot of Fig. 5.la showing how the temperature of the body increased from the uniform level doring several

time spans.

n(pC,tl ~-. dJ7 = aT v

Applying t,he divergente theorem frequently Greens or Gauss theorem,, Eton~the area Eq. 5-l may be written as dV = 0.

Eq. 5.2

Since Eq. 5-2 mnst, hold for any volume, far a small volume 6V spc,t, 8.7 The volume (sv#o!.so:
I

it will applg

+ V. under

6V 1

0 cannot

Eq. 5-3 be zero, .Eq.5-4

consideration

d $m) T+yy.j+=o 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 j 28 Time, hOII 32 36

Figure 5-18. Temperature4ime relation for heating round timbers in a steam bath.

The heat flux is made up of severa1 terms representing the various mechaniums of beat transfer.

80

Apri1 1965

Petro/Chem Engineer

-1_

For

comection

and

eonduetion

J=pc,tZ-kvt

Eq. 5-5

where: t is temperature coordinates, z, y, z ,r is time

at any poifit giva

by the

where the convection term pC,t v represents heat transfer due to macroscopie or bulk motion and the conduction term -k Vt iu Fouriers, law. Combining Eq. 5-4 and 5-5, -+ J !pC,t j + J. (pC,,t O) = V. (kDt) Eq. 5-6 a7 Using the wntiw&, ~-l-v.(pa)=o eyuation discussed in Part 6 : . . . . Eq. 5-7

k is the coefficient of thermal p is the mass per unit volume.

conductivit,y

c is the specific heat of unit mass

and Eq. 5-6 together with the assumption of const,ancy of heat capacity yields the Fourie?=Poisson, equation 1 = pc [V . (kvtj] P In terms of the Stokes derivative at -+ xT + 1). vt [V . Eq. 5-Sa

(kVt/l

Eq. 5-8b

The term k/pc is involved in al1 problems of unsteady heat conduction and ,Eq. 5-1 indica& the manner in which the rate of temperature change in time is dependent upon this term. Actually, it simply means that t,he rate of temperature change is more rapid in a body that has both a high thermal eonduetivity and a low specific heat per unit volume. Thus B body with a high value of k/pc heat,s and cools off faster than a body with a low k/pc value. This term is giva the nane thermal d~ifxsivity and is designated by the symbol a and has the~ dimensions LVT usually expressed as square feet per hour. The solutions of Fouriers Eq. 5-11 by advanced caleulus are quite involved and even after the solutions have been found, extreme care must be exercised in selecting the proper solution that will fit the conditions of t,he prob1em.l Example 5-l is an illustration uf this type of analysis using Laplace transforms t,o obtain the solution. Example 5-1. Obt,ain the temperature profile and heat transfer rate for a solid whjch occupies the upper half of the y-z plane. Assume Fouriers second law is obeyed in the form Eq. 5-12 Boundary conditions are t (0, y) = t,, t (7, 0) = ti and t (7,) = t, where t, and ti are consta&.
Solution: Before applying the Laplace transformation to Fomiers second law, it is convenient to make t,he translation

This is the general equation for combined conveetion and conduction for which the velocity components must be obtained from the equatioms of fiud tiotion. If ther is heat genemtion or wleaue within the system as there would be if a chemical or nuclear reaction tiere occurring, it is neeessary to introduce a beat souree or sink term. This term would appear in the volume integra1
il M

2 = t-t,> Then, Fouriers seeond law becomes

Ey. 5.13

(pC,t) a7

-+v

v Eq. 5-14 and boundary v(0.y) and From tables of Laplace transforms, the expressions = Su5-10 in a by heat the Applyjng the Laplace t,ransformation u (0,~) one obtains conditions are now t,

where Q iS the rate of beat production per unit time per unit volume. The final expression similar to Eq 5-3 containing this source term would be $++=[V.kVt+Q] PCI, Solutions to this equation for a number are available in the 1iterature.,2 When beat is transferred by conduetion velocity term in Eq. 5-8 is negligible. If stame under consideration is isotropie ductivity is independent of direction and 1 .Eq.5-9 of eases only the the subthe con-

= 0;t!(7,0) = tj -

Eq. 5.15

at k V t Eq. 37 PC, Conduction. The temperature distribution body for the unsteady-state condition is giva Fowiers general Inzu of th,ree-dimensiona1 conduction, Eq. 5-10. This law presented in form of a partial differential equation is3

Eq.. 5-16 to Eq. 5-14,

Petro/Chem Engineer

Apri1 1965

81

using Vjo,~) d2; ~-dY2

Eq. 5.15, 5-IG = 0 giva sci ? = O

and

the

initial

condition

+....

Eq. 5-26

.,_ -4 ~~

Eq. 5.17

Remaining boundary conditions must alsa be trannformq. Using the fact that the transform of o, constant is simplg the constant divided by S, we have V(S.0) = +tj t,/ and ;(,s,3cI) = 0 Eq. s-18 In making the transformation, we have gene from the 7-u domain to the S-v domain and reduced the partial differential equation to an ordinary differential equation. Eq. 5.17 is a second-order linear differential equation with constant eoeffieients. The solution is Tl=& s -. J- a y 2 . y - J-- Ly boundary Eq. 5-19 conditions, we

Using tables of error function or the serie8 expansion, we now can determine the temperature at any point in the slab and any time from Eq. 5-25. It remains to determine the rate of heat transfer into the face of the slab. This is dnns hy substituting the temperature pradient at the sui-face obtoined from Eq. 5-X into Fonrieis first, Iaw.

The derivative of temperature with respect to position at the wall is most easilu obtained by expanding aceording to the serie8 forrn and differentiating

-i-c+

Substituting ;rt th~e wall.

yields

the

rate

of

heat

transfer

Applying the transformed obtain c1 = 0 and ti c2 = 77 Combining tion is ;=(~)+ t, these equations,

16 q wall = --{Ti j/Tr CZ0 where

T,,)

Eq. 5-29

Eq. 5-20 the transformed solu-

-45.

Eq. 5-21

New, the solutipn must be inverted or transformed back into Ehe r-y domain from the9y dbmain. Fr~m tables of transforms or by using the inversion theorem, one obt,ains the expression

In OUP case, k -d= SO the \h transformation of Eq. 5-21 is, (&+) = L~/c~$~

inverse

Laplace

Eq. S-23 of the error

This is the solution to our problem in terms eomplementary 6rror function, erfe. The error function and the complementary function are related by the equation m
2

wfc(n)

= 1 -

e,j(n,)

=-

\!?7 i n

e-dn

Eq. 5.24

Thus, using Eq. b-24, snlution into the form

it

is possible

to put

the

(G)

= 1

erf ($z

(
functian is

Eq. 5-2.3

Series expansion

of the error

k a> = PC, rate of heat transfar is inverselv related to the square root of time. 5-2 EleCtric andog method. Two general computing devices are often used in the solution of engineering problems, the digita1 and the analog computer. The digita1 computer deals only in numbers while the analog computer operates with continuous physical variables. Due to the complexity of engineering problema, it is frequently useful to employ an analog or mode1 to pwdict the behavior of the aetual system. The thermal-eleetrical nnalogy is based on the similarity of the equations describing beat and electrical conductioms Far beat cenduction a comparison is mi betwtien the partial differential equation for the temperature distributien and the partial differentiaJ equation for the distributimn of eleetric potentml.~ In the analogy electric current cnrresponds to heat flow, eledric resistance to thermal resistance, electric vwltage differences to temperature differenees and electric capacity corresponds to thermal capacity. Since it is not usually possible to have distributed electrical resistanee and capacitante, these items are replaced by lumped resistances and capacitances. t, This restriction correc sponds to resolving the i, : differential equation into e an equation of finite differPG~~~ e 4 r, enFit; scale factors are -El only one kind of restriction Dirtmre I under which an analoane Figure 5.2. Temperamust operate. The actual tura in a thick wall. analogue is made up of physical eomponents, and these must be capa!& of closely approximating the idea1 charactsristics of the

1 1 1 ~

82

Apri1 1965

Petro/Chem Engineer

elemento of the lumped thermul circuit. Eleetrical eapacitors do not leak, and this factor often influences analogue design and accuracy. Changing and nonuniform temperature can produce undesirable extraneous effe& if the component resistances and capacitanees are temperature dependent. The aeeuracy of the analogue results depends upon how well the initial and boundary conditions are applied. Following these conditions closely may be dificult. Elaborate instrumentation is required in the electrical analogue beeause of the high speed of the process and because of the small currents and high resistanees used. 5-3 Dim.&ional. ilnal~~sis. A number of practical problems can be worked rather simply by applying dimensiona1 analysis. 4s in al1 solutions by dimensiona1 analysis the numerica1 values of the dimensionless functions must be established either bv experiment or by some other t,ype of analysis. In the following problems the values of the funetions used are either given analytically or graphically as obtained from the solutions of Fouriers equation. 5-4 Thick wa~ll, szcdden ehunge of the swfacs temperature. Fig. 5-2 shows a portion of an infinitely thick wall which initially was at a uniform temperature, t,, as shown by the line, t, - t, The temperature of the surface is suddenly ehanged to t,, and at some time 7, the temperature at any piane parallel to the surfaee and a distance z away from it is t. The temperature distribution is represented by the curve t, - t. Temperatthre inside the urall. The analysis will be conducted following the procedure given in Section 2-2. 1. The temperature differente t, - t depends upon change in surface temperature t, - t,, distante z, time 7, and thermal diffusivity a. 2. The variables involved and their dimensions are given in Table 5-1.

,,,,. ---TABLE 5.1. Variables

Quantity Temperature differente between the sudace and plane n-n at time Change in rurface temperature Distante bom surface to plane n-n Time elapsed from surface-temperature change Thermal diffusivity of waff materiaf

Involved In the Temperature

Symbol t,-t t, -o x 7 a

-Change, Thick Wall

Dimensions t t L T LT- 1

3. The number of quantities involved is n = 5 and the number of dimensions by wbich they are expressed is T = 3. Therefwe, the number of dimensionless combinations designated by n must 2, or two ~8, in> and ,rz rnbY3= 4 These two ns may be composed of any two sets of four quantities chosen from the five variables. Therefore one can write 971 = (t, as t)

(b, -

t,,) zc CtJ

Heat Exchangers designed and built by THERMAL TRANSFER CORP. &an new materials, new engineering concepts and exact fulfillment of customer requirements and specifcations. Heat Exchangersdesigned and buift by THERMAL TRANSFER CORP. provide increased efifciency, greater durability and produce guaranteed results. Why not give your next heat exchanging problem to the THERMAL TRANSFER CORPs. design engineering staff for en easy solution.

as [ml for = [tl [LID [Tl [PT-]

5. The equations for finding the exponents are m:fort <,___ a+b=Ofor~~: fort a=O L b -I- 2d, = 0 L c + 2d = 0 T.....c-cl=0 T.....-d=O to a gives right = the value a = 1 will b = - 1, c = 0, and colnmn, assigning the M.

6. In the left column, assigning simplify the expre$sion for V, and d = 0. In the same manner in the value b = 1, gives d = - 1/2 and c

Monroeville,

Pennsylvania

15146

Petro/Chem Engineer

Apri1 1965

ior fnformo,io Furfhsr n on

di._

7. This eives

k(t,

AL

tl)

_ k(h

tr) _ ALpCiti

,..

tl) Eq. 5-31

AL

A7 that k/pc is the Eq. 5-32

According t,= t, t,

to $heorem D, of Part 2 +L)

Rearranging Eq. 5-31 and noticing diffusivity, ,o; gives t, + t2 -t = AL (tl i 2 2aA7 t,)

The funetion f (x/\/or~) can be replaced by f,, (z/ZdG) from which it differs only by a constant factor 2. The advantage of x/27/= known as Gauss en-m integral, is that values for 2/2\/~7 from 0 to 3 have been accurately computed.7 From this modified expression ~the following equation far the temperature t at any piane n-n and at any time 7 is obtained: t = t, (t. tm) f ($=). Eq. 5-30

is made aqual t,o unity by If the ratio aL2/(2aA) selecting suitable values far the time interval AT and distane AL, Eq. 5-32 gives
tl= t, ~ + t2

Eq. 5-33 Eq. 5-34

This discossion of the use of dimensiona1 analysis has been extended to & variety of physical situations. Typical among these 8~: thin walls with sudden change of surfaee temperature; thin walls exposed to a fluid at a constant temperature; and similar prohlems in cylindrical and spherical geometry. In the thick wall case treated bere Eq. 5.30 becomes Eq. 5-25 of Example 5-I. In similar fashion one obtains results that dea1 with Fournier serie6 Bessel functions and other mathematical expressions just as we used the error function.
5.5 Gmphical and numerica1 methods in tmstead-ustate beat eonduction problems. Consider a wall of

the new temperature at piane 1 is equa1 to the arithmetic mean of the temperatures that &isted before~ at planes 0 and 2. The game rule can be applied to any three planes AL apart. This may be expressed by the general eqnation t,, -1 + t,,, + 1 Eq. 5-35 tn = 2 Equation 5-35, in connection with Eq. 5-31 forms the basis of a graphieal or numerica1 solution of unsteady-state conduetion problems. Graphical, nwthod. Figure 5-3 illustrates the graphical procedure: temperatures t, and t, are given; tl at the end of the first time interval must be either given or determined analytically; the temperatures tz, tg, and t4 at the end of the Ii& seeond and third time intervnl, respectively, are equa1 to t,. A line connecting points 2 and a determines the temperature Cl, and a line conneeting points 3 and b gives point c and determines tz, both temperature at the end of the second time interval. A line conneeting e and a determines tl!f, a line connecting 3 and d gives t/, and a line connecting 4 and e gives t,, al1 three occurring at the end of the t,hird time interval.
References

(I

uniform thickness L, with thermal properties independent of temper+ture, the sui-face temperature on one side is suddenly increased from t, to t, while that on the other side is held at t,. The problem is to determine the temperature distribution at any Assume that the wall is divided into i equa1 thicknesses AL = L/i. If the surface resistance is negligible, l/h = 0, after u Finite time ar the temperatures at the planes 0, 1, and 2 will have the values of t,, t1 and tg, respectively, shown by the points a, b and c in Fig. 5-11. Figure% S-3. Graphical deterImagine the first mination. two layers each bisected by planes D-D and E-E. The a.veK+ge temperature gradient at D-D is equa1 to (t, - tl)/nL nnd at E-E it is equa1 to (tl - t&/AL. At this instant, the rate of beat eonduction into a unit area of D-D exceeds the beat conduction out of a unit area of E-E by the amount k(t, - tl/@L k(tl - tY) /AL. During a time increment AT, this exeess beat will ra,ise the average temperature of the wall between the planes D-D and E-E from t, to tl. The corresponding beat balance may be written as

1. H. S. Carslaw and J. C. Jaeger. Conduetion of West in Solids. New York: Oxford University Press (1959). 2. 111.Jakob. Heat Tmnsfw, Vol. 2 & b. New 0 York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (19571. 3. M. Jakob, op. cit. pp. 9 and 252. Vo1 1. 4. H. S. Carslaw and J. C. Jaeger. op. cit. 5. M. Jakob and G. A. Hawkins. Elements of Heat Transfer. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1957) p. 80. 6. H. Schenck Jr. He& Twansfer Engineering. New York: Prentice Hall, Ine. (1959) p, 160. 7. M. Jacob. He& Transjer. p, 254. 8. G. A. Hawkins and J. T. Agnew. The Sohtion Purdue University Engineering tiri Research Series, Wo. 98 (1947). n
of Transient Differences. Heat Cmdmtion Problems by Finite

Bulle-

NEXT MONTH HPI, Part 6.

Applied

Heat Transfer

for

Heat Convection

& Fluid Motion

84

Apri1 1965

Petro/Chem Engineer

Heat Conuection and Fluid Motion - Part 6

Applied Heat Transfer Design for the HPI

by Wayne C. Edmister and Joseph M. Marche110
6.1. Gene&. Heat convection is the transfer of heat by fluids in motion. It is often visualized BS an exchange of heat between moving particles of the fluid itself and between these particles and surfaces which hnve a diffcrcnt temperature. When the motion of the fluid particles is caused by a differente in density resulting from temperature ehanges, convection is termed free or na~tural. * When the motion is produeed by some mechanical means, such as a, pump or a blower, convection is called forced. Convection is present in a large proportion of problems of heat transfer and is used in various devices both far heating and cooling gases, liquids and solids. The present tendency toward smaller and lighter equipment has increased the use of forced convection and its importance in the process of heat transfer. Since convection is based on motion of fluids, a, brief review of the laws governing the ilow of fluids will be useful far a better understanding of the prineiples of conv&ion. 6-2. FZow of f&ds. When a fluid, liquid or gas is fowing in a pipe or duct, the tgpe of flow depends upon severa1 faetors of which the most important is the velocity. At low velocities and at constant temperature the fluid partic,les flow in paths parallel to the axis of the pipe or duct and the flow is termed variously as streamlined, niscous or lan~inar. 0 Iri laminar flow, the velocity of the fluid particles changes from a maximum in the center to zero at the walls of the pipe or duct. For isothermal flow in a pipe, the velocity distribution is parabolic, Fig. G-l, and the average velocity va is equa1 to one-half of ~n,rx at the center, D;> = 0.5 e,,,.,. The general equations which govern the Aow of fluids are derived from Newton+ laws and are known as the equations of motion. Tbep may be expressed veet,oriallyl by the relation pmDt
3

per unit volume: and, the gravitational force on an element per unit volume. The equation which expresses the conservation of mass for a fluid element is known a8 the equation of continuity

Equations 6-l and far the description the fluid exhibits the viseosity and the Navier-Stokes

6-2 serve as the starting point of fluid slow problems. When Newt.onian flow properties and density are eonstant we obtain version of Eq. 6-l

where ,u is the viscosit,y. As an example of the application of Eq. 6-3 eonsider the c&w of steady state lamina fow in a horizontal pipe. Equation 6-3 becomes for the axial z dirMion:

With the boundary conditions u = 0 at T = R and &./d~ = 0 at T = 0, the solution is Eq. 6-5 where aP ~~_
i?x

AP =r

=-VP-

[ 1
V.7.

ipg

Eq. 6-l

where ; is the stress tensor. The lefthand term in Eq. G-l represent,s the mass per unit volume time the acceleration. Similarly the terms on the right represent: the pressure force on an element per unit volume; the viscous force on an element

When u liquid is being heated, the viscosity at the wall is less than in the center of the pipe and the velocity at the center tends to increase; this results in a radia1 flow from the center of the stream toward the wa,ll, and pure laminar flow no longa exists. Heating of the liquid in a pipe tends to flatten the puabolic form of the velocity traverse, Fig. G-1, while cooling has the opposite effect of stretching the parabola. For gases, the temperature effect on the viscosity is in the opposite direction and therefore t,he ehange of the velocity traverse is reversed. If the velocity is increased, radia1 components

Petro/Chem Engineer

May 1965

73

of velocity appear and eddies, or vortexes, are formed near the center line. With a further increase of the velocity above a critica1 value, the eddies spread over the whole cross section of the pipe. This type of tlow is ealled turbulent. The average velocity over the whole cross section becornea approximately 0.8 to 0.9 of the maximum velocity. In general, the ratio increases with the equivalent diameter of the conduit and smoothness of iti walls. The existence of a laminar or turb111~nt flow depends not only upon the velocity but on other characteristics of the system. The flow condition of the wstem may be expressed in terms of the Reynalds number Nxe = Dup:~. The value of Nnr below which streamline Aow exists ovc the entire cross section is called the critica1 value, and the corresponding velocity is called the criCcaI velocity. Based on experiments with pipes conducted under different eonditions, variotu authors give far critica.1 Reynolds number, N~eo values ranging from 2100 to 2300. Far certain conditions laminar Bow can

Figure 6-l. Effe& of heat transfer flow traverse in laminar flow.

on velocity

exist at a much higher NRe. On the other band, turbulent flow may appear to be less turbulent in a smooth pipe for N,. < 4500. Flow between Nn, = 2100 and Na. = 4500 is often considered to be in 8 transition stage. The absence or presenee of eddies, or turbulenees, affeets the beat transfer by convection and also the friction resistance to the Bow of the fluid. Fig. 6-2 shows cuives plotted through average values of the coefficirnt of frietion, f, found from a larga number of experiments with different fluids and pipe siza2 The left curve, a-b, presents data for laminar flow; under certain conditions the curve can be extended to point c with a gradua1 increase of the flow veloeity and a corresponding increase in Nn.. The path c-d is the most likelg curve for an increase of i in the transition stage with Nn. between 2100 and 4500. For a further increase of the Row velocity, the eoeficient f gradually decreases curve d-f. Since the main purpose of Fig. 6-2 is to show the presente of two different types of flow and the transition from one to another, only lower values of Mnc are shown. Far experiments conducted by decreasing velocity u and Nne, turbulent flov is observed along the path d-e with a transition path e-b. The formation of eddies in the fluid during the transition stage is rather irregular depending upon many factors, such BS roughness of the pipe walls, vibratian of the pipe, etc.

6-5. tleynokzs mmmer. The origina1 form of the dimensionless ratio, termed the Reynolds nu%bsr in bonor of Osborne Reynolds who first established and used it, is NR~ = vx/v Eq: 6-6 where: u is the velocity of flow of the Auid z is a characteristie distante v is the kinematic viscosi& of the fluid. In this arti& Reynolds number is used primarily in conneetion with Aow of fluids in tube and other closed conduits. Also the dynamic visto& F, rather than the kinematic viscosity Y, is used extensively. For such cases, the general expression for the Reynolds numher may be written as N ,Q=~~~vP/,u .Eq.6-7 where ih is the hydraulic radius defined as the ratio of the cross section ares S of a conduit over its wetted perimeter P t,, = SjP . Eq. 6-8 For a round cross section r,, = D/4 Eq. 6-9 Since Revnolds number is used far the most nart in con&tion with round pipes, it is conv&ient to write mi Nnc = Dvp/p , Eq. F-10 For a non-eircular cross seetion the value 4~ in Eq. 5-2 is called the squivalent diameter and designated by L>,. The value of D, is determined from Eq. 6-8 as D, = 4S/P . Eq. 6-11 For an annular conduit with D1 and D-, the small and larger diameters, respactively, Eq. 6-11 gives D, = D% - Dl Eq. 6-12 In many ealculations it is convenient to substitute the value G for the product vp G = vp = m/S Eq. 6-13 where G is the wznss velocity and is equa1 to the rate of flow m, Ib/hr divided by the cross area S, sq ft, of the stream. With this change far a. round duct, the Reynolds number may be written Nsc = DG,fi Eq. 6-14 and far a duct of any other cross section Nm = D,G/p Eq. 6-15 where the equivalent diameter n, is obtained from 0 Eq. 6-11. The use of G instesd of up not only simplifies caleulations but hss the additional advantage in that G is independent of changes in temperature and pressure. 6-h. PresSure drop in svmotk pipes. In lamina fio".', the ~rmmre drop may be calculated from the Poiseuille formula p =~32&LVlg,D2 Eq. 6-16 where: p iu the pressure drop, psf, p is the dynamic viseosity, Ih/ft-sec, L is the length of the conduit, ft, ~2 the average velocity, fps, is g, is the dimensiona1 constant, 32.17 Ibm-ft/ Ibf-sec, and D is the conduit diameter, ft. *Any other unit of time may be used, provided the same unit is applied to al1 three quantities ,u, g, and se

May 1965

Petro/Chem Engineer

I
B - CommercIoI Steel. Cast-imn. etc.. Pipa C - SmoothTubes. Glass. Cococr. Drown TubinQ

Reynolds Numbar, NR.

AP=(fl/D)(pVz/2g,h
where: D = inslde pipe diometer. (11) f = Dorcy frlction facto,. dimenkvtless & = pravltational constont. 32.17 (Ib mass/lbforce)(ft/?ie~) L m length, ot straight pipe. (ft) AP m pressure drop, (Ib forcc/ft) Figure 6-2. Darcy friction fa&?

Af,=

( fl/D)

c,

AP,,= pressure drop, (number of pipe velocity heods 1 v m average fluld velocity in pipe (ft/aec) p = fluid density. (Ib mass/ft3) JJ - fluld uiscosliy (Ibmoss/firecl.(ce~~~) for isothermal flow.

The pressure drop both in laminar and turbulent flow may be calculated by the Darcy formula ap = fLpVz,8rhg, Eq. 6-17 where: &J is expressed in psf, f is the friction coefficient. Far flow in a round pipe, Eq. 6-17 may be presented more conveniently as np = fLpVz/ZDg, Eq. 6-18 or, expressing the pressure drop as loss of head H in feet of the fluid, H = fLVz/ZDg, Eq. 6-19 For laminar flow, f may be computed with sufficient accuracy from the theoretical value f =,64/Nne Eq. 6-20 For turbulent flow in smooth pipa, there exists a number of empirica1 expressions which all give the value of f in terms of the Reynolds number and al1 are in comparatively close agreement. One of the beat known is the Nikuradse formula f = 0.0032 + 0.221/(NRr)0.237 Eq. 6.21 A simpler expression, obtained from Koas formula,4 is f = 0.184,/(N~e)~.~ Eq. 6-22 In the range from NRe = 2100 to 2,000,OOO. it giva results which are only 2 to 4% higher than those obtained from Eq. 6.22. Another formula for computing pressure drop is the Fanning equation; the form most convenient for flow in pipes is5 AP = 4fL,, V2j2geD Eq. 6-23 Th% formula is basically identica1 with the Darcy formula, Eq. 6-17 but refers only to a circular sectian and therefore, uses Di4 for t-h. The Fanning equation uses a friction factor f whose value is

me-fourth of that used in the Darcy formula. This important differente should be remembered when finding f for use in Eq. 6-18. EXAMPLE 6-l. Water at 120 F flaws in a Z-in. clean steel pipe, 75 ft long, with a velocity of 100 fpr+ Determine the pressure drop. SOLUTION: First N,, must be foond, D = 2.067 in. = 0.172 ft, p = 61.73 lb/cu ft, and p = 1.36 lb/ft-hr. Therefore by Eq. 6.16 Nne = 0.172 x (100 x 60) x 61.730.36 = 46,900 The flow is turbulent and either Eq. 6-21 or Eq. 6-22 must be used to find f. By Eq. 6-21 f = 0.032 $ 0.221,/46,900~23 = 0.0205 By Eq. 6.22 f = 0.184/46,900~ = 0.0214 The differente in f by Eq. 6-17 is only 4% and is on the safe side. When using the Fmning formula, Eq. 6-23, the friction eoefficient found by Eq. 6-21 or 6-22 must be divided by 4, or simply use in this case 4f = 0.0214, and with gC = 32.17 Ibm ft/lbf-se? the velocity must be expressed in fps. Thus, ap = 0.0214 x 75 x 61.73 x (100/60)~,(2 x 32.17 x 0.172) = 24.9 psf, or 0.17 psi. 6-5. Resistances to fimo in ?ipss - Roughness of walls. The condition of the wall surface does not influente the resistance to flow of a fluid in pipes if the flow is laminar, but influences it considerably when the flow is tnrbulent. Eq. 6-21 and 6-22 pive values for f in smooth pipa; in the presente of roughness, f will be greater. However, it is veiy diffieult to express the increase of f numeridly, especially sinee in praetice the degree of roughness varies and is rather indefinite. Some basi8 for 75

Petro/Chem Engineer

May 1965

energy:

and floio-work energy. Potential energy is due to the elevation of a mass m at the iiuid z ft above an arbitrarily selected referente piane; this energy, expressed in beat units, is equa1 to mz/J. Kinetic energy is due t the velocity v, feet.per unit time, usually per second, and is expressed as mu?/2mgJ: where d aceounts for the velocity profile, 01 is $4 far laminar flow and approximately unity for turbulent flow.7 The slow-work energy is necessary to maintain the flow and is obtained as the product of the force, ps, which is pressure p times the cross sectional area S, and of the distante, mv/S, which is the tota1 volume, ww, where 5 is the specific volume divided by t,he cross seetional area S. Then flow work, expressed in beat units, is (PS) (rnv/S) / J = mpv/J. In addition, the fluid has interna1 energy E, Btu. The heat added between the sections 1 and 2 is
potential, kinetic

Figure

f L-----X

Laminor

I I

Buffer

Tmnsition Paint layer flow over a flat piate.

pipe or duet, regardless whether the velocity is low or high, whether the flow is lnminar or turbulent, there is always a film or layer of the fluid that adheres to the solid surface of the conduit. Experiments have ehown that the film is not entirely stagnant; only particles touching the wall are completely wit,hout motion while the next laser of particles is moving alowlq under the influente of shear with the adjacent particles flowing parallel to the wall. The existence of an effeetive film is very important in the consideration of beat transfer from a solid wall to a fluid, whether liquid or gas. 6-9. Boundary Layem. If a fluid flows with an initial uniform oelocity wv a, Rat, plata, the velacity decreases unti1 it is zero at the surface of the piate. This decrease in veloci@ takes plaee in a small region near the wall called the boundary lager. At the leading edge the boundary layer is of zero thickness and becomes thicker as the flow progresses along the piate. Flow in the layer is laminar at the leading edge of the piate and may become turbulent us the flow progresses along the piate. (Fig. 6-5.) The transition between laminar and turbulent flow ccurs at a. Reynolds number, Vxlv, of 500,000. The thickness of the laminw bound~ary layer, 8, which eorresponds to a point (,r/ = 81 where approximat~ely 99% of the velocity is attained is

6-5. Boundary

8 = 4.96 (&)
where: ,v is the kinematic x is the distante V is the velocity to the piate vx N Re = v

Eq. 6-37 viseosity of the fluid from the leading edge of the main fluid relative

Ir& and the energy IWz, ft-lb, added by other means, such as a blower or pump, is IWz/J. For a time interval during which the mass m. of the Auid passes from section 1 to section 2, the energy balance may be written as

Noticing that the sum of interna1 and flow-work energies cnstit,utes enthalpy i, Eq. 5-29 can be rewritten as

The value of the Reynolds number formed with the distante from the leading edge may be used to determine whether the boundary layer is laminar or turbulent. Far Reynolds numbers in exce% of 500,000 the boundary layer is turbulent, Fig. 6-5. The thickness of the turbulmt boundav$l laer corresponding to a point where approximatelq 99% of the full velocity is attained is 8 = 0.13 (=&) When fluid flows past u two-dimensiona1 body, such as u cylinder, the fluid is accelerated as it passes over the forward portion of the body and is the decelerated after it passes the thickest part of the body. This effe& cuuses separation of the boundary layer from the curved surface. Actual separation of ,fluid as it flows around a cylinder has been observed experimentally by stu,dying flow patterns.2

The values of the enthalpies il and i, must be taken from tables available for most liquids, vapors and gasa. However, it should be remembered that enthalpy has a relative value that depends on the temperature taken as basis and different tables use different temperature as basis. For perfect gasa, with PV = NRT.. the change of enthalpy may be take as ip il = c,(tr tJ Eq. 6-36

where cp is the man value of specific beats between the temperatures tl and tz. 6-8. Film thsory. When a fluid is flowing in a

The second section of Part 6 will appear in the June issue.

May 1965

Petro/Chem Engineer

Heat Convection and Fluid Motion,:,

Part 6 (continued)

Applied Heat ~Transfer Design for the HPI

by Wayne C. Edmister and Joseph M. Marche110
The 6-10. Tnrimlent fluw ~CILP Q solid wall. mechanism of beat transfer bet,ween u solid wall and a turbulent fluid has been the source of a considerable amount of investigation. The problem is, for the most, part, one of fluid mechanics since it is neees~~ry to describe the fluid behavioz in order to evaluate the heat transfer characteristics. The main differente between viseous and turbulent ow fields is in the method by which shear is b!e .~ t,ransmltted. In viseous flow, shear is transmitted uniformly, while iti turbulent How it is transmitted irregularly. These irregular deviations of the loca1 flow from the average flow pattern haw. a randomness whieh becomes apparent over long time intervals or distances. The limiting diatance over which this randomness is noticeable depends upon the scale of ~the turbulenee. Alth,ough the scale of turbulence might be considered to be the size of the prevalent eddies, it has bearne convenient to define the scale of turbulence by use of the correlation coefficient. It is a characteristic of turbulent flow that it must be described by statistica1 quantities. The amplitude$ have a random distribution and there is no characteristie frequency or wave length of the fluctuations. The early work of Prandtl, Taylor von K&rn&~ and Howarth4 laid the basi8 for the statistica1 theory of turbulenee.5 The turbulence prese& in the bulk of the fluid mie. 1s suppressed in the vicinity of a solid surface.6 Earlier theories assumed that a laminar sub-layer existed at the surface. A number of recent investigatiix# have been made which present the velocity and temperature patterns very close to the solid surface. Deissler8 and vari Driest! have presented analyses which give continuous velocity and shear distributions for t,urbulent, flow near solid walls. The eddy eoefficients for momentum transfer, and heat transfer, E=, may be defined directly the flux equations: dU 7gc = p(Ev + VI--dy Q/.4=&p(wta)G dT . E, by int,egrSng these flux equations. In~,order to carry out the integration it is necessary to know the dependeney of the loca1 flox and eddy eoefficient upon position. 6-11. Viscositl/. As brought out in:this chapter, viscosity is one of the most impeitant properties of a fluid. Viseositv enters in.~most calculations of heat transfer and floid motion either directly oi througb the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers.

Eq. 6-39 Eq. 6-40

Velocity and temperature profiles and momentum and hent transfer :rates may be determined by

Petro/Chem

Engineer

June 1965

The absolute or dynamic viscosi,ty Zt, in centipoises, at the temperature t is ohtained from the velation Z = Z1, yt Eq. 6-43

The viscosity may also he converted to Ib-per-ftper-hr anits hy multiplying Z by 2.42

/x = 2.42

Eq. 6-44

Table 6-4 gives the specific grwities of some lubricating oils and in conjunction with Fig. 6-8 may be used to determine their dynamic viscosities. Table 6-5 givcs conversion faetors for the

3000 2000

l\

I Y\

Figure 6.7. Viscosities of liqoids at 1 atmosphere See Table 6-3 far coordinates X and Y.

pressare.

Viscosit oi liqxids. In spite of the fact that there exists a tremendous amount of experimental data on the viscosity of liquids, the theory is not sufficiently developed and ealculations involving viscosity of liquids have t,o use empirica1 information. In the practieal range of beat-transfer, the influente of pressnre is rather small. The. viscosities of some commonly owzd liquids and of a few mixtures and solutions are presented in Fig. 6-6. Viscosities of othei Iiquids ma- be determined using Table 6-3 and chart, Fig. 6-7. In industry the specific viscosity 6, is expressed in seconds and is measured by a Sa,ybolt Universa1 Viscometer at two temperatures, usually at 100 F and 210 F. These two specifie viscosities are plotted on a special semi-log type ASTM chart such as Fig. 6-8 and the two points connected by a straight t, at any temperature line. The specific viseosity for this oil can be read at the intersection of this inclined line with the corresponding vertical temperature line. The inclined line can be extended to higher and lower temperatures within the liquid state of the oil. The specific viscosity t, is converted to kinematic viscosity Zn in centistokes by means of the equation

400,
Tempemture, Figure 6-8. Viscosity-temperature See Table 6-4 for oil F chart far

200 210

characteristics.
xnne oils.

~0.044t~

0036 8 .$ c 0.026 3 2 z 0.020

z, = 0.22t 5- E!!
ts

Eq. 6-41

The specifie gravity yt of the oil at the same temperature t can he calculated from the eqtiation yt = ~60 0.00035(t 60) Eq. 6-42 of the oil at 60 F.

0.012 0 l-Lu-Lu -40

Figure 6-9. Viscosities

40 60, Temperature
of some

120 OF
common

160 200

where yRO is the specific

gravity

gases.

44

~June 1965

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Table 6-3. Viscosities

Coardinates far use aith

of Liquids
Fig. 6.7. Liquid freon-22 Freon.113 Glycerol, 100% Glycerol, 50% lieptene

NO.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Liquid

X 15.2
12.1 9.5 12.7 14.5 7.9 10.2 :t:: 11.8 7.5 8.1 12.3 13.9 12.5 6.6 10.2 14.2 20.0 12.3 8.6 12.1 11.6 16.1 12.7 12.3 14.4 11.2 13.0 :13 2.5 2.9 :3:: :E! 12.3 12.0 10.3 13.7 10.5 9.8 6.5 13.2 14.5 14.8 14.5 14.2 14.7 ^^ b. 10.7 14.4 16.8 15.7

Y
4.8 14.2 17.0 12.8 7.2 15.0 14.3 2.0 13.9 12.5 18.4 18.7 13.5 14.5 10.9 15.9 16.6 13.2 159 11.0 17.2 15.3 0.3 7.5 13.1 12.4 10.2 18,l 13.3 12.5 12.5 20.8 24.3 15.8 12.2 8.9 16.4 15.8 18.3 17.7 9.1 138 14.3 16.6 8:: 6~0 5.3 8.4 10.3 23.6 15.8 9.0 5.6 ,L.

l x0.
56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10

X
17.2 12.5 2.0 6.9 14.1 14.7 13.0 7.1 12.2 8.2 10.2 7.5 18.4 12.4 12.3 7.8 14.2 15.0 13.9 7.9 12.8 10.8 10.6 11.0 13.7 6.6 10.9 14.9 6.9 13.8 16.2 12.8 9.1 14.5 14.4 14.1 16.4 3.2 13.5 15.2 7.2 7.0 10.2 15.2 11.9 14.2 14.4 13.7 14.8 11.5 14.0 10.2 13.5 13.9 13.9 --

Y 4.7 11.4 30.0 19.6 8.4 7.0 16.6 19.0 14.4 16.0 16.9 27.2 16.4 10.5 11.8 15.5 8.2 3.8 86 18.1 13.8 17.0 16.2 17.0 10.0 21.1 17.3 5.2 20.8 16.7 10.9 13.8 16.5 9.6 7.5 11.6 13.9 25.8 12.8 7.1 27.4 24.8 21.3 12.4 15.7 12.7 12 3 10.4 10.5 14.9 8.8 13.0 12.1 10.6 10.9

Acetaldehyde Acetic xid, 100% Acetic acid, 70% Acetic anhydride Acetone. 100% Acetone, 35% Alty, alcohol Ammonia, 100% Ammonia. 26% Amyt acetate Amyl alcohol Aniline Anisole Arsenic trichloride Benzene Brine, Ca&, 25% Brine. NaCI. 2536

Hexane,
HCl, 31.5% Isobutyl alcohol Isnbutyric acid Isopropyl alcohol Kerosene Linreed oil. raw Mercury Methanol, 100% Methanol, 90% Methanol. 40% Methyl acetate Methy, chlortde Methyl ethyl ketone Naphthalene Nitric acid, 95% Nitric acid, 60% Nitrobenzene Nitrotoluene oche Octyl alcohol Pentachlomethane pentane Phenol Phosphorus tribromide Phosphorus trichlaride ?roQionic acid Propyt alcohol Pmpyl bramide Propyl chloride Propyl iodide Sodium Sodium hydroxide 50% Stannic chloride Sulphur dioxide Sulphuric acid 110% Sulphuric acid 98% Sulphuric acid 60% Sulphuryl chloride Jetrachloroeihane Tetrachloroethylene Titanium tetrachloride Toluene Trichloroethylene Turpentine Vinyl acetate water Xylene. ortho Xylene, meta Xylene, para

18 Bromine 19 Bromotoluene
20 rrotyl acstate 21 Butyl alcahal 22 Butyric acid 23 Carbon dioxide ) (4 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 _ ~~~~%it&Ede Chlorosulfonic acid Chlorotoluene, ortho Chlorotoluene, meta Chlomtoluene para Cred, rrwta Cyclohexanal Dibromoethane Dichtoroethane Dichlommethane Diethyl oxalate Dimethyl axalate Diphenyl Dipropyl oxalate Ethyl acetate Ethyl alcohol. 100% Ethyl alcohol, 95% Ethyl alcohol. 40% _

43 trny, oenzene

46 Ethyl bromide 47 Ethyl chloride 48 Ethyl ether 49 Ethyl formate 5~ py! iodi@ bZ 53 54 55 norme ma Freon-11 Freon-12 Freon.21

Heat Exchangers

designed

and built

by THERMAL TRANSFER CORP. mean new materials, new engineering concepts and exact fulfillment of
customer requirements and specifications. Heat Exchangers designed and built

*From 1. H. Perry, CHEMICAL ENGINEERS HANDBOOK,op. CIT., p. 3.200.

Tabfe 6-4.

Characteristics

of Some Lubricating

Oils

Fo, use in coonection with Fig. 6-8 Deiignation Oil Characterirtic Turbine oil, light Turbine oil. ring-oiled bearing Alt-year automobile oit Ring-ailed bearing oil, high-speed machinery Automobile oil,, medium Diesel oit, med,um Oil far medium-spead machinery Airplane-erigine oil SAE NO. 5W :iw 20 20 30 40 60 110 120 160 Specific gravity at 6 OF 0.8877 0.8894 0.9036 0.9346 0.9254 0.9263 0.9275 0.8927 0.9328 0.9153 0.9365

by THERMAL

TRANSFER

CORP.

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TRANSFER CORPs. design engineering staff for an easy solution.

Transmissionoil, spur and beleI gears

Gea, oil, slow-speed worm gears Trsnsmission oil, slow-speed pekrs

Monkeviile,,:

Pennsylvania

15146

Petro/Chem Engineer

June 1965

or If.lnldi. hrlher on RdW,ild 5aa Iervie P,Od<,i RIGdPCd

45

Louisianas Largest Gas Plant IS Onstream

il two-p1ant natura1 gas processing fadlity, said to be the largest in Louisiana, is onstream at Gibson and Geismar. Currently processing 550 MMcfd natura1 gas, itll handle up to 950 MMcfd when full operations are reached. Operated by Shell Oil Co. for 30 owners, about 400,000 gai/ day of saleable liquid products are recovered. This will increase to 615,000 gal/day when full plant capaeity is realized. The North Terrebone Gas
n

LAYNE ASSOCIATE COMPANIES

Fractionation Plant at Geismar, La.. is the related facility connected by a 54mile, 84. pipeline to North Terrebone.

Processing Plant is locat,ed on a 60.acre site on U.S. Highway 90 at Gibson. It uses low-temperat,ure absorption to recover liquids from gas in pipelines owned by United Gas Pipe Line Co. and Transcontinental Gas Pipe Line Corp. The plant ultimately will recover 14,000 b/d of propane, butane and natura1 gasoline. The Geismar facility is the Tebone Fraetionation Plant located on a 45.aere site on the east bank of the Mississippi River and five miles southwest of Gonzales, La. It receives raw liquid prodocts from North Terrebone. ~When in full opera-@~~ tion, it will produce 307,000 gai/ day propane, 77,000 gal,/day norma1 butane, 95,000 gal/day isobutane and 108,000 gal/day natura1 gasoline. Presently, ethane from the raw product is used as fuel at Tebone. The two plants are connected by a 54.mile: S-in. pipeline, including a 6000 ft Mississippi River crossing. About 897; of the ownership is represented by Socony Mobil, Superior Oil, Kerr-McGee Oil Industries, Gulf Oil, The California Co., Union Producing, Phillips Petroleum, Southern Natura1 Gas and Shell Oil. w

The most complete water service organization in the World

PM OF a hv*plant Facility and largest of its type in Louisiana is this Terrebone Gas Processing Plant at Gibson, which is now onstream.

North

June 1965

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Forced Convection Inside Tubes-Part

Applied Heat Transfer Design for the HPI

by Wayne C. Edmister and Joseph M. Marche110

Y-1. Swfacc cnnd~ucta~n~ce. The exchange of beat between a fluid and the surface of a solid is known Quantitatively the beat exchange depends upon the characteristics of the fluid, shape of the solid and the relative motion of the fluid. The numerica1 vslue of surface conductante, expressed ,in Rtu per hour per sq ft of surface for n differente of 1 F between the temperatures of the fluid and surface, is called the swface coeficient. In Fig. 7-1, the distanee AL represents the thickness of the effettive fluid film through whieh heat travels by conduction, Seetion (i-4. Applying Eq. 3-2 to this case, with dt = & t, and dz y AL, giva q = (k/nL) A(tl to)

q =

hA (t,

t2j

Eq. 7-2

This equation was first proposed by Newton. Its form is 80 convenient that it is used also for hest transfer by radiation with the corresponding subscript h.,. In radiation there is no film, therefore the beat transfer coefficient is more appropria% called the ~&mx~, cpq@i&. This~ nane will be applied to both radiation and convection coefficients, designating them as h, and h,, respectively. The fluidtemperature profile does not change as abruptly as is shown by the solid lines in Fig. 7-l but is more gradua1 as indicated bg the dotted line. The temperature, tl, is the i@ or c~p-mizin%~ tem~perature .,--.the fluid ~~,~~~~.~~~ of -,-- .~..~~.~

Eq. 7-I

where: A is the su-face in contact with the fluid. The heat flow Q can be ealculated from Eq. 7-1, however, engineering praclice has been Lo group the terms k/nL together rather than use the effettive film thiekness, AL, alone. The value cocj$Gent designated k/&L is the film hm&transfw by h. Thus, Eq. 7-l becomcs,,.~ ;~.,.

where :

i)

Figure 7.1. Heat flow from a fluid to a solid wall. PETROKHEM ENGINEER July 1965

,~Li:: The bulk temperature is the fina1 iiuid temperature i, ,: t,hat one would measure if~ the tluid were allowed ,-t to flow without heat loss into a container and mixed. Formally, as expressed by Eq. 7-3, the bulk temperatureis the velocity weighted area average temperature of the fluid. Equation 7-2 may be spplied to find ,the beat Rux if the snrfaee coeflieient h, and the temperatures tl, of the fluid bulk and ta of the wall are known. It may also be usad to find the temperature tx of ihewaUf,J.he-te 0 @t f&w. q~~+&h.e temperature tl of the fluid are known. In either case it is neces.qary to evalvate the surface coefficient 11,. 7-2. ,%-face, coeficient. Foreed conveetion ordinarily takes piace in turbulent flow. In doveloping an expression far the surface coefficient of beat
101

For a pipe: ii = VR and da e %vr

must be found experimentally. This equation is known as Nuss~lts expression and the thrcc dimen-: sionless groups are giva the names, as indicated in Table 2-1, of Kusselt, Reynolds, and Prandtl numbers or moduli. Thus Eq. 7-5 may be written also as

From Eq. 7-5. the general expression for the surface coefficient inside of pipa may be written as

In order to obtain couect numeri&1 values for these and al1 other dimensionless groups, it is extremely important to use consistent units in al1 terms. The danger of making an error is considerably lessened if al1 length dimensions are expressed in feet. avoiding pressures per sq in. or conductivity values per inch thickness. Al1 time measurements must be in t,he same units, preferably referred to Ihe hour. Paitieular care must Ire erercised when dealing with viseosities because in technieal literature viscosity is expressed in a number of units based on different basic units of mass or force, time und distante. In ,the English system, the units of viscosity which are most convenient far calculations in beat-transfer problems are the pound mass per ft-hr oi the Ib-force-hr per 8q ft. Table 6-5 may serve for conversion of diff&ent unita to the desired system.
Twbulent Flow. For turbulent flow of liquids such as water, acetone, alcohol, kerosene and light oils, when N,, $ 2100, the recommended surface coefficients are, in uccordanee with Eq. 7.6. for heating :

0.02 -7
c c
Figure 7.2.

/ 200
of saturated

IO.2 600

o-0 0
Properties

400
steam

Temperature, deg. F ,

<i I G3.0
53

, 100 and far cooling:

Figure 7-3. Specific

200

temperature,OC.

300

400
statii.

500

beat of superheated

A more conservative expression, recommended for heating liquids which have viseosities lover than those of water and gases for slow in horizontal pipes, is:

Far liquids of high viscosity and Reynolds numbers exceeding 10,000 the use of Colburns equation is suggested.z This equation differs from Eq. 7.9 only in the exponent of the Prandtl number cpL/k. Its fa-m for both heating and cooling of liyuids is

convection and radiat,ion. Therefore, it is desirable to have an expression for LVp, which avoids the use of k. By substitoting for the thermal eonductivity k, Eq. 3-5 and eliminating the eonstant al by means of Eq. 3-6, the following equation is obtained.

Specifie beat. An important factor, in Nusselts equation is the specific beat of the fluids. Except far vapora near the state of saturation, it is influenced by the temperature of the fluid but not by its pressure. Gmes. Speeific heats of some commonly used gases and vapors may be calculated by means of
PETROKHEM ENGINEER July 1965

104

TABLE 7-2.

Properties

of Water

0.089 0.122 0.178 0.250 0.363 0.507 0.698 0.949 110 IZO 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 220 240 260 280 300 e z 450 500 550 600 1.275 1.692 2.223 2.889 3.718 4.74,1 5.992 7.510 9.339 11.530 17.190 24.970 35.430 49.200 67.010 134.600 :2:% 660.600 1045.200 1542.900

1.009 1.005 1.002 1,000 0.998 0.998 0.997 0,997 0.997 0.997 0.998 0.998 0.999 1.000 1001 1.002 1.003 1.004 1.007 1.010 1.015 1 020 1.026 1.044 1.067 1.095 1.130 1.200 1.362

62.42 62.42 62.38 G2.34 62.23 62.17 62.11 61.99 61.84 61.73 61.54 61.39 61.20, 61.01 60.79 60.57 60.35 60.13 59.63 59.10 X51 57.94 57.31 55 59 53.65 51.55 49.02 45.92 42.37

4.33 3.75 3.17 2.71

2.31

0.327 0.332 0.338 0% 0.355 0.360 0.364 0.368 0 372 0.375 0.376 0.381 0.364 0.386 0.389 0.390 0.392 0.395 0.396 0.396 0 396 0 395 0,390 0.380 0.365 0.348 0.324 0.291 4.000 3.600 3 300 3.000 2.700 2.500 2,300 2.200 2.100 1.900 1.700 1.500 1.400 1.300 1.200 1.020 0.918 0.878 0.857 0.859 0.997

2.08 1.85 1.65 1.49 1.36 1.24 1.14 1.04 0.97 0.90 0 84 0.79 0.74 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.48 0.45 0.38 0.33 0.29 0.26 0.23 0.21

0.3 1.0 1.7 23 3.0 3.9 5.2 6.6 7.7 8.9 10.2 12.0 15.5 13.9 17.1 18.6

TABLE 7.3.

Properties

of Ai,;

Ibift-hr 0 iO 60 80 100 120 0.239 0.240 0.240 0.240 0.240 0.240 0.240 0.241 0.241 0.241 0.242 0.242 0.243 0.245 0.246 0.247 0.250 0.253 0.257 0.260 0.263 0.269 0.274 0.279 0.283 0.287 0.0374 .0342 E92 0.0272 0.0239 0.0213 0.0193 0.0175 0.0161 0.0863 0.0827 0.0794 0.0763 0.0735 0 0709 0.0685 0.0662 0% 0.0601 0.040 0.041 0.043 0.044 0.045 0.046 0.047 0.049 0.050 0.051 0.052 0.055 0.058 0.060 0.062 0.065 0.067 0.072 0.076 0.061 0.085 0.089 0.098 0.105 0.112 0.118 0.123 0.0132 0%: 0%: 0.0162 0.0168 0.0172 0.0177 0.0182 0.0158 0.0192 0.0204 0.0216 0.022, 0.0239 0.0250 0.0271 0.0291 0.0312 0.0338 0.0362 0.0402 0.0442 0.0481 0.0520 0.0558 0.0630 0.069 NOte 191s.19.18. 0.72 0~71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.70 0.69 0.68 0.66 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.66 Il.66 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 Monroeville, Pennsylvania 15146 3,o 2.5 2.1 1.7 1.4 1.1 0.89 0.77 0.68 0.58 1.2 0.11 0.42 0.31 0.23 0.18 0.14 0.070 0.044 0.033 0.024 0.017 Heat Exchangers designed and built by THERMAL TRANSFER CORP. mean new materials. new engineering concepts and exact fulfillment of customer requirements and specifications. Heat Exchangers designed and built by THERMAL TRANSFER CORP. provide increased efficiency. greater durability and produce guaranteed results. why not give your next beat ex changing problem to the THERMAL TRANSFER CORPs. design engineering staff for an easy solution.

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

0.0134 0.136 0.293 2500 0.0115 0.148 0.297 3000 ~--.WAC.4 Technical Repoit 1020,1911:NACA Te$"kd

0.10

1 Mercury ~OO&pyJ
Figure 7-4. Specific

120 I 1 +:t&erotSufe, "F.

beats of some liquids

160 200 I

t = 86.5 F. The flow was turbulent, NE, = 75,800; is a large temperature drop in the outer layel of the air stream; and a slow temperature increase from the center toward the outside of the tube. Film Temperature. The numerica1 values of C, a, and b in the basic Eq. 7-6 which appear in Eq. 7-7 to 7-10 were determined with the fluid properties c, k, fi and p evaluated at the average temperature of the main fluid body of the stream and not at, the mean temperature of the stagnation film. However, in these tests the differente between the measured temperature of the fluid stream and the estimated man temperature of the film was small. When the differenee between these two temperature is greater than 10 F far a liquid or greatei than 100 F for a gas, the fluid properties should be evaluated at the temperature of the film. Unfortunately, this temperature cannot be meaaured and must be estimated. In the case of turbulent flow, the film temperature t, may be taken as
there

TABLE 7-4. Vapors

Specific

Heat

Equations

for Gasa

and 9

equations given in Table 7-4. In addition, specific heat values for air may be taken from Table 7-3, for saturated steam from Fig. 7-2 and far superheated steam from Fig. 7-3.

Liquids. Speeific beats of some commonly used liquids may be taken fiom Fig. 7-4 and for water from Table 7-2. Specific beats of petroleum produets, including lubricating oilS, may be computed with an aceuracy wit,hin 5% from the equation:h c = (0.388 + 0.00040 t)/r~,,
Eq. 7-12 where t is the temperature of the liquid and ysO is its specilic gravity at 60 F referred to water also at 60 F. 7-5. Fhid tem,pwa.tures. As pointed out in Section 7-4, the beat-tra,nsfnr coeficient h, depends on the fluid eharacterist,ics c,k, p and p. These quantities. in turn, are functions of the fluid temperature. When a fluid flowing in a tube is heated or caoled, its temperstnre ehanges both in the direction of t,he flow and radially frnm the surf;~ce of the tube toward its center. 4 knowledge of the radia1 temperature distribution is required in determining the bulk temperat,ure of the fluid and the values of fluid properties. Fig. 7-5 shows an example of velocity and temperature distributions aeros a vertical brass pipe, 1.92.in. inside diam, in which air is being heat& by forced convection. The velocity and temperature at the center of the pipe were v< = X7.4 fps and t, = 75.9 F and the wall temperature was t, = 109.4 F. From Fig. 7-5, taking into aceount the differences in air flow, CUft/sq fthr, at different distances from the center line, the mean or bulk air temperature hy Eq. 7-3 i8

0.288 + 2.38T x IO- 0 102 + 0.277 x 10-d 0.079 + 5.747 x 1ov CA 0~079 + 5.407 x 10~4 CAo C@, 0.368 148J- Carbon dioxide + 3.2 x 104 x T2 0:338 - 117 x T-1 Carbon monoxide CO + 3.82 x 10 x J-2 Chlarine 0.106 + 0.023 x T-1 x 10 CI Ethane 0.133 + 0.545 x J x 10 CA Cthylene 0.151 + 0.42 x T x 10-1 CA CCI,F Freon-l1 0.079 + 0.11 x7x 10-l CHCI,F Freon-21 0.090 + 0.11 x Tx 10-a CHCIF, rreon-22 0 073 + 0.17 x T x IO-1 Freon-113 CCI,F-CCIF, 0.107 + 0.10 XTX lo- Gasoline (octane) 0.126 + 4.65 x T x 104 CA, 0.061 + 5.29 x J x 104 Heptane VI, 2.86 + 2.86T x 10-d Hydrogen 2~ + 9.92 x T~O.5 0.435 - 0.437 x lo- CH Hydroxide + 2.2E.T x 10-n Kerosene (dodecane) ;;H,, 0.051 + 5.21 x J x 10-a IlMlane 0.263 + 5.127 x T x 104 NO4 Nitric oxide 0.218 + 0.0295 KTX 10-1 0.337 - 0.124 x T- Nitrogen N? ,- 4 13 x T-2 x 10 0.360 + 5.37 x T-o.6 Oxygen 02 + 47.8 x J-1 0.093 + 6.45 x T x 104 Propane 22 1.1-33.lxJ-0.5 L Steam (water) +415xT- Sulphur dioxide 0.176 + 0~57~ JxlOA 9 Acetylene Ammonia Benzene Butane g* 3

1,100a 1,lOOb 1,100 1,100~ 6,900= 9,OOOd 85Ob 1,100~ 1,100= 76Ob 76Ob 760b 760b 1,100~ 1,100~ 1 1,100~ 1.8004 1,620d 5,000~ 1,100a 1,100 5.4005 1,210b @!4

PETROKHEM

EN,WNEER

July

1965

Contro/ it with
KONTOL* Corrosion appetite wrrosion * wth the resultant ,Inhibitors has far refinery swing curb the endless In fact, cast that prolits. in maintenance more than pays far treatment, big differenc6 KONTOL can make a

KOIIITOL !
to>\w overhead exchangers; nia saved daily rate reduced measurahle tante probe. in another 3000 pounds of ammocrude unit; exchangers corrosion to an im. resisin overhead leve1 as determined by electrical

in your prolit pitture. and money-saving capacity

KONTOL'S effectiveness

Profit-protecting with

results Iike these can be yoursTretolite refinery engineer.

have been proven again and again: $18,000 per year net swing continent in qompressor refinerys maintenance at a mid-

a cali lo your

He11 end your corrosion a money-swing a cali today.

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cracking uniti

$800 per month crude

KONTOL contro1 program.

savi,ng in ammonia

costs on atmospheric

t, = t -l- 0.5(t;--ti

= 0.5C.C,i-ti

Eq. 7-13

where t iu the mean bulk temperature of the fluirl and t, is the mean surface tempeiat,we of t,he conduit:
Irregular temperat~m%s.

In a long pipe when the

temperature varies considerably and irregularly nlong the length of the pipe, the average tempsrature should be obtained by integration.
L t,,, 1 = -is tdl

Eq. 7-14

PROGRESS IN HPl..TECHNOLOGY

Petrochemicals
Radio1distane from centerline
Figure 7.5. Temperature and velocity a tube with turbulent air flow. ~distribution across

~@

E Furt,her d&ails have Dows Toluene-to:Phenol

beeome available on process which was

A,simple graphical integration is usually adequate. Plot the measured or estimated liquid temperatures as ordinates against pipe lengths as abscissae; connect the points by a sinooth curve; measure the area under the curve and divide it by the length of the diagram to obtain the average temperature along the pipe length. References 1. F. W. Dittus and L.M.K. Transfer in Automobile Radiators Type, %iv. of Calif. Publications 2, 443-61 (1930). 2. MeAdams, Beat T?ansmission. Boelter, Heat of the Tubular in Engineering op. cit. p. 219.

commercialized 2-3 years ago. As is already Bnown, the method involves oxidation to benzoic acid which is then air oxidized
to phenol. The first step, carried out by liquid

phase air oxidation in the presente of a soluble cob& salt, allows formation of benzoic acid in
approximately 90% yield. The air oxidation of benzoic acid is carried out, also in liqaid phase,

in the presence of copper and magnesium salts, with simultaneous introduction of water vapor. The reaction mechanism involves intermediate formation of benzoyl salicylic acid which is converted to benzoic and salieylic acids. The latter is decarboxylated to phenol. A yield as high as 95% is reported when the reaction is carried
out at 240 c.
q

3. A. P. Colburn, 4 Method of Correlating Forced Convection Heat Transfer Data and Comparison with Fluid Friction, Trans.Am.Inst.of Chemical Engineers 29, 174.210 (1933.34) 4. R. T. Xent, Machnnic~l h%gi?f.errs Hmdbooli,

A list, of synthetic polymers authorized far use in contact with food has been published by

12th ed. II, 12-65.

5. J. R. Pannell, Experiments on Heat Transmisiion in the Case if Air Flowing Through a Heated Pipe, Twlinira~l Repwt of the AdrinwZ, Coi?nittee lor .&w~~wwtics, London. Reprint Memo No. 243; Vol. 1 (1916-17) p. 22: also M. Jakob and G. A. Hawkins. Elments of Heut Tmnsfer and I%sulat~io?t, 2nd ed. Xew York: John Wiley and sons, Inc. (1950) p, 213.

the U S. Depar:nxnt of Ilealth,, Education and Welfares E. B. Detwiler (SPE J. Jan. 1960,

61-63). Severi major use classes are involved: 1) Synthetic polymers, generally recognized as safe far the intended ,purpose; 2) Synthetic~ polymers regulated as direct food additives, 3) Synthetic polymers for which prior sanctions have been granted. 4) Synthet,ic polymers far which prior sanctions haue been granted for use as films. 5) Synthetic polymers regulated as indirect food addit,ives; 6) Materials containing synthetic polymers regulated as indirect food
additives; and 7) Adjuvants far synthetic poly-

mers regulated as indire& food additives.

PETROKHEM ENGINEER July 1965

products gas, LPG, gasoline, kerosine, light diesel oil and furnacc oil fractions which are aeparated in a fractionating column and pumped to the respective storage tanks. The coke in the coke chambers is removed by a hydraulic decoking proeess where water at very high pressure cuts out the hard coke whicb is then sent to the storage yard.

Coking

onit

at the

Baroni

Refinery

in Bihar,

India

The lube oil fractions from the atmospheric vacuum distillation unit contain such undesirable components as aromatics, wax, asphaltenes, and sulfur compounds. These are eliminated in three different units, in succession, i.e., phenol extrnction, dewaxing and clay contact units. In the phenol extraction unit the lubrieating oil cut iS subjected to a solve& extraetion proeess using phenol as the solvent to remove aromatics, and the separation and recovery of phenol from the extraction column is effected by distillation. The pure extract is used for bitumen and the pure raffinate further refined in the dewaxing unit. In the dewaxing process both wax and oil are separately passed through a solvent reeovery system where the solvent is removed and recireulated in the dewaxing unit. The wax is fed to the coking unit. The lube oil fraetion afta dewaxing is then passed on to the clay contact unit to improve ita color by a process of ph>-sica1 adsorption using activated elay. The elay is filtered away and treated lubricating oil fractions sent to storage tanks for disposal as base oils. Bitumen llnit

participation, tn separate the aromatics which cause kerosine to burri with a smoky flame. The extraetion of aromatics is effected from the feedstock tiith liquid sulfur dioxide by the Edeleanu solvent extraction process. The extract and raffinate solutions thus obtained are proeessed through separate sulphur dioxide recovery systems where the solvent is boiled off leaving pure extract and raffinate. The solvent vapors are compressed, condensed and recirculated through the unit. The pure extract if further fractionated to yield a light extract which is blended with gasolirie and heavy extraet disposed of in furnace oil and cutbsck bitumen. The pure raffinate which is superior kerosine is pumped directly to storage. Fractions for aviation turbine fuel and from coking unit are similarly treated in this unit to obtain quality produets wit,h improved propert,ies. Coking Unit In the coking process the feedstock, which is a mixture of short residue, wux vacuum distillates and the overheads from the bituma unit, is heated to a high temperature where the destructive decomposition process transforms part of the feedstock into hard petroleum coke. The vapora leaving the top of these chambers contain the light cracked

The short residue from the atmospheric vaeuum unit is not suitable for use as road asphalt and has to be further processed. TO achieve this the mixture of short residue and phenol extract is transferred into vessels called oxidizers where it is blown with air. The overhead vapors are condensed and pumped into cokitig unit feed tanks and the blown bitumen filled into drums. Part of this is also thinned down to produce cutback. bituma. BY processing Z,OOO,OOO metrie t,ons of crude oii the following product,s in metrie tons will be produced by the Baruni refinery.

According to the revised project it has been decided to expand the refinery capacity from 2,000,OOOto 3,000,OOO metric tons. When the expansion scheme is completed the product pattern in metric tons would be as follows:

Petro/Chem Engineer

August 1965

Forced Conuection Inside Tubes----Part 7b

Applied Heat Transfer Design for the HPI

by Wayne C. Edmister and Joseph M. Marche110

7-G. Surface coe.ficient caleulations. Turbulent flozo. Using Eq. 7-3, the formulas for surface coeffieient may be rewritten in a more convenient form for praetical application: for heating fluids, Nne > 2100, from Eq. 7-7 h, = O.O243(k/D! (DG~~)00-8(c~,k)0~1 Eq. 7-15 for cooling fluids, NR, > 2100, from Eq. 7-8 h., = 0.0265 (k/D) (DG/,~).B(~~/k)0.3 Eq. 7-16 far heating of gases and low viscasity fluids, NI(= > 2100, from Eq. 7-9 h, = O.O23(k/D) (DG//A)~~~(c@)~.~ Eq. 7-17 for heating or cooling of high viscosity fluids, NRe > 10,000, from Eq. 7.10 h, = O.OZS(k/D) (DG/~)O.B(c~/k) Eq. 7-18 Simplified equations. For preliminary estimates of heating or cooling of industrial gases, whose properties are similar to those of air, a convenient equation is :6 h, = 0.00054T~Ga-8:D~ Eq. 7-19 where 2 is the absolute temperature of the gas, OR. Another similar but more conse?vative equation is:i h c = 0.0144C,G0.8/D0.2 . . Eq. 7-20 Watir. For heating or cooling of water a simplified equation is :R h, = 0.0014(100 + tf)vo.8/Do.z Eq. 7-21 where ti is estimated from Eq. 7-13. Oil in tuba. For the heating of oils the following empirica.1 formula may be used :g h, = 0.034~/@~~ Eq. 7-22 where u is the veloeity in ft/hr and p is viscosity in lb/ft-hr at the average temperature of the oil. If in a long pipe the temperature varies irregularly, the oil viscosity must be referred t,o the average temperature obtained by integration, as explained in Section 7-5. If the oil is being eooled, the surface coeffieient found by Eq. 7-22 should be reduced by about 25%. EXAMPLE 7-l. Determine the average surface coefficient of beat transfer at the water side of a single-pass stream condenser. The tubes have a

va-in. OD and 0.049.in. (1RBWG) wall thickness. the average water velocity is 7.5 ft/sec; the water 4 enters at GOF and leaves at 68F. SOLUTION: Eq. 7-Y 1s most suitable if IV,, > 2100. The average water temperature t = (GO + 68)/2 = 64F. By interpolation from Table 7-4, c = 0.999; p = 62.31; p = 2.57; and k = 0.346. The inside diameter D = (0.875 - 0.049 x 2)/12 = 0.0648 ft ; IJ = 7.5 x 3600 = 27,000 ft/hr. The Reynolds number is found as: NR., = 0.0648 x 27,000 x 62.31/2.57 = 43,400 and therefore, the use of Eq. 7-9 is justified. The Prandtl number is compnted and is: Np7 = 0.999 x 2.57/0.346 = 7.42 and, by Eq. 7-9, h, = 0.023(0.34G/0.0G48j43,400~* x 7.42.4 = 13Y5 Htuihr-sq ft OF r-7. Special cases of fluids ix tubes. Vertimi tubes. The Nusselt equation for heat transfer and other equations of the same type are based on tests with flow in horizontal pipa, nevertheless they may be applied satisfactorily to flow in inclined and * aertical pipes, with the results being on the conservative side. However, in the case of a liquid mar the boiling point, where the position of the pipe may influente the liberation of vapor bubbles from the surfaee, other equations should be used. Curved tubes. If straight tubes are conneeted by semi-circular bends or if tuba are bent to form helical coils, turbulence of the liquid will be inereased; which will result in an increase of the surface coeffieient~. Tests by Richter with a helically coiled double-tube water-to-water beat exchanger~ showed that with water velocities of 6 to 8 ft/sec the surface beat transfer coefficient was about 20% higher than in an exchanger with straight tubes. Far gasa and low viscosity liquids sueh as water, a fair approxmation may be obtained by multiplying h, determined for straight flow by a factor2

50

August 1965

Petro/Chem Engineer

~b = 1 -!- 3.5 DJD,

Eq. 7-23

where D,i is the inside diameter of the tube and D, is the mean diameter of the coi1 or curvature. Amulw spacea. In double-pipe beat exchsngersl one of the fluids is flowing in an annular SPK formed by two concentric tubes. In determining the hydraulic radius T,~ or the equivalent diameter D, that enters in the expressions for Nne and h,, there will be a differenee depending on whether the outside of the smaller tube, or the inside of the lager tube, or both are participating,in the hcat transfer to or from the fluid in the annular space. If heat flows through both surfaces, the value of the equivalent diameter is given by Eq. 6-12 BS D, = De - Bl. If heat flows only through one of the two wetted ~urfaces, the hydraulic radius is based on the perimeter of this surface. Thus, if heat flows through the inner surface, by Eq: 6-8 and 6-11, D, = 477, = (D2s ~ DV,D : Eq. 7-24 If beat flows e = @~ (PZ only through Di);Dv the outer surface: Eq. l-25

D1. 7_24 and 7-25 give lager Eq values far the equivalent diameter than Eq. 6.12 and, therefore, give more conservative values for h,. They were used by Nusselt in correlating experimental data. However, even if the outside surface is beat insulated, it will participate in the heat exchange to a certain extent, if not by convection then by radiation. On the other band, the inner surface is seldom ever insulated and in equations for IL, the diameter enters only in the 0.2 power and Dy2 found by Eq. 7-22 or 7-23 numerically does not

A QUANTITY SURVEY . ..
Weve received numerous letters indicating that it will be advisable to reprint the complete APPLIED HEAT TRANSFER FOR THE HPI series as soon as it is concluded. It would help us greatly if we had an indication as to whether you might purchase a copy of the entire 19 installments, in handbook form, at a
nomina1 cast. your #60 interest, on the simply postpaid Heat Exchangers designed and built by THERMAL TRANSFER CORP. mean new materials, new engineering, concepts and exact fulfillment of customer requirements and specifications. Heat Exchangers designed and built bv THERMAL TRANSFER CORP.

TO indicate circle item

piovide increased eficiency, greater durability and produce guaranteed results. Why not give your next heat exchanging problem to the THERMA~L
TRANSFER CORPs. design engin-

Reader
card You will

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:P%%t THE HPI

Hc% TRANSFER FORI the moment it is available.

Monroeville, Pennsylvania 15146

Fetro/Chem Engineer

August 1965

51

differ much from U;~* by Eq. 6.12. the simpler Eq. 6-1213 is recommended.

Therefore,

7-8. Heat transfer and fluid friction. Both theory and experiments show that there is a dire& relationship between the film conductance and pressure loss for flow in tubes and pipe% Experiments show that beat and momentum in a fluid are transferred in the same manner. A simple equation expressing this result was developed by Reynolds: h, =

fvc p/8

<~

Eq. 7-26

where f is the friction coefficient discussed in Sections 6-3 and G-4. Eq. 7-26 was derived by Reynolds assuming that the Prandtl number -Vp, = cp,& = 1, therefore this relation gives accurate results only for gases having four or more atoms per molecule (Np, - 1). Far other gases that have a smaller number of atoms, N,, < 1, and for liquids the inaecuraey of Eq. 7-26

Or 0

I 0.25

1 0.50

1 0.75

I 1.0

Rodia1 disfance, y/R, from the woll of the tube Figure 7-6. Temperature variation with distante fmm the wall.

is very large. A more presented in the form: h., = fvc p$/S

general
.~

equation

may

be

Eq. 7-27

where the function + takes into account the influente of the Prandtl number. Unfortunately, the various expressions that have bea developed for $I are rather eomplicated and are often based, on questionable assumptions. A simple expression relating h, with the friction coefficient f, whieh applies for turbulent flow of various fluids in long tube3 or ducts, may be derived from Eq. 7-9. (1.9 .S h, = O.O23vcp/N~, Np, Eq. 7.28 noticing that U.? IVR,~ = f/8,
h, =

for gives:

smooth

pipa

Eq.

6.22,

0.023/

fvep/%A$y

Eq. 7-29 7-27 with Eq. 7-2Y shows, trans.

A comparison

of Eq.

for flciw in smooth pipa, 7-9. Ana.logy between

$ = l/Ni,t beat and momentum

Sine Reynolds first suggested that beat and momentum are transferred by identica1 mechanisms, a number of investigators have proposed analogies between heat and momentum transfer in conduits. The temperature profile and transfer rate may be determined by integrating the Au equatians, Eq. G-39 and 6-40. In order to earry out the integration it is necessary to know the dependency of the loca1 flux and eddy coefficient upon position. In their early analogy calculations, Prandtl and von Karman point.ed out t,he importance of physieal properties and the need for accurate velocity data. Mart,inelli4 employed the generalized velocity profile to develop an analogy solution for the temperature profile and Nusselt number. His analogy is based open the assumptions that the eddy transport coeffieients for heat and momentum are equa1 and that the flux and shear stress have the same dependency upon radia1 position. Martinellis solution fits the heat transfer data fairly ~11 for small values of the Prandtl nomber (Iiquid m&ls). The recent extensions of Martinellis work have eliminated the laminar region by developing expressions for the eddy eoefficients which vanish at the ~11. The analogies of Deisslerlj and 0 ReichardV are typical of this extension. Somewhat more sophisticated analogia have ben developed by Hunziker and Sleicher and Tribus.18 Their methods remove the assumptions that the eddy coefficients are equa1 and that the heat flux and shear stress variations are similar. However, neither of these c%lcul&ons were extended for very large values of the Prandtl number. Results of the more recent analogy ealculationsg agree well with Eq. 7-Y and 7-28. These calculations also predi& temperature profiles that are in good agreement vith Fig. 7.6. A number of investigators have measured temperature profiles for mercury, air, and water being heated in turbulent flow. There is good agreement. among the various investigators, and profiles for al1 three systems have been measured at Reynolds numbers of approximately 40,000. Fig. 7-6 shows the variation of temperature wit,h position for these three eommon fluids. As Prandtl number in- m ereasea the fluid temperature rises steeply and tends to approach the centerline value more rapidly. 7-10. Swfaee eonditions. Surface deposits. Al1 expressions far the surface coefficient h, giva in Sect~ion i-6 apply to turhulent flow of fluids in cbmmercial steel pipa and meta1 tube in clan condition. Any deposit on the inside surfaee of a pipe or tube of oxides, scale, grease, or gas or steam bubbles will appreeiably reduce the film eonductanee. For gas flowing through relatively short tubes, a light carbon film from smoke has been found to reduce beat transfer by lo%? Also for gas flowing in brass tubes, the differente between h, far 8 clean polished tube and LC for u tube with an oxide film, normall~ found in brass tuba. is sbout 16%,. Far water oi other liquids flowing in a tube, the effect of & film of foreign matter on the tube surfaee is ewn greater because the resistance of
fer.

52

August, 1965

Petro/Chem Engineer

a film of liquid is relatively mueh xnaller than the resistance of a gas film. Actually, deposits of foreign matter on a tube rv+ll~ do not at&xt the convection of beat but the beat conduction through the wall. The deposit acts as an insulator because the beat eonductivity of oxides, scale, and the like, is considerably lower than of the meta1 of the tube. This prohlem will be discussed in more detail later ixi discussion of the overall beat transfer coefficient. Surfaee roughness. Scratches and roughness of a tubesurfaceincreaseturbulenee, decreasethethickness of the stagnant fluid film and inerease the heat t,ransfer coefficient. This is particularly apparent for flow in small tuba in which the roughness, expressed SS the average depth of roughness divided by the tube diameter, is relatively larga than in larger tubes. Increasing the roughness of tuba intentionally is not practical, because the increase of the hea,t transfer coefficient due to increased roughness is smaller than the increase in frietional resistanee to flow and resulting inerease in power requirements. 7-11. Velocity eh.ange in short pipes. The abrupt change in the velocity of & fluid stream as it enters a tube produca turbulence near the tube enti-ance due to a contraction in the cross seetion of the stieam caused by boundary-l&yer separation. This contraction increases the fluid velocity. Both effects extend some distante along the pipe and serve to increase the beat transfer coefficient. According t,o A. D. Mo0re,~1 far short t,ubes, L/D < 40, the surface coefficient h, determined by the usual procedure for long tubes should be multiplied by 8 factor C. The factor C may he determined from the following empirica1 expression:
C = 2.07,(L/D).2 . .

liquid, convect,ion current,s are set up and the flow ceases to be completely laminar. However, if the velocity is below the critica1 value, it is usually still referred to as laminar. In view of the limited use of streamline flow in heat exchangers, there are eonsiderably less experimental data on which to base a surface coefficient equation. From tests with heating water, glycerine and lighter oils in lamina flow, the following formula has been developed23 h, = 2.53(kjDj (mc/kL)s Eq. 7-33 where: m is the rate of floid flow, lb/hr
D is the actual or equivalent diameter of the conduit, ft L is the length of the beat exchange surface. ft

The dimensionless group ,me/kL is the Graetz number and is designated by Nel. Eq. 7-33 may be applied for NGz ranging from 8 to 3500. Eq. 7-33 may also be used for cooling low viscosity liquida However, for cooling very viscous oils, it is recommended that k, be reduced by ahout 30%. This gives l, = 1.78(k/D) (.m.c/kL) Eq. 7-34 The reduction of h, iti caused by an appreciable inwease in viscosity, which decreases the convection flow when the oil is cooled. Film temperotwe. If the differente between the mean pipe-surfaee temperature t, and mean liquid temperature t is over lOF, then the viscosity f-~ and the densi& p must be determined at a weighted film temperature t,>z( where t, = t + %(t, - t) Eq. 7-35
EXAMPLE 7-2. An economizer in a boiler plant is built of seamless steel pipe Z-in. OD, 0.120.in. wall thickness and lo-ft long. The average temperature of the water is 140F and the inside surface of the pipa is at 273F and the water veloeity is 3 ftisec. Determine the probable surface coefficient of heat transfer. SOLUTION: The inside tube diameter D = (2-0.120 x 2) 12 = 0.1467 ft. The weighted temperature of the water is, by Eq. 7-35, t, = 140 + (273 140)/4 = 173.3F. At 173.3F, from Table 7.4: p = Gq.72 lbieu ft, c = 1.001 Btu/lb-deg F, ,/J = 0.88 Ib/ft-hr and k = 0.387 Btujhr-ft-deg F. The water velocity is v = 3 x 60 = 180 ftihr. The Reynolds number is: Nne = Dv p,p = 0.1467 x 180 x 60.72/0.88 = 1824 This shows that the flow is laminar. The rate of flow is found SS: ,m. = 0.7854 x 0.14672 x 180 x 60.72 = 184.8 lb/hr and the Graetz numher is: Nca = mc/kL = 184.8 x 1.001/0.387 x 10 = 47.8 This shows that Eq. 7-33 can be used and therefore: Ir., = 2.53(0.387/0.1467) (47.8jK = 24.2 Btu/ hr-sq ft-F. Viscous liquids. For laminar flow, Nne < 2100, of viscous fluids flowing in vertical or horizontal

Eq. 7-30

Latzkoz2 has analyzed boundary layer build up in the inlet region for bellmouthed entry. His analysis predicts that the mean heat transfer eoefficient from the point of entry to the point L is given by:

B,*

b, -=l++D h cc

.Eq.

731 by

where the factor C is related to hydrodynamics the equation C = O.l44N,,%

Eq. 7-32

Data indicate that the factors C or C should be applied whether the tube inlet is sharpedged or rounded. Although the rounded inlet does not cause a eontraction of the stream, it increases the fluid velocity near the tube wall to almost the average veloeity of the stream. 7-12. Swface cot?fJicients with l,arnina7 j%w. In most heat exehangers with forced positive flow of the fluid, the velocity is above the critica1 value and the flow is turbulent. However, for viscous liquids, the fluids often move at velocities below critica1 values. In this case the flow will be laminar, or streamline, if no heat exchange takes piace. When beat is being added to or removed from the

Petro/Chem

Engineer

August 1965

53

tubes a slightly modified equation is recommended,2 both for heating md eooling: h,, = l.S6(li/D) (,~,/&)O.l, [(Dc/& (cp,&) (DjL)] Eq. 7-36 where : fi is viscosity of the liquid at its bulk temperature t and ps is its viscosity at the temperature t, of the inside surface of the tube. For preliminary caleulations the empirica1 simple Eq. 7-27 may also be used for laminar flow of oil. fluids Raids. Newtonian r-13. Non-Newtonian exhibit a proportionality hetween shear stress and shear rate in lamina flow. This is usually stated as =TcdT. Eq. 7-37

where: p is the viscosity of~ the fluid. Non-Newtonian fluids ar materials which do not ohey this relationship. All gasa and liquids of low ~molecular weight exhibit, Newtonian behavior. High molecular weight polymeric materials and suspensions of solida in liquids comprise the major portion of the materials t,hat do not obey Eq. 7-37.6 At the present time the flow conditions have not been clearly defined for the various types of nonNewtonian fluids and it is difficult to make accurate predictions of the heat transfer problem. It is recommended that the equations discussed in Section 7-13 be used t,ogether with average values of the effettive viseosity. 7-14. Liquid meta1 h.eat transfer. Perhaps the most important heat transfer application of liquid metals is SS, coolants in nuclear reactors. The basic reasons for using liquid metals as coohmts are : (1) The reactor can be operated at high temperature and low pressure. This is due to the low vapor pressures of liquid metals. (2) The reactor coolant must have a high heat transfer eapability. This property of liquid met,al& is indicated by the very low values of the Prandtl number which they exhibit. A principal phase of any nuelear heal transfer design is prediction of the loca1 and average values of the heat transfer eoeffieient.27 A number of analytieal and numerica1 solutions have heen obtained,28,2Q some taking into account the variation of temperature and physical properties. However, the bulk of the usefu,l information consists of generalized dimensionless correlations of test values of h. Lubarsky and Kaufma# have summarized the work of over 40 investigators and recommehd the equation U.4 N NEL= 0.625 NP@ Eq. 7-38 where: Nr. is the product of the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers and is called the Peclet number.

An Investigation on Aircraft Heaters, Advisory Commi&?e for Aeronautics, ARR5A06 (1945). op. cit. p. 226. 7McAdams, Heat Trammission, 8A. P. Colburn, Mea Temperature Differente and Heat Transfer Coefficient in Heat Exchanger, Imi Eng. Chem. 25, 874 (1933). 9F. H. Morris and W. G. Whitman, He& Transfer for Oils and Water in Pipes, Jour. Ind. Eng. Chem. 20, 234-240 (1928). IoMcAdams, op. cit., p. 228. 1G. A. Richter, Douhle-Pipe Heat Interchangem, Trans. A.Z.Ch.E. 12, Part 11, 147-185 (1919). l2D. Jesehke, Die W&neuhertragung und DruckZeitschrift Vereines verlust in Rohrschlangen, deutschw Ingenieure, 69, 1526 (1925). 3McAdams, Op. cit., p. 241. laR. C. Martinelli, Ilyans. ASME, 69, Y47 (1947). jR. G. Deissler, Nat. Adv. Comm. Aero. (now National Aero. Space Adm.) T.R. 1210 (1955). IaH. Reichardt, Nat. Adv. Comm. Aero (now Nat. Aero Space Adm.) Report, N-411947 ,(1956). IrP. R. Hunziker, Journal of the Franklin Institute 265, 205 (1958). IsC. A. Sleicher Jr. and M. Tribus, Trsns. A. S. M. E. 79, 789 (1957) ; Heat Transfer and Fluid Mechanies Institute, Preprints, Stanford University (1956). 19J. M. Marche110 and H. L. Toor, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundamentals, 1, 97, (1963) % R. Parsons and D. R. Harper, Radiators for Ai,rcraft Engines, National Bureau of Standards,
References:

National

Tech. Paper

211, 326 (1922).

A. D. Moore, He& Transfer Notes fo,r Eleetrical Engineers, Ind. Eng. Chem. 28, 704-708 (1936). =A. Latzko, Nat. Adv. Comm. Aero. (now Nat. Aero. Space Adm.;l T.M. 1068 (1944). i3W. J. King, The Basic Laws of Heat Transmission, Mech. Engr. 54 412 (1932) McAdams, op. cit., p. 149. z5E. N. Sieder and G. E. Tate, Heat Transfuand Pressure Drop of Liquids in Tube& Ind. Eng. Chum. 28, 3,429-36 (1936). z6A. B. Metzner, Non-Newtonian TeehnOlogy: Fluid Mechanies, Mixing and Heat Transfer, Advances in. Chemical Engineering, Vol. I, edited by T. B. Drew and J. W. Hodges, Aeademic Press Inc. New York (1956). *% F. Bonilla. Nuclear Enginewing. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. (1957). =R. G. Dressler, Nat. Adv. Comm. Aero., (now Nat. Aero. Space Adm.) RM-E52F05 (1952). zsR. W. Lyon, Forced Convection Heat Transfer Theory and Experiment with Liquid Metals, ORN L-361, Tech. Div. Eng. Res. Sec. Oak Ridge National Laboratory (1949). aoB. Lubarsky and S. J. Kaufman, Nat. Adv. Comm. Aero. (now Nat. Aero Space Adm.) T. N. 3336 (1955).

Part WIII

8, Heat appear

Transfer m the

Obtside of Tuba. September ~ssue.

54

August 1965

Petro/Chem Engineer

Heat Transfer Outside of Tubes-Part

Applied Heat Transfer Design for the HPI

by Wayne C. Edmister and Joseph M. Marchello
S-l. Fwced eo?mection. WWT external swfaees. Experimental data for beat transfer by forccd convection outside of tuba may be correlated by using a dimensionless equation of the same Nusselt type as was obtained and used for fluida flowing inside of pipa: h,D& = C(D,~p~/~~cii~(c~f/k~)~ _Eq. 8-l where: D, designa& the diameter of the outside .surface, 21 is the free-stream velocity, and f indicata that k, p, and p must be evaluated at the film temperature 1,. However,~ the numerica1 values of the constant C and exponent,s 0: and h are different from those in Part 7. Flozu along pipes. Far fore& convection and turbulent flow along pipa, us in a shell with a bundle of pipe or tuba in it, the sane equations as in Part 7 may be used. However, the term D must be replaeed by an equivalent diameter D, as determined by Eq. 6-11. EXAMPLE 8-l. Water moves axially in connterflow inside an Il-in. Shell that contains twenty-two l!$ in. OD tube; the water veloeity 1s 50 ft/min, its average temperature is 75 F and the average temperature of the tuba is 85 F. Determine the su-face coefficient far these eonditions. SOLUTION: The flow is turbulent and from Part 7, the film temperature is estimated to be tf = (75 ai85),2 = 80 F. The properties of the water, at t = 80 F, are: c = 0.998 Btu,/lb-F; p = 62.17 lb/cu ft; ,L = 2.03 lb/ft-hr; k = 0.355 Btu/hr-F; and N,,,, = 5.84. By definition G = 150 x 60 x 62.17 = 559,500 lb/hr-sq ft,. D = 1.5/1!2 = 0.125 ft. The Shell diameter is 11/12 = 0.917 ft and the flow area. is: s = 0.7854 x 0.9172 - 0.7854 x 0.1252 x 22 = 0.315 sq ft and, the equivalent diameter: norma1 to a tube oi rod wit,h NI<, = Dapf/p~~ from 0.1 to 50, the recommended numerica1 valuesin Eq. 8-l are C = 0.9, a = 0.39 and b = 0.31. The resulting expression far the surface coefficient is: h, = 0.9(kriD,) !D,w~~//L~I.~~ (c+,)-~~ Eq. 3-z For fluids flowing with Nne from 50 to 10,000, the recommended faetor and exponents we: C = 0.6. a = 0.5 and b = 0.31. Thus: jLC = 0.6 (kt/DJ (D&pf//Lf) O.5 icp&) o.31 Eq. 8-3 For fluids flowing with Nn. from 1,000 to 50,000, the recommended factor and exponents2 are: C = 0.38, a = 0.56 and b = 0.3. Thus: Eq. 8-4 Flow ILCTOSS tube bank. Tests indicate that beat a transfer from fluids to banks of tuba with turbulent flow is considerably higher than to single tuba. For flow of gases and liquids normal to banks of staggered tubes, not baffled, and Reynolds numbers ranging from 2100 to 32,000 the recommended values in Eq. 8-l are? C, = 0.33, a = 0.6 and b = :b. This results in the following expression for the mean beat-transfer coeffieient: (D,,G,,,,,/~I)o.6 (c;l,&) il,,, = 033(k,:/D,,j Eq. 8-5 Far banks of tuba in Z&e, not, staggered, the use of Eq. 8-5 is recommended with the reduction of the factor C from 0.33 to 0.26.a Mechanism. of h.eat trans.fei. Experimental investigations of t,he nature of fluid flow across single tuba and tube banks have shown that the fluid film does not have a uniform thickness. It is thinnest at, the point directly facing the stream and grows in thickness on the sides and at the downstream section where eddies are formed Fig. 8-l. For this reason the coefficient of heat transfer between the nuid and pipe is not uniform around the perimete?. Fig. 8-2 shows loca1 rates of beat

4 x 0.315 D, = ~-~ = 0.1095 ft 11.51 Checking far the 0.1095 x 599,500/2.08 From Part 7: h,. = 0.0243 (g$) = 662 Etul;hr.-sq-ft-F Reynolds = 29,400. number, NRE =

x 29,400.8 H 5.x40.

Petro/Chem

Engineer

September 1965

57

Figure S-2. Pattern of heat flow ar0una a pipe with air flow normd to one tube.

flow plot,ted radially st various points around n steam heated pipe in an air stream. For design purposes, it is easier to dea1 with average, cr mean heat transfer coeffidents, designated h,,,, rather thsn with loca1 coeficients. Sine equations of the Nusselt type csnnot represent average coefficients with a sufficient accuracy, in engineering practice i,t is oft,en necessary to apply empirica1 formulne bnsed on tests with speeific corresponding fuids as given in the following. 8-S. Fiozu of pxes a.ciosstpdws. Single tube. An empirica1 expression reeommended~ for flow of air at right angles to a tube or rod, for IN.+ from 0.1. to 1000 is: h,,, = (/c;/D,) 10.32 + 0,43(D,G//.~,)~-~] Eq. S-6 and for .NRe from 1000 to 50,000 the expression is: h,,, = 0.24(7~,/D,) (D&//L,)~~ Eq. 8-7 Finally, for NR, from 40.000 to 400,000 the formula is: h,,,, = 0.0239(kf/D,j (D,G/p,).*S Eq. 8-8 ,Flw acrosg~ a Tebe ba,z7~ Far turbulent, flow of air at right, angles to a,~tube bank, foor or more rows deep, with .stnggered tube spacing, the film c&fficient may be comput.ed from the expression :O h,, = 0.0032ct + 460).VY/U, Eq. 8-9 where G is the mass velocity, lb/hr-sq ft, through the ,+ninirn.um free area S between the tubes; t iu the average air temperature, deg F; D, is the outside diameter of the tuba, feet. For banks of t,ubes in. Iine, the factor 0.0032 in Eq. 8-9 must be reduced to 0.0025. Eq. 8-6 to 8-9 mayy be npplied to any gas nhose 7~ and ,L do not differ greatly from those of air. EXAMPLE 8-2. Atmoapheric air with an avernge temperature t = 120 F is ,Oowing at 25 fthec across Z-in. OD tubrs whose surface is kept at a temperature of 212 F. Determine the surface coefficient for these conditions. SOLUTION: In order to select the proper expression for l~.~,,,,.first one must determine the Reynolds number nr,,. The film temperature is: t, = 0.51120 i- 2121 = 166 F Interpolating from Table 4-l (see March 1965, p, 43) giva /c, = 0.0173 Btuihr-ft-F, pLi = 0.050 lb/ft-hr, p = 0.0636 Ih/eu ft, N,>r = 0.70, v = 25 x 3600 = 90,000 ft/hr and G = 2 = 90,000 x 0.0636 7 5724 lb/hr-sq ft. D, = 2/12 = 0.167 ft and IV,, = 0.167 x 5724/0.050 = 19,100. Thus, Eq. 8-7 can be used and: h,,p = 0.24 (0.0173/0.167) 19,100-0 = 9.25 Btu/hrsq ft F. 8-3. Flow of li&k aeross tubes. Single tuba. ~For liquids flowing with Nne from 0.1 to~200, an empirica1 equation similar to Eq. 8-6 may be used:7 Ii ,,/ = (k,lD,l (cp#~,) OJ

IO.35 + 0.56(D,G/~j).5] Eq. 8.10 For flow wilh NRe over 50 and up tu 10,000 the use of Eq. 8-3 is recommended. Flow aeross a tube bmlc. Heat exchangers with liquids bot,h inside and outside the tubes are of a great variety of design. Many have baffle plates to increase the heat transfer by increasing the flow velocity. In many designs the liquid is moving partly acro~s and partly along the tuba. It is impossible to give any special formulae for the different cases. Usually the mean beat-transfer coefficient lt.,,, is eomputed using Eq. 8-5 and, if baffles are used, h,,,, is multiplied by 0.6 to allow for leakage, or short-circuits in t,he flow. Far water, for Nnc > 2000, the reeommended simplified eqoation far staggewxl tnbas is:R Ih,,, = (1 -;- 0.0067 td iv,,,,,)0.F/(D)0.4 Eq. 8-11 where v,,,,~,,and D, are in ft,-hr units, as in al1 other expressions. For tubes in Cine, there is a reduction of 20% in the value of h,,,. In baffled exchangers, there is a reduct,ion of 40% in IC,,, due to leakage. EXAMPLE 8-3. Find the surface coeffcient using the same data 8s giva in Example S-1, assuming that the water Bow across the tubes is guided by snitable baffle plates. SOLUTION: The Reynolds numbei in this case is Nrt, = 0.125 s 559,500/2.08 = 33,600 and by Eq. 8-5:

880 Btu/hr-sq

ft-F

The surfnce coefieient is considerably higher tha,n with flow along the tube because of a betta turbulence. Even if a correction eoefficient of 0.8 is used to allow for buffle leakage, h, = 880 x 0.8 = 704 Btuihr-sq ft-F. This is stili higher than found in Example S-1. Checking by the simplified Eq. 8-11 gives:

= 830 Btu/hr-sq

ft-F:

Thiu is a satisfactory agreement with the result~ obtained hy the more elaborate Eq. R-5. 8-4. Flozo /dong ploe s~wfa~~;zs. From the theory of analogy between heat transfer and frietion faetor, with the constant exponent found from air data, the follorving equation has been established: NN,, = 0.055Nng0.= Eq. 8.12 Substituting for .NNrL and Ni,, their oalues gives for the surface coeffieient expression:! h, = 0.055(k/Lj (Lv&LLJ.~~ Eq. 8-13 If the length L of the surfnce along which the air flow~ exceeds 2 ft, t,he turhulence will become fairly constant and the use of L = 2 ft is recommended for longer surfaces. Eq. 8-13 applies to smooth surfeees. With rongh surfaces Il., will be highei; however, at the present time there are not enough data available to erpress this influente analyt~ically. A satisfact.ory correlation of lata tests,0 also with air, wau obtained in the form of the equation:

58

September 1,965

Petro/Chem Engineer

The Barton Flotrac Meter was designed with high pressure water metering applications in mind, but offers exceptional accuracy and economy for a wide range of liquid metering applications, including corrosive and abrasive liquids. Flotrac accuracy is 20.5% of reading, with an operating pressure range up to 5,000 psi SWP. Combined with the optional Remote Flow Monitor, the Flotrac Meter provides remote digita1 read-

out of totalired flow and rate of flow at distances up to three miles without amplification. Totalizer reset with either key-lock or thumb-wheel type configurations is available, or the monitor may be equipped with a non-reset totalizer. (Request Bulletins 306-l and 309-l from BXiZi4 Instrument Corporation, subsidiary of International Telephone and Telegraph Corporation.) a

N ,.qu = O.O49ZN$f Eq. 8-14 where Np. is the Peclet number. From Eq. S-14: h, = 0.0492(k/L)~2 (v~c)~.~ Eq. S-15 However, h, by Eq. 8-15 is 15% to 25% higher than by Eq. 8-13, probably because of certain eonditions in the tests. An empirica1 expression, convenient for preliminary caculations for standard air of 70 F and atmospheric pressure, has the general form:
h, = a ,t bv

where far air velocities below 16 ft/sec, a = 0.9, b = l/l?OOO, n = 1.0; for uii velocities fiom 16 to LO0 ft/sec, n = 0, h = 1/1180 and n = 0.78. However, for more dependable and conservative calculations, especially if the air temperature differs appreciably from 70 F or the pressure from atmospheric, Eq. 8-13 is recommended. Eq. 8-11 can he used also for fluids other than water if the Peclet number is introduced as in Eq. S-14. YofldT -

transfer taking piace during flow past twodimensiona1 bodies auch as cylinders CIP airfoils. For the most part, the results are in agreement with the empirica1 correlations of Section 8-l and 8-4, when the hydraulic +adius copcept is employed. X-6. High velocity f!mo. The design of rock&, nirplanes and gas turbina requires a knowledge of beat transfer at high fluid velocities.s At high velocities frctional heating beeomes appreciable and density ehanges in the gasa become significant.g A classica1 problem involving friction heating in compressible Aov is that of re-entry of racket nose cones into the earths atmosphere. Ka fluid streaxn of velocity V and temperature t is brought to rest without heat loss (adiabatically), the rise in temperature due to the conversion of flow energy to ~thermal energy will be:
t, -t = -P

ZSJG

Eq. 8-17

Figure 8-3. Thermal layers on a flat pl&.

and hydionamic

boundaiy

S-5. Thermal bow~dary layers. As fluid flows past a solid body which is at 8. different temperature, a thermal boundary layer BS well as a hydrodynamic boundary layer, forma. In the thermal boundary layer the fluid temperature at the solid surface equals that of the surface. The thickness of the thermal boundary layer may be different fiom that of the hydrodynamic boundary layer, and it starts at the point where the beat transfer begins, which may oi mag not be at the leading edge. The thermal and hydrodynamic boundary layers on a flat plate are shown schematieally in Fig. 8-3. Far a Prandtl number of unity, both boundary layer~~ grow at the same rate. For Prandtl numbers less than one, the thermal layer grows more rapidly than the velocity layer. On the other band, for Prandtl numbers greater than unit-, the thermal layer grows slower than the velocity lwer. The differential equation far the temperature distribution is :

In the boundary layer surrounding a high velocity vehicle, the air is brought to rest hy viscous forces. The air temperature near the wall is inereased by both stagnation and by transfer of momentum to the wall. If no ,heat is transferred through the wall of the vehicle the system will be adiabatic. The temperature rise in the boundary layer causes beat conduction back into the surrounding air. The adinbatic waT1 of the vehicle assumes a temperature, t,,,, somewhere between the stagnation temperature and that of the surroundings. The degree to which stagnation ia achieved is expressed in terms of a

tempemture mcove~~ factor, N,t: .h;, = TL+?

Eq. 8-18

The ratio of the actual velocity V to the acoustic velocity V, is the Mach Number, N,,z,. For an idea1 gas the Coustic velocit is piven by:

v,, =

Eq. 8-19

where R is the gas constant, M is the molecular weiglit and T is the absolute temperature of the gas. By combining Eq. S-17, X-18 and S-19, the recovery factor may be expressed a~:~l ea

where <y = k/C,p, the thermal diffusivity. The velocities, u and v in Eq. S-16 must bc obtained from the equation of motion and the continuity equation, and will be fwxctions of the independent variables z and g. The major portion of the early work with thermal boundary layers w&s done by PohlhausaGS who solved Eq. X-16 to obtain the temperature profile and beat transfer coefficient for laminar flovj parallel to flat plates. A considerable amount of work1J7 has been done recently on the problem of heat

Johnson and Rubesi+ have reviewed the theary and data on recovery factors. They predict that for the range of Mach numbers from 0 to 10 in the laminar boun.darzJ lager : N,! = NZ and foi a ~turbulent boundaiy Eq. 8-21~ layer :

N,,= .$ Eq. 8-21b Eq. 8-20 and 8-21 may then be used ta caleulate the adiabatic wall temperature. In high velocity flow the effect of stagnation is to make the temperature differente between the wall and the fluid finite, even though heat may not be transferred to the wall (adiabatic). This diffi-

60

September 1965

PetrojChem

Engineer

culty is resolved by t,he use of an effettive temperature differente. t,, - t,,. If the wall temperature is different than the adiabatic wall temperatuw, beat transfer will ccur :

where h., is the effect,ive beat transfer coefficient. In general, the data far high velocity flow agree well with the eorrelations presented earlier in this ehapter when the conventional beat transfer coefficient, h, is replaced by the effretive coefficient. h,. For example, beat transfer data far Mach numbers in the vicinity of uniti have been cosrelat,ed bu :
-~

h,D = 0.478 N;; k

-iR

EQ. 8-23

Da

which is of the form of Eq. 8-1. There are two important faetors to be eonsidered in eompressible flow calculat.ions. First, average values~ over the flow length must be used whcn ehanges in pressure and density are importa& as is often the case in high velocity flow. Second, velocity limitations ccur in duets and throats when the exit velocity is sonic. An example of thi,s is the sonic throat i & roeket erigine. The combustion gasa flow through the throat at Mach ne and accelerate in the expansion section unti1 they pass out int space: however, ang small change in the snrrounding pressure (space) does not appreeiably change the flow rate through the sonic throat. 8-7. Selection of insuiation. Selecting the insulating materia18 most suitable for a eertain application is an important problem whieh involves faetors sueh as: (a) effectiveness, (b] initial cast, (c) ease of application, (d) maintenance and Ce) life. Effectiueness. The effectiveness of a heat-insulating materia1 is in inverse proportion to its thermal conductivity. Values of conductivity for some commonly used insulating materials may be fou,nd in Tables 3-4 and 3-6 (see Feb. 1965, pp. 36-37). Some materials have ai tendency to absorb moisture; thers are verq porous and permit atmospheric mcnsture to penetrate inside the insulating layer. In porous materials, when used at ordinary but fluctuating temperature, such as for buildings, or ;lt low temperatures for refrigeration and air conditioning equipment, atmospheric moisture inside the insulating layer may condense and inerease the eonductivity of the material. The condensation lowers the materials effectiveness, sometimes to the point of almost destroying t,he, insulating effe& Measures can be taken to prevent the penetration of moisture but, they will increase the cast, of the insulation accordingly. Initi& eost. The cast, of insulating materia18 varie cansiderably from materia1 to materia1 and with t,he improvement in their manufacture. The only safe way to determine insulation costs is bg obtaining qnotations from manufacturers or the? representatives.

sheets or bats and is simply la,id on or attacbed t t,he surface that must be protected. Other insulations come in powder form and must be made int paste nnd applied with, a trowel. ,After the paste dyies, the insulation is usually wrapped uith cloth, and the cowr pairited with an oil paint. The method of applying an insulation affects the initial cast considerably and must be taken into consideration. Mainteimnce. Keeping the insulation in good working condition also may affect the cast. Some jnsulation, such as cork slabs, requires very little maintenance work; other types of insulation, such as blankets made of rock-wool, must be covered with a proteetive cover that requires periodie inspection and possible repair. Life. The life of insulating materials depends 11,the ch,emic,al ntabilitg nf the raw materia18 and the combination of these materials in the finished state. If a materia1 consists of a fiber with a binder the latter should be nonsoluble in water and the materia1 should not have u tendency to deteriorate when expoed to humid or dry, hot or cold ntmospheres. Moisture is an enemy~ of most insulating materials. Ordinarily, materia18 with low absorption and capillwy coefficients are preferred. However, highly absorbent materia18 may be satisfactory in applications whcre they will rcmain dry, sueh as those built into a household or commercia1 refrigerator a,nd properly sealed from inside and outside air.
5-s. Heat 1.0s~ tiwortgh insulatioa. Fiat swfece.

Heat 108s through an insulated wall can be eomputed by the general Eq. 8-24 in which bl designates the temperature of the surface~eovered by insulaCon and tx designate8 the temperature of the surrounding air. The over-al1 coefficient U may be presented as l/(l/h! + z jki, where li = h, + h, and h, is the surfaee caefficient for convection and h, is the eoefficient of radiation, 5 the thickness of insulation, and k its beat conductivity. The corresponding expression far th,e beat flow has t,he form: Eq. 8-24 The combined coefficient h and conduetivity k depends upon the temperature t,Y of the outside surface of the insulation which usually is not known and must be estimated. However, the influente of an error in estimating 5, is not very great. If u more accurate result is desired, the exact surface temperature ma,y be found by a trial and error method as shown in the following CGUllpl. Por comparison, the beat 108s without insulation may be fotmd from Eq. 5-24 with z = 0 and h = li,: + ir,, a,s:

Petro,)Chem Engineer

Sept,ember 1965

expression the insulation on a pipe or other cylindrical object may be derived similarly to Eq. S-24, a,nd is: Z?rLk (tl - tz:l Q = &(D,/D,~) + 2k/h:~~) Eq. 8-26 For comparison, the heat 106s from a pipe without insulation may be found by Eq. 8-26 with Do/Di = 1, as: R = dL(h, + h,j (tl - tsi Eq. 8-27

Pipe

inszdatiovz.

The

far t.he beat loss through

h 0

,hiCkWS Figure 8-4. Economica1 thiekness of insulation.

Example 8-4. A 6-in. IPS pipe earries super-heated steam of 800 F and must be covered with 85% Magnesia insulstion. Determine the beat 108s per 100 ft of pipe length to still air st 70 h using the~reeommended thiekness of insulation. h, + h,, = 1.65. Solution:
assume tl bare pipe, 0.552 ft; 1.052 ft. t, = 100 and from
&=-

Neglecting the temperat,ure drop through t,he pipe wall, = 600 F. From Tahle Z-1, use 3-in. insulation. The OD of the from Table ,1-2 (see Mach 1965, p. 471, D,i = 6.625 in. or the value of D, in Eq. 8-27 is 6.625 t 3 x 2 = 12.625 in., or For such a heary insulation, a.wume the outside temperature F. The average temperature of the insulation is then 350 F Table 3-6 by interpolation, 7~ = 0.039 Btu/hr-ft-F. Eq. S-26: 0 = 18,230 Btulhr

2Tr x 100 x 0.039 (600 - 70) ln(1.052i0.552) i- (3 x 0.039/1.65 x LOS]

Cheeking the assumed value of t, by an equation similar to Eq. 8-27 gives : 18,230 = * x 1.052 x 100 x 1.65 (t, - 70) From ~this equation t, = 103.5 F. This is SO close to the value assumed before that a recalculation would chnnge the fmal figura less than the expected accuracy of the involved data. 8-9. Tlkiclcness of inmlation. Hot s2wfaces. In considering insulation of surfaces losing beat, it, is customary to compare the cast of beat loss per year from the bare surface wit,h that from the insulated one. The differente will give the basis for calculating the amount, of money that can be spent economically far the insulation. The ieduced hent loss with the surface inoulated mny he computcd using the thickness recommended hy the manufacturer of the selected insulation in his catalogue. A typical sample of these recommendations is giva in Table 8-l. The loss of beat, far such an insulation is relatiwly small and amore accurate nnalysis is seldom justified.

/ i

Ii

of ,e4 Cold swfaces. In the refrigerating industry and in other applications low temperatures, the beat infiltrating from the surroundings is the main l : 1 xat load and a more detailed analysis is justified, especially in a large installation. The eonditions can be illustrated hy Fig. 8-4. As the thickness of 1 the insulation is increased, t,he smount of beat tha,t must be ahsorbed hy 1 refrigerator the per year decreases a+d with it the yearly eost decreases as shovn by curve >M. At the same time the eost of the insulation itself in,xeases, as shown by the curve N. The most economieal, or optimum thick1 ness z,, is given hy the point 0 where the sum of the ordina& M and 1 has a minimum V value. Analytically the value of z,, can be determined as follows. Designate 1 ihe yearly c&t of refrigeration, or beat that must be taken away, in Vsq ft, by & and let: a zjk + R Eq. 8.28 where: a = T AtC,, T is hours per year of operation of the installation t is the temperature differente, cold medium to surroundings

Offices Thraughout The Southwest

62

September 1965

Petro/Chem

Engineer

C, is the cast of heat absorbed, $/Btu :z is thickness of insulation, in feet 7; is conductivity of the insulation, Btujhrft-F R is the sum of al1 thermal resistances aside from the insulation, hr-sq-ftF/Bto. Designate the cast of insulation per sq ft per year by N and: N = hz + C Eq. 8-29 where: b is cast per year of insulation in $/ft-sq ft, C is the yearly eost of maintenance of the insulation. $/sq ft. The sum of M and N is the tota1 cast per square foot per year and can be written, after rea~rranging Eq. 8-28, 88: M + N = g&
+ bz + C

to condensation of atmospherie humidity and it should last for the life of t,he building without nny maintenance expenses. The cast of insulating n building for human comfort usually is belo,w 174 of the tota1 construction cast. Therefore, the thicknesses recommended by the manufactwers of insulation for the part:icular locality can be used and no elaborate calculations of an optimum thickness are justified.
References

p. 267.
Book.

W. H. McAdams,

Heat

Transmiusion,

op. cit.,

Eq. S-30

Differentiating Eq. S-30 and equating the derivative to zero results in: dII _
dx - a,lc (z + Rh) + h = 0

Eq. 8-31

Solving Eq. 8-31 for 2 gives: Eq. 8-32 Eq. S-32 shows elearly that al1 other things being equal, the economica1 thickness is directly proportional to the square root of the number of hours of operation and inversely proportional to the square root of the first cast of insulation: 8-10. Pipe md vessel insuhtion. The recommended, most economical, insulation thicknesses are given in the eatalogues of insulation manufacturers in form of tables. Some manufacturers give the recommended thicknesses simply as u function of temperature; others, in their tables, take into aecount both temperatures and pipe sizes.2a These latter tables are more accurate as they consider both eonvection and radiation. Useless insulntion. If insulation with a relatively high conductivity is applied to a small-size pipe, the effeet, of the lower outside surface temperature may be offset by the increase of the surface that dmslpates beat. Also wrapping thin asbestos paper around a galvanized pipe or tank may result in an increase of beat loss due to radiation sinee the emissivity of galvanized steel is approximately 0.28, whereas asbestos paper has an emissivity of about 0.94. S-11. Imula.tion of buildiwgs. Recently air conditioning insulation of the walls and eeilings of residences, offices, and stores has become a large business. However, sinee t,he temperature differenee between the air inside of buildings and on the outside is not very great, the problems of insulation are relatively simple. The cast approach is simplified by the fact that under average climatic conditions, the beat loss through the ceiling to the attic space is about twice BS great as through the walls. This is a vely important consideration in the insulation of single-story buildings. Insulation should be installed SO that it will not be subject

Ba.

?W. J. King and L. C. Kraus. Refrigerating Da,ta 5th Ed. New York: American Society of Refrigerating Engineers, ~(1942) p. 144. sA. P. Colburn, A Method of Correlating Forced Convection Heat Transfer Data and u Comparison with Fluid Friction, Trans. A.I.C,h.E. 29, 174-210 (1933) ; also, McAdams, op.cit. P. 272. 4McAdams, op. cit., p. 260. to Transfe~ of E. R. G. Eckert, Intmd~uction Heat and Mass, op. cit. p. 142. W. J. King and L. C,. Kraus, Refr%geratingData Book, op. cit. p. 145. rMeAdams, op. cit., p. 268 RMcAdams, op. cit., p. 276. W. J. King, 1. c., p. 413. IaL. Slegel and G. A. Hawkins, Heat Transfer from a Vertical Piate to an Air Stream, Engineering Bulletin, Purdue University, Research Seria, No. 97 !Ma~- 1946) p. 4. ,M. Jakob. Hmt Tmnsfer. 01). cit,.. D. 558 =w. Jii,g&, Der W&rme~berg& an einer ebener Wand, Gesundheits-Ingenieur, Beiheft 19, Reihe 1 (November 1924) p. 42. laM. Jacob, Hent Tra~nsfw, Vol. 11. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1957j. l,IJ. G. Knudsen and D. L. Katz, Flhid D~~mwnics and Hmt Transfer. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. (1958). E. Pohlhausen, 2. Angeir. Math,. U. Mech., 1, 115 (1921). D. R. Chapman, and M. W. Rubesin, J. Aeronaut. Sci., lG, 547 (19491, liS. Levy and R. A. Sebsn, J. Appl. Mechanics, 20, 415 !1953). lhJ. Kaye, Survey of frietion eoefficients, recovery factors, and beat-transfer coefficients for suuersonic flow. T. R. 6418-5. Office Nava1 Reserch (1953). InW. H. McAdams. Heat T~mnsmission. 3rd ed New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. 1954) rnM. W. Rubesin and H. A. Johnson. Tram. A.S.M.E. 71, 383 (1949). =M. 0. Scadron and 1. Warshawsky,~ Nat. Adv., Comm. Aero. (now Nat. Aero. Space Admj T. N. 2599 (19523. P..Nichols, Eeonomic Thickness of Insulation in the Refrigerating Field, R&igera,ting Eng%neering 9, 152 (Nov 1922); 1. B. McMillan, Heat Transfer Through Insulation in the Moderateand High-Temperature Fields, Tra%s, A.S.M.E. 48, 1300 (1925). New =W. H. McAdams. Heat Tmnsmissior~. York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Ine. (19543 p. 282.
Parf 9, Free, Or Natural Convection, will appear in the October issue.

Petro/Chem Engineer

September 1965

rubber-coated glass cords are already being produced by PPG for use in nitrile rubber, SBR or neoprene. Cords for other rubber types are expected to be available shortly. m Petroleum sulfonates of high molecular weight provide outstanding characteristics as lube oil additives, according to Phillips Petroleum Co. The new sulfonates, which cover R range from C.10 app Cl00 involve a complex of to paraffinic, aromatic and naphthenic structures. Reportedly, the additive combines low-tempersture sludge dispersancy with viscosity index improvement and reduction of octane requirement increase. Phillips indicates good performance both, in passenger automobiles and in diesel-and heavy-duty gasolme erigine operations. The materia1 is produced by the sulfonation of a solve&extracted, high viseosity-index oil with an average molecular weight of about 800, and is used in the form of its calcium salt. The sulfonation step is carried out by reacting the feedstock with 10 wtycx SO3 in SOg. Afte@ the sulfur dioxide has been expelled from the reactor effluent, the liquid batch is neutralized by aqueous lime slurry. This is followed by evaporative dehydration, filtration of the naphtha-diluted sulfonate oil and finally by recovery of the solvent naphtha.

PR(lGRESS HPI--TECHNOLOGY IN

Petrochemicals
w Polyether-based urethanes are about 10 times more resistant to hydrolytic degradation th,an polyester-based types, according to a report by Du Pont. In polyesters, water attacks the ester group itself; in polyethers, water attacks the urea and urethane groups, which are mare high& resistant to degradation. Other factors regarding urethane degradation: Curing syystems used to produce polyether-based urethanes have a significant effe& on the rate of degradation (polyol cure resists degradation more t,han diamine cure by a factor of at least 2); rate of loss of physical properties of the urethanes is often accelerated when the samples are placed under a slight stress; polyester-based urethanes are more resistant to water than to dilute acids; polyester-based urethanes are much less resistant to wet oil than are polyether-based materials.
q Glass fiber cords that can be used to reinforce severa1 types of elastomers for application as belting, hose and tires have been jointly developed by PPGs Fiber Glass Div. and Essos Chemicals Research Div. The fibrous glass cords are manufactured with an elastomer coating composition applied around the individua1 glass filamenta. The coating becomes chemically bonded to the glass during vulcanization and protects the glass filaments against interfilament chafing failme; the coating also acts as the adhesive to bond the c,ord into the rubber product. These

m Optimum conditions for sulfating a series of alcohols and ethoxylates with sulfur trioxide have been studied by investigators at Continental Oil Co. Working with a small laboratory reactor they concluded that mixtures of alcohols from Cs to 60 gave best results Atatemperatures around 5 F above the freezing point of the reaction mixture; SOJair wt% 1.5-15; SOs/alcohol mol ratio, 1 to 1; mass velocity of SOdair mixture above 120 lb/sq ft-sec and reaction time 0.5 to L5 hr. Best conditions for sulfating ethylene oxide adducts of these alcohols were, SO-90 F; Od SOs/air wt% below 10 ; SOJadduct mal ratio 0.99/1.0; gas mass velocity greater than 120 lb/sq ft-sec and reaction time 0.5 to 1.0 hr. They also desc~ribe apparatus and conditions for neutralizing lhe sulfated mixture, emphasizing need for prompt processing to minimize hydrolgsis. m Chlorostyrene as il diluent for polyester resins leads to faster molding cycles, lowered cast and superior products than can be achieved with styrene, according t,o Dow Chemical Co. Parts were molded at cycles as low as lo-15 sec. Flexural strenpth, flexural modulus, impact strength and beat distortion temperatures were al1 significantly improved over aalues shown Plfmse twn to paye 66 September 1965 Petro/Chem Engincer

64

Free, or Natura1 Convection - Part 9

Applied Heat Transfer Design for the HPI

by Wayne C. Edmister and Joseph M. Marche110

9-I. Introduetion. When a fluid cornea in contact with a hotter surfaee, it begins to expand. The redueed density of the heated particles of fluid causes them to rise, and new particles come in eontact with the hot surface (Fig. 9-l). If the surface is colder than the fluid, fiuid particles will begin t,o fa11 due to the inereased, density. The heat exehange between a surfaee and a fluid set in motion only by temperature differences in called

free or natura~leon~vectiow.
Convect,ion currents usually have low velocities, the eorresponding Reynolds numbers are very low and the flow is laminar. Tests with a vertical heated -pIate and air have shown that the highest upward velocity exists at a distante of about 3/32 to li8 in. from the surface of the plate. The velocity increases along the height of the piate up to about 2 ft afte which no marked increase in veloeity is found.

Ob

The temperature of the air increases alnng the height of the plate also only to about 2 ft. The temperature is highest close to the surface and decreases away from it along the linea shows in Fig. 9-l. The t,hiekness z of the, layer of air participating in free eonvection generally a0f3 not exceed $5 in. The temperature differente hetween the hot piate and the air moving upward gradually decreases along the height of the plate and there is a corresponding decrease in the surface conductance. However. from a height of 1 to 1% ft the increase in oelocity offsets the deerease in temperature differente and the surface conduetance begins to increase slightly up to a height of about 2 ft at which point, the temperature and velocity of the air and the surface conductance reaeh essentially constant values. 9.2. Application of dimensiona1 analysis. A general expression far the free-conveetion surface eoefficient of a fluid in contact with a hot vertical surface may be obtained from dim?mional analysis. The analysis follows the method of Part 2. 1. Corre& selection of the variahles is difficult for an involved prohlem of thin type. From the analysis of Pwt 7 it may be expected that, with certain modifieations, the same variables will be involved as were for forced convection. For instanee, the height L of the surface should enter instead of the diam D. In the piace of the fluid velocity V, the factors that produce the eonvection currents: temperature differente, At, between t,he main body

At

Petro/Chem

Engineer

October 1965

59

pressure p, psia, a must be multiplied by (p/14.7)a. Ali fluid characteristics, including a, should be referred to the film temperature tP The esponent, rl in Eq. 9-9 and 9-10 has been determined from the. slope uf the curve obtained bg pIoMing on logarithmic paper values of NY,, = Ir.,L/k BS ordinate against N,, x NP, = L &jgAte/@ as abscissae. In the range of Nc, x NP< from 10: to lo, the curve is prsctically a strnight line with a slope d = 1/4. At values of NGr x Np, > 10. which are mainly encountered in free convection of liquids, the slope is steeper and d = 113 may be used with sufficient accuracy. For values of NU, z Npv < 1000, whieh will occur only for very fine wires and small At, d gradually decreases with a decrease of Nc, x Np7 and approaches zero far Ncy x NP, = 10 +. Constmt C. The analysis of a number of experimenta1 results show that the constant C depends on the product Nm x Ne. For the range of NG, z Np? between lOa and lo, C has a general value of 0.55 for a vertical piate and Eq. 9-10 becomes : h, = 0.55!7c/L) (aLAt)Qi Eq. 9-11

eonstant C are giva in Table 9-2. The accuracy of these values is within * 20%. Sizes. When the charaeteristic dimension L, either vertical or horizontal, in the Grashof nnmber is greater than 2 ft, its effeet upon the film conductance is negligible; the effect of increasing the diameter of u horizontal eylinder over 8 in. is also small. These conclusi,ons were reached from datu for free convection of gas.% but seem to be also generally correct far liquida. For Nc, x NP, < 10 this is also confirmed by the fact that if L > 0.7 ft the value of (L)*/L in Eq. 9-9 or 9-10 becomes elose to 1. According to Eq. 9-10, for Nu, x Np7 > 10R the film eonductance is independent of the dimension L. These faets lead to the conclusion that the value of L to be used in t,he expressions for the film coefficient of free convection should be limited to 2 ft. In the case of short vertieal platea, small and short cylinders, either horizontal or vertical, and spheres, free convection is influenced both by the horizontal and vertical dimensionsLh, and L,,. The effettive value of L can be determined from the expression : l/L = l/Lp,, + l/L, Eq. 9-13 becomes: + l/D = Z/D == l/R Eq. 9-14 Eq. g-13&.

For Ncr x Np7 > 10 which will oceur for gases if the height L of the surface is 2 ft or greater, and in a liquid, if the height L of the surface is more than 0.15 ft, the use of the general value C = 0.13 with the exponent il = 1/3 is recommended for a vertical plate. Eq. 9-10 becomes: h, = o.l?jk(aAt) Eq. 9-12

For a sphere, 1jL = l/D

While the correlation of the results for different shapes and positions of surfaees is not very dose, nevertheless the, differences are sufficiently pronounced to permit the recommendntion of different, values for the constant. Various values of the

The values of the physical properties of the fluid entering in the equations for film coefficients must be determined at a temperature that is the average between the mean temperature of the surface and the temperature of the main body of the fluid. The coefficient of thermal expansion p far gases may be taken as the reciproca1 of the absolute temperature of the gas, R. For 1-a~ow and liquids p must be determined from its definition: p = (v2 u,) lvl (tS t,j Eq. 9-15

where the specific volumes v1 and &. CU ft/lb, at the temperat~ures t1 and tr, respectively, must be obtained from tabulated data. Table 9-3 gives p for a few representative liquids. Consistent Units. All terms must be in consistent,. uc units and with pound, foat and haur as basie units. Throughout this book the valve of g is 4.17 x 10R ft/%+. EXAMPLE 9.1. A horizontal, bare, S-in. standard steel pipe carries saturated steam at 10 psig and is exposed to still air at 68 F. Determine the coeffieient of free eonveetion to the air. SOLUTION: From steam tables the temperature of saturated steam at 10 + 14.7 = 24.7 psia is 239.5 F. The temperature drop through the wall thiekness is very small, about 0.1 F and may be neglected. The film temperature t, is 68 + (239.5 68!/4 = 110.9 F. From Table 4-1, for 110 F:

30

50

70

90 110 130 150 170 190 temperature, F

Ligure 9.2. Modurus a and hsat conductivity k for water. =thyl ahhol and transformer oil at various temperatures.

a, = 1.15 x 10/cu ft-deg F L = D = 5.563/12 = 0.464 ft At = 239.5 - 68 = 171.5 F Please turn

to page 67

62

October 1965

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Hence : Therefore,
C =

aL3At = 1,150,OOO x 0.464 x 171.5 = 1.97 x ,107 < 10

0.35;

TABLE 9.2. Constants

for Equations

Eq. 9-11 must be applied. From Table from Table 4-l far air at 110.9 F, k = 0.0160 Btu/ft-hr-F and with these values, Eq. 9-11 giva:
g-2, 12, = 0.45 (0.016/0.464)

Shape POi,iO and Of Heat~Exchanger srfacBs

Vertical plate

9-9 to 9-12 ~~~x 14~~. aL3At OI -703 ta 109 Ove,10Q c 5

0.55 0.70 0.35 0.45 0.50 0.63

0.13 0.11
0.12 0.15 0.17 0.08

(19,700,OOOjA =

1.04

Horizontal plate, face up Hotizontal plate. face down

Horizontal cylinders, pipes, wires Long vertical cylinders Sphere, L taken as its radius

Btu/sq ft-hr-F.
EXAMPLE 9-2. A heating coi1 made of 2% in. ID coppa tubing carrying saturated steam of atmospherie pressure is immersed in water kept at 138 F. Determine the ontside surface coefficient of free convection. SOLUTION: The temperature of saturated steam at 14.7 psia is 212 F. Negleeting the temperature drop through the tube wall, which is less than 0.1 F, the mean film temperature at the tube surface will be:

TABLE

9.3. ,Cwfficients of Thermal of Some Liquids .~~ SuMance TempY 32. 86

140 176 60 32. 36

Expansion p x 10 --

Benzol. C,H,
Chlorolorm. CHCI, Dadecane, C,, H,,, Ethyl Alcohol, C,H,O Ethyl Ether. C,H,,O Methyl Alcohol, CH,0 Paraffin oil Pentane, C,H,, Petroleum Water. H,O

1.229
1.460

1.260
0.962

32. 86
32,. 86 32 60 32

1.101
1.617 1.153

tt = 138 + (212 From Table ,@a = 145 x copper tube 138 = 74 F

138)/4

= 156.5 F

0.764
1.530

3-9 for t = 156.5 F, by interpolation lOa l/cu ft F the OD of a 2% in. IS 2.625 in112 = 0.219 ft; t = 212 and:

a,YAt = 14.5 x lOe x 0.21g3 x 74 = 1.13 x 10 therefore, Eq. 9-12 must be used. From Table 9-2, Cl = 0.11 and from Table 3-9, for t = 156.5 F, k = 0.383 Btu/ft-hr-F: h, = 0.11(0.38~0.219/ (1.13 x 10)s sq ft-hr-F = 200 Btu,

45. 86 68 122 122.176 Irom Internalional critica,TabIe., EiL op.

0.992 0.207 0.294

heat transfer coefficient in free convection based on heat conduetivitg and the approximation of the temperature profile in the boundary layer by a parabola it follows that: ,?, = E 6 2x . . Eq. 9-18 form:

9-4. Boundary lager. In free convection, the velocity of the fluid rising due to thermal buoyancy is rather small, and as a result, the thickness 6 of the boundary layer is much greater than with forced conveetmn. Vertical piane swface. Sinee the derivation of t,he equation for detwmining 6 is rather involved2 only its fina1 form will be giva bere:

This can be presented in the dimensionless &=N

k N, =s

Eq. 9-19

b +

s=

3.93(~)-y952

+T)U

the boundary-layer Equation BY introducing (3.17) : NN ,,.> = 0.508hp$4 (0.952 + N.m) ~~Nc7,zs 1 Eq. 9-20 The thickness of the boundary layer gradually increases from the lower edge of the plate. This is also show by an examination of Eq. 9-17. Therefore, according to Eq. 9-18, the loca1 film coefficient h decreases with an inerease of the distante CZ. BY integration over the distante 5, the average heattransfer coeffieient h, is found as: h, = 413 h _, Eq. 9-21

(y) where:

* x

Eq. 9.16

At is the temperature differente between the surfaee and fluid z is the distane from the lower edge of the plate.

Since the Prandtl and Grashof numbers are used repeatedly in dealing with natura1 convection, it is convenient to present Eq. 9-16 in the form of: 6 = 3.93N,- (0.952 + NrdYNc,.z-, Eq. 9.17 where the Grashof the distanee, z,NGbz As mentioned in limit value of 2 ft
Film

If the t~emperature differences are small, p = l/T,, where T, is t,he absolute temperature, R, of the gas outside the boundary layer. For atmospherie air Np7 = 0.71, and Eq. 9-20 becomes: NN*, = 0.378 Nc,, ,h Eq. 3-22

number Ncr,z
= gpAtSpZ,$.

is built

up with

Section 9-3, if z > 2 ft, the should be uaed. coe.@zient. From the definition of the film

EXAMPLE 9-3. A verti& heating surface is maintained at a temperature of 212 F and is exposed to still a,ir at 72 F. Determine the thickness of the

Petro/Chem

Engineer

October 1965

67

boundarylayer at a distante of 3 ft from the lower ,edge of the piate. The mean film temperature of the air is 72 + (212 - 721114 = 107 F. The properties of air at this temperature are, from Table 4-l: e = 0.240 Btu/lb-F, ,L = 0.046 lb/ft-hr, k = 0.0159 and p = O.O?O%lb/cu ft. The coeffiBtu/hr-ft-F, cient of expansion p = lj(105 + 460) = 0.0017 R-; At = 212 - 72 = 140 F. Using these values with the limit value of .i: = 2 ft, as mentioned above, giva:
SOLUTION:

with k = 0.0159 Btujhr-ft-F, h= and tiith IL, A 4

from Eq. 9-20: ft-F

54.2 x 0.0159 ~~ = 0.742 Btuihr-sq 1.16 Eq. 9-21: ,x 0.742 = 0.990 Btu/hr-sq

ft-F

Np, = Nc,=

0.240 x 0.046 0.0159

= o,694

This is in satisfactory agreement with h,, = l.OG Btu/hr-sq ft-F obtained from Eq. 9-11 in Example 9-l. (b) The thickness of the boundary layer is found, from Eq. 9-18 as: S= 2 x 0.0159 = 0.0429 ft. or 0.514 in. 0.742 boundary-layer thickness is, by

4.17 x 10s x 0.0017 x 140 x 2 x 0.0703 0.046 = 1.86 x 108

Now, by Eq. (9.17) : S = 3.93 x 0.6946(0.952 (1.86 x lO#) -% x 2 = 0.052 ft = 0.625 in.
TABLE 9-4. Explanatory Data for Figure 9.3

The average Eq. 9-18, S=

+ 0.694)

2 x 0.0150 = 0.0321 ft, or 0.385 in. 0.990

D-5. @nplified 3qil~diOn8 far air. Most authors agree on the general type of the equations but differ on the numerical constants. The followin simplified expressions for the su-face coefficien @ are recommended.J

Vertical. &ne airatOto250F:

surfaces, up to 2ft high, H < 2, . Eq. 9-23

h, = 0.28 (Ab/H) Vertical cylinder. From a theoretieal analysis which agrees well with experimental results Hermann has shown that for boundary-layer thicknesses that are small compared with the tube diameter, the average film beat-transfer coefficient has the sane value &s the average film beat transfer coefficient on a vertical ~~11 when, the height is 2.5 time the diameter. The Nusselt number, NnuiB. can be calculated from Eq. 9-20 using z = 2.5 D in the Grashof number. Inthis manner the point value of h may be obtained from Eq. 9-19 and the average value of the coefficient, h,, may be obtained from Eq. 9-21. Finally, the boundary layer thicknesses may he found by Eq. 9-18 using h for h, and for &.
Horizontal

surfaces more than 2 ft high: . Eq. 9-24

h, = 0.23 AP

Horizontel swfaces, heated with face up or cooled with face down, an approximate value may be obtained as:
IL., = 0.30 Atu , Eq. 9.25 and for horizontal surfaees, heated with face down or cooled with face up: h, = 0.18 AtA .~ Eq. 9-26

Vertied cylindur, more than 1 ft high, for a mean temperature hetween the air and surface I,d t,,, = 120 F:

h, = 0.27 (At/D,)h

Eq. 9-27

9-4. From the boundary-layer approaeh, determine (a:) the film coefficient and (b) the boundary-lager thickness of free convection using the data of Example 9-l.
EXAMPLE SOLUTION:

for t, = OF, the numerica1 coefficient will be about 0.28 and tor t, = 250 F, it will decrease to 0.25.
Horizontd cylindem.

sion for long cylinders h, = C(At,UIo,)%G

The recommended is:

expresEq. 9-28

be found by The Prandtl The Grashof is computed

The Nusselt number, NN,>,J> must Eq. X-20 using z = 2.5D = 1.16 ft. numher frum Table 4-l is lvp, = 0.70. number with y = 0.46/0.703 = 0.654, as:
(a)

Narld = 1.163 x 4.17 x 108 x 0.0017 x 171.5 x 0.654- = 4.43 x 1ORand, by Eq. 9.20: <4f4?;i;+ - 0.508 x 0.70(0.952 = 54.2 + 0.70)

Far a man temperature t, = OF, C= 0.25; for tm = 120 F, C = 0.24; and for t,, = 250 F, c = 0.22.8 Eq. 9-28 may also be used for short eylinders, both horizontal and vertical; the influente of the ends may be taken into nccount by using Eq. 9.13 to fnd the effettive dimension D,. Pressare Influmce. Al1 above equations are intended for air at atmospheric pressure. For any

68

October 1965

Petro/Chem

Engineer

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s,reors.

BETZPETROMEEN CONTROLS CORROSION IN GASCONCENTRATION UNIT

The Thermal Cracking Unit in a Midwest refnery suffered costly operational difficulties due to failure of the Admiralty tube bundles serving the Debutanizer and Depropanizer. A study of the problem by Betz Fngineers pinpointed the dificulty as duincification of the 0 Admrralty metal initiated by nitrogenous gasa hberated in the cracking process and aggravated by the presente of organic sulfides. The history of condenser tube replacements indicated that corrosion was ~8~ locahred m the upper tube bundle of the condensa banks, in the area of the water dew point and initial point of hydrocarbon condensation. A specially formulated BETZ PETROMEEN,designed to function in high pH environments and in the presente of light hydrocarbons, was chosen for application. During start-up, a pretreatment dosage of PETROMEENwas fed to insure thorough flm formation, followed by a continuous treatment leve-l of 10 ppm. Prior to the use of PETROMEEN,the Debutanirer and Depropanizer bundle life had been restricted to 7 months. With the application of BETZ PETROMEEN.this unit completed 22 months of operation without downtime due to tube failures. The refnery Inspection Department reported no corrosive attack in those areas treated with PETKOMEEN. The efktiveness of BETZ PE.I.ROMEENS corrosion inhibitors and as anti-foulants augmented by a thorough approach of monitoring performance was responsible for reducing costs involved in equipment replacement and loss of production. A Betz Program tailored to your plants corrosion problems is available by contacting the Beta Engilieer in your area or writing us directly.

The inhibitors are designed to provide an impervious film, which adheres to the meta1 surfaces. The molecular film, which serva BSa barrier between the corrosive media and the meta1 is characterized by high ~bennal sfnbility
o>,d is eflclive over a wide ra,w o/pH. Of equal significante, is the absence of

adverse effects on proccss catnlysts and product purity. Nor is foaming or polymerization encountered wilh the use of these inhibitors. PETROMEENS exhibit excellent detergency properties enabling processes to operate with improved hent transfer and designed slow rates. The anti-foulant formulations are fortilied with special dispersants and solvents to assure maxi1mumthroughput of process equipment. A complete corrosion contro1 program is availablc with the use of BETZ PETROMEEN, which includa such monitoring fxilities as retractable corrosion test coupon probes, corrosion meters, water and deposit nnalyses, etc. Complete details on BETZ PETIKMEEN corrosion inhihitors UIK/service are nvailablc.

other pressare i>, psia, the surfaee coeffieient calculated by one of the above equations must be multiplied by the ratio i71/14.l!~j. R-F. Inflzwncti of ot/zw surfaces. Parallel surfaces kept at the sane temperature begin to affect the surface coefficient of free conveetion only wben the separating distante is decreased to :!/4 in. If this distanee is reduced further, the convection rapidly deereases, due to friction of the air and reduction in convection eurrents, unt,il at a distanee of !:S in. the sui-face coefficient becomes almo& zero. Parallel surfaces at different, temperatures with air between them will transfer heat across the air space from the hottei to the colder surface. The beat transfer will be a combination of conduction, eonvection and radiation. With a decrease of the distante 6 between the surfaces, the heat tiansfer by conduction increases faster than the beat transfer by convection decreases and 8s a result, the combined beat transfer increases. For an air space thickness s from 0.02 to 0.25 ft, the beat transfer coefficient by eonduction and convection, leaving out radiation, may be approximated by the expression: U, = 0:009/S + 0.09 (t,, -i- 90j.. Eq. 9-29 where t, is t.he average between the temperatures tu and ti of the~ two surfaces. Eq. 9-29 may be used far t, from 20 F to 150 F. The heat transfer per sq ft of the surface area is obtained by multiplying the value of U, by the differente tt ~ tg.
9-7. Free conwction in Ziqtiida. For surfaces immersed in liquids, the coefficients for free convection areconsiderably higher than in the case of gases. There are comparatively few experimental data and no empirica1 equations except for bodies of average size immersed in stili water above 40 F Tor which h, may be calculated by the equation:O h, = 0.165 (tw i- 30)&,S Eq. 9-30 where t,, is the temperature of the main body of water, deg F. For oils the coefficient may be estimated by the equation:
h., = 24

Figure 9-3. Free convection

data for various

liqoids

Estimates of the surface eoefficient for other liquida have to be made by using either Eq. 9-11 or Eq. 9-12. First the physical properties of the liquid must be obtained. Then, depending upon the value of NGr x I\?~, the suitable equation is selected and used in connection with Table 9-Z. Since the numerica1 value of the modulus a is about one thousand time larger for liquids than for air, the coefficient is not appreeiably affected by the significant dimenaion L when L > 0.15 ft.
References

At0.=,/#4

Eq. 9-31

where pf is the dynamic viscosity mean or film temperature.

of the oil al the

Fig. 9-3 giva values of the eoefficient as found by different experimenters for a few liquida as indieated in Tabe 9-4, and may be used as a basis for estimating l&,. These and other data indicate that the coefficient of free convection for fine wires is considerably higher than for other bodies. Table 9-5 contains the viscosities of the light oils corresponding to, the data giva in Fig. 9-3. The oil M had viseosities simila to oil 21-SW.
TABLE 9-5. Dynamic Viscosities Figure 9-3, Ib/ft.hr of Oils in 122 13.3 22.5 158 8.5 15.2 194

W. .J. King, Xech~alziCnl Engineering, Vol. 54a op. cit. p. 350. Eckert, In.tro&ccti,m tr> the Tmnsfer of Heat and Mass, op. cit. 160-61. Ibid, pp. 159-162. R. Hermann. Turbuleneent~tehunp beim Warm Ubergang dura freie Konvektion air senkrechter Piatte und waazererchten Zylinder, Zeit, Angew. Math. U.Meeh. Vol. 13. 433 (1933). JK. dodlhauer, Das Temperature-und Geschwindig-keitsfeld um eim geheiztes Rohr bei freier Konvection, .%slz. Gebiat Zngenieurwesen., Vol. 4, 157 (1933j.. OKing, 1, op. cit., p, 351. T3. Oetrach, Nat. Adv. Comm. Aero. (now Nat. Aero. Space Adm.! T. N. 2635 (1952). 8Brown and Marco, Introduction to Heat Tramfw, op. cit. pp. 138-39. Derived from data giva by F. B. Rowley and A. B. Algrem, Thermal Resistance of Air Space, Trans. A.S.M.E., Vol. 95, 165 (1929). OW. J. King~, op. cit,. p, 353.
lart 10, Radiation Principles, will appear in the November issue.

Dwees F .~
10-C Transformer oil 21.SW Transformer oil

50 60 160

86 24 53

10.2

5.3

70

October 1965

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Radiation Principles - Part 10

Applied Heat Transfer Design for the HPI

by Wayne C. Edmister and Joseph M. ~Marchello
IO-I. Beuic ooncepts md dejinitions. Radiation may be defined aa loss of heat energy contained in a body to the surroundings by means of eleetromagnetic waves. These waves transmit heat from one body to another without ehanging the temperature of the fluid separating the two bodies. The phenomenon of heat transfer by radiation consists of three different components: first, thermal energy of the hot source is converted into e an electromagnetic wave motion; swond, the WBVPS trave1 through the intervening space even if it is a vacumn; and third, the wave motion is reconverted into thermal energy by absorption at the colder body. The radiant-heat waves have the same characteristics as other rays such as x-rays and light waves and differ from other rays only in length, their lengths varying from 0.3~ to 10~, and more. Thus the transfer of radiant heat energy is governed by the same laws as light: it travels in straight lines, obeyn the laws of reflection, suffers refraction, may be polariaed, and is weakened with t,he inverse square of the radia1 distante from the source of radiation. The velocity of radiant-energy maves is the same as that of light, about 186,000 miler, per seeond. If radiation impinges upon a surface, part of the heat energy penetrates into the interior of the body and the rest is reflected from the surface. In regu1,a.r reflection the angle between the reflected * ray and the norma1 to a smooth surface equals, the angle between the impinging ray and the normal. If the surfaee is rough, the incident ruy, after refleetion, is dispersed in al1 directions. Reflection from rough surfaces is termed diffuse reflection. Of the radiant energy that penet,rates into the body, part is absorbed by the body and the rest leaves the body through another surfaee. The ratio of the reflected radiation Q~to the t,otal incident radiation q is called wfkctivity, 1 = q>/4; the ratio of the absorbed,radiation qn to the ineident radiation is called a.bsorptivitv, a = Wu; and the ratio of the transmitted radiation qr to the incident radiation is called the transnLissi%it!/, t = q,Jq. From the Law of Conservation of Energy:
qr + qo + qr = q .

T + a 4. t = 1

Eq. 10.2

Solid and liquid bodies absorb practically the entire heat radiation that penetrates through the surfaee in a very thin outer layer. In electric conductors the thickness of the layer absorbing radiation is the order of lp, whereas in nonconductors, with very few exceptions the layer absorbing the entire radiation is approximately 0.05 in. thick. If the thickness of an opaque materia1 is greater than this, t = 0 and: T i- (I = 1 Eq. 10-3

Eq. 10-I by 4 gives:

Dividing

both sides of Eq. (10-l)

10-Z. Bhck body. A body whose surface does not reflect any radiation, 1 = 0 and in accordante with Eq. 10-3 ha.8 a = 1, is called a black body. The basis for this nane lies in the fact that a body which absorbs al1 light rays appears black to the eye. However, a surface can absorb praetically al1 thermal radiation withoot absorbing light rays and therefore not appear blaek to the eye. A typical example is a white-washed wall. No totally blaek body exists in nature, but the concept of a black body is useful because it helps to establish laws of radiation from actual surfaces and bodies. A practically perfect black body for experiments in radiation can be made by taking u hollow body b provided with a small hole in its side, Fig. 10-l. The walls of the body must be kept at a uniform temperature. Any ray cl of radiant energy which enters the hollow space will be repeatedly reflected. If the inner surface of the body has a great absorptivity, then at every reflection a great part of the radiation is absorbed, so that after severa1 reflections almost al1 radiation is absorbed. Thus the opening of the hollow space acts like a perfeet black body. Theoretically complete absorption will oecur only when the area of the hole is infinitely small compared with the internal area of the hollow space. Actually for experimental work a sufficiently accurate approxiFigure 10.1. Hollow body mation is obtained with for measuring radiation.

Petro/Chem

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November 1965

43

a Z-in. cylindrical tube, S-in. long with a %-in. hole in one of the closed ends. When such a hollow cylinder is heated., the inside walls will radiate energy and some of this radiation will pass out through
Figure 10-2. Determination of radiation in different directions. the
opening.

L I ! I

\ 2700

He&

energy flowing from this opening

i,s ealled black-body mdiation.. Intensitu of rarliabion. The beat radiated from & unit surface in a certain direction is called the intensity of mdiation, i. The value of i can be obtained from the beat flow dq radiated from a unit area of the radiating body and passing through an element ds of the surface of a hemisphere of radius i = 1 sround the radiating suiface element, Fig. 10-Z. The area ds of such a ring-shaped element numerically is equa1 to the solid angle do and therefore: i ~= dq/do Eq. 10-4
4 6 8 Wave lengfhh, micmns, p Figure 10-3. Mooochromatic intensity of radiation body at various temperatures. 2 IO black

For a blaek body, the radiation intensity .iD in any direetion at an angle p from the norma1 is equa1 to the norma1 intensity .&., SO that the rate of beat emission is proportional t,o the projected area, where B is the angle between the directions of ih and iu,,. This relationship is known BS Lavbfds cosine lnw: dq = ih,, cos /3 do

Eq. 10.5

tota1 emissive power E to the emissive power E,, of a blaek body at the same temperature: e = EIE, Eq. 10-Y

Emissive power. A black body radiata beat energy in al1 directions away from the body. The radiant heat flow Erom a unit surface ara per unit time is called emissive power and designated by E. The tota1 beat radiated from a unit area of a black body, its emissive poter Eo, may be found by integrating the elementary beat dq, Eq. (lo-5), and notieing that the solid angle do is equa1 to 2~ sin pdp, Fig. 10.2. This giues: 7r/2 Eb = 1~ 0 297i, ,,,, (cosp j (sinp) dp = 7r ima,,, Eq. 10-G

Monochromatic emissi~uitg, ek, is the ratio of the monochromatic emissive power of a body to that of a black body at the same temperature and for the same wave length. 0.a = E,JEl>,, 10-S. Fundamen.tal hm. Plancks law

Eq. 10-9 radiati . far the intensity

monochromatic norma1 thermal of a black body is: iAi, where: = Cl/[A~(&LkT~) 1

. Eq. lo-10 e

Thus the tota1 beat iadiated from a unit surface area of a black body, its emissive power El,, is T time.! its norma1 radiation intensity. Monoehrowmtic radiation. The radiant beat emitted by a body always comprises rnys of different WBY length. The amount of beat, dq, radiated within an infinitesima1 wave-length range dh is als nn infinitesima1 quanti,ty. However, t,he rati:
ih = dq/dx

C, = 1.17 x 10R~4--- Btu/hr-sq ft, CZ = 25,740 p - R, X = wave length, microns, and T = absolute temperature, El.

Eq. 10.7

Tota,1 emissiuity,

e, of a body is the rat,io of its

Intensities, ih,,,, eomputed by Eq. 10.10 for severa1 different temperatures and for~wave lengths from 1~to 10,~ are plotted against X in Fig. 10-3 which shows that st any temperature beat is rsdiated in a wide range of wave lengths. The area under an intensity curve represents the normal emissive power at this temperature or tota1 heat radiated normally by u unit area, of the black body far the corresponding wave-length range. Wiens law. Fig. 10-3 indicate that nt any temperature the radiation first increases with an increase of the wave length, reaching a maximum at

44

November 1965

Petro/Chem

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a certain wave length, and then begins to decrease assymptotically approaching zero for vwy large wave lengths. As the temperature decreases, the maximum value of ~the radiation moves toward larga wave lengths. The wave length of hm,, cresponding to the maximum intensity may be found from Wiens displacement law : x mZ = 5,19O/T Eq. lo-11

Thus at the temperature of the sun, about 10,700 R, hm, = 0.485~~ whieh is the wave length of blue light. At T = 2,700 R, A,*,, = 1.92p and only a small part Of the energy is visible since the human eye range is from about 0.4 to 0.7~. Kirchh,ofs law, based on theoretical and expei% menta1 information states that for radiation at the same temperature and the same >vave Irngth, the ratio of the emissive power E to the absorptivity a is the same for al1 bodies including the blaek body. This principle applies to both the tota1 and monochromatic radiation. Since the absorptivity of a black body is unity :

E/a

= Exjah = Eb

Eq. lo-12

Eq. lo-13 This is the mathematical expression law. In connection with Eq. 10-S: of KirchhofYs

E = eEa
From Eq. Lot-13 and 10-14: .

Eq. lo-14

a = e

Eq. lo-15

Temperature, OR Key to Figure 10-4 1 Slate composition roofing 9 Cork 2 Linoleum, red-brown 10 White dutch title 3 Asbestos slate 11 White chamotte 4 Soft rubber, gray 12 MgO, evaporated 5 Concrete 13 Anodized ~luminum 6 Porcelain 14 Aluminum paint 7 Vitreous enamel, white 15 Polished aluminum 8 Red brick 16 Graphite The arem bounded by 17, 18 and 19 represent limits of data on gray paving brick, abestos paper, wood, various cloths, plaster of Paris, lithopone and papa.
Figure 10-4. Variation of absorptivity various materials with temperature. and reflectivity of

whieh States that emissivities and absorptivities of a body at the same temperature are equal. As shown later, for many materials this relation is only approximate, Buti often very useful. Eq. lo-14 indicate that at the same temperature and wave lengths a good absorber is also a good radiator. However, a giva surface may have a low absorptivity at high temperatures, and for solar radiation. but a high absorptivity and emissivity at low I~mperatures. Gray body. If a body emits radiant energy over a continuous band of wave lengths with a distrihution curve similar to those of Fig. 10-3 and its monochromatic emissivity at any wave length is a eonstant fraction of the corresponding blaek-body value, it is called a gray body. This is approximately true for most non-metallic surfaces in the range of ordinary temperature.% The tota1 emissivity oi absorptivity of a gray body is equa1 to its monochromatic emissivity at the same wave length. Good approximations of a gray surface are siate, tarboard, and dark linoleum. In the range from 0.5~ to 9p. These materials absorb from 85 to 92% of the incident radiation. Stejan-Boltzmmm law stata that the tota1 radiation from a blaek body is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature:

where <r = 0.1713 x 1O-8 Btu/sq ft-hrR aecording to the latest determination based on very accurate experimental data. From Eq. 10-6 the value of Eb is represented by the area under the intensity curve, Fig. 10.3, owr the interval X = 0 to h = m. Combining Eq. lo-14 with Eq. lo-16 giva:

E = e r T4

Eq. lo-17

This expression may be used to caleula$e the tota1 emissive poter of a body if its temperature 7 and emissivity e at this temperature are known. For actual application a more convenient form of Eq. lo-17 is:

E = e(0.1713)

(T/100)4

Eq. lo-18

Eb = UT*

Eq. lo-16

10-h. Radiation properties of materials. Al1 solid and liquid surfaces reflect a certain part of the incident radiation energy and therefore radiate less beat than a blaek body. As mentioned in Section 10-1, there is a pronounced differente in the behavior of electric conductors and noneonductors. Conductors reflect a major part of the incident radiation and radiate relatively little beat. Non-

Petro/Chem

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51

conductors absorb a major part of the incident radiation and henee radiate a relatively large amount of beat. For both groups the absorpt,ivit,y and emissivity change with the temperature, as shown in Fig. 10-4, but again there is a marked differente between electric eonductors and nonconductors. For conductors, as represented by aluminum and carbon, the absorptivity increases with temperature, for noneonduetors it decreases. Industrial radiators hsve temperatures between 520 and 2500OR. For these t&nperatures the absorptivity of nonconductors is much higher than that of metals. For surfaees which have a monochromatic absorptivity ah, independent of the surface temperature, the integrated tota1 absorptivity a will be exaetly equa.1to the tota1 emissivity e of the surface when it is heated to t,he temperature of the black

TABLE

10-l.

Norma1 Emissivities

of Metal

Surfa&

Metal and Condition of Surface Aluminum, highly polished plate polished plate rough plate oxidized at 1110F Bismuth, bright Brass, highly polished polished plate rolled plate, natural du,, plate oxidized at 111OF Chromium. clan, smooth Chrom nickel (20 Cr. 80 Ni) Copper, carsfuily wlished commercial polish piate. heated at 1110F thick oxide costine cuuro; axide -

Temperature t of radiation, F

Emissivity e at t

100~302~ 1000

125 1900 390-1110

77 1470~2010 1970 2330 176 70. 1000

0.08 0.13 0.26 0.640. 0.760 0.040 0.080 0.570. 0.570 0.780 0.160 0.540 0.660 01130

0.018

0.3

0.2 Norma1

0.4 0.6 emissivity, en to normal

0.8 emissivity far

Figure 10.5, Ratio of average different zurfaces.

radiator. However, far. most surfaces the absorptivity depends upon its temperature. Eq. lo-15 does not apply and for these surfaces the values of the tota1 absorptivitl a as shown in Fig. 10-4, are only a first approximation of the value of the emissivity e. Far nonconductor surfaces the influente of temperature usually is small and can be neglected if the temperature is not very high. The absorptivity of a meta1 surface at temperature TI for blaek-body radiation at a temperat,ure T3 is equal to the emissivity of the same surface at the temperature Ta = \/TlTz. Industrial materials do not follow Lamberts cosine law exactly, Eq. 10-5. As a result, the average or hemispherical emissivity e for radiation in al1 direetions differs somewhat from the emis.Cvity c?,~ the direction norma1 to the surface. Fig. 10-5 in shows theoretical values2 which agree very elosely with observed values. Tables 10-l and 10-Z give values of norma1 emissivities at various temperatures of surfaces made of metals and other materials, encountered

Gold, highly polished 300. 752 1160 0.018 0.028 0.035 Inconel 1000~ 1500 0.700 Iran. highly polished. pure Fe 300 1800 0.050 0.370 cast iron polished 70 .39*,. 1000 0.20 0.21 0.25 imn. freshly emeried 68 0.240 cast iron, turned on a lathe 72.1620 1810 0.43~0.60 0.70 cast iron, oxidized at IllOF 390~1110 0.640 0.78 rough ingot 1700 2040 0.870 0.950 iron oxide, red 930 2190 0.850 0.890 molte cast 2370 2550 0.200 0.290 Lead. aure. unoxidized 260. 440 0.052. 0.075 0.260 gray oxidized 100 i390 0.280 0.630 oxidized at 390 F Manganin, rolled, bright 245 0.048 hfercury, pure c,ean 32. 212 0.090~0.120 Molybdenum filament 1390 4700 0.096 0.292 0.070 0.100 Marre, meta,, smooth, clan 70 1000 oxidized at 1110 F 390~1110 0.410 0.460 Nickel, pure. polished 70. 700 0.045 0.087 electroplated. nat polished 68 0.110 oxidized at 1110 F 390.1110 0.370 0.480 nickel oxide 400 1200 2290 0.41 0.59.0.86 NCT-3 alloy (25 Cr, 20 Ni, 55 Fe), oxidized 420. 980 0.020 0.730 NCT.6 allay (12 Cr, 60 Ni, 28 Fe), oxidized 520~1095 0.890 0.820 Nickelin (18.32 N[, 55-68 Cr, 20 Zn). may oxldized 70 0.260 Platinum. polished 440 1160.2960 0.054 0.104 0.17 filament SO.2240 0.036.0.192 Silumin. ~cast. polished 212 0.186 Silver, pure, polished 0.020. 0.032 polished 0.022 0.031 0.520. 0.600 Steel. ground sheet hot-rolled ~sheet 0.650 0.820 plate rusted 0.685 polisbed stee, casting 0.520 0.560 0.800 0.900 smooth, strongly oxidired stainless, Ka-25 (18 Cr, 8 Ni) 0.440. 0.360 same, affer 24 hrs at 98OF 0.020 0.730 molten mild stee, 0.280- 0.280 Tantalum. filament 0.194 0.330 Tin, bright trimmed iron sheet 76 0.040 0.064 Titanium, wlishned. clean 32 572 1472 0.07 0.13 0.21 polished. slightly oxidized 32.572.1472 0.17.0.34 0.55 Tungsten. filament aged 80.6000 0.032 0.350 Zinc, commercial, polished 440. 620 0.045 0.053 oxidized at 750 F 750 0.110 galvanized sheet iron, bright 82 0.230 sane, gray oxidized 75 0.280

52

November 1965

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Engineer

colder body than it will receive and absorb the lattei-, its temperature will decrease and of the coldei body will increase. However, afta their tempwatures become equalized, process of interchange continues. Only each radiata as much energy as it receives.
positions of

from that even the body

Figure

10.6.

Relative

radiant

surfaces.

most often in industrial radiation problems. For metals, the emissivities increase with an increase of temperature, but for nonconductors, including meta1 oxides, this rule is not always true. The average emissivity e may be found by multiplying the values of e, giva in Tables 10-l and 10-Z either by the ordina& of Fig. 10-5 oi, with sufficient aceurucy, far m&als, by 1.2. For other substances and oxidized meta1 surfaces, the values in Tables 10-l and 10-Z must be multiplied by 0.95, if the surface is smooth, or by 0.98 if the surface is rough.3 10-S. Radiation between swfaces. The French scientist Prevost proposed the theory of exchanges which stata that there is a continuous interchange of heat energy among bodies by the processa of radmtlon and absorption. Al1 bodies at any tem perature above absolute zero are radiating beat to their surroundings and at the same time are absorbing heat from than. If two bodies are in an enclosure, isolated from the rest, the hotter body, will emit by radiation more energy to the
TABLE 10.2. Noimal Emissivities of Various Surfaces
e

Surfaces sepwated by ~mnabsorbing media. Suppose that the areas Al and Az of two surfaces are small compared to the distane T between their centers, Fig. 10-6. If n1 and 12% the normals to are the surfaces, then the solid angle subtended at A1 by AS is equa1 A2 cos Oa/+, and applying Lambert% cosine law, Eq. 10-5, the heat flow for the black-body radiation from AI to Az may be written as:
ql2 = ial Al(cos &j&(eos &).r Eq. lo-19 According to the theory of exchanges t,he radiation from A, to A, will be qzl = ibs A,(cos &)Al(cos 01)/r2 Eq. lo-20

Temperature t Materia and Condition of Surface Of Radiation, oF Asbestos ~a.ner Brick, red. rough silica, unglazed retactory white and light buff Carbon. candfe soot Carborundum Enamel, wbite baked Glass. smooth .inseed oil, me-two wats on Al foil ,@gEiiieY;o iwlished surface 0.001 in. thick 0.002 in. thick 0.005 in. thick 0.010 in. and thicker Paint, 10% aluminum, 22% lacquer body 26% afuminm. 37% lacquer body lacquer. black or white famp-bfack paint. fiat whitc Id Plaster, lime. rough Porcefain, glazed Refractory materiafs, ooor radiaton good radiaton Rubber, hard, glouy @te gray, rough <,.+n -.. Surface soif Water. smooth surface

Emizfty

IOO- 700

ce, rmoath

0.800 0.840 ~1800 %OO .0.98 200 1000~2000 0.92~0.97 200~1000~ 2000 0.91 0.65.0.33 0.952 zoo- 520 0.700 2100 0.900 ;i 0.940 0.630 32 68 70I 100 o.560930570 0.900 0.270 0.460 0.720 0.820 212 212 IOO- 200 125 100 lO!l 50. 190 72 110 1830 110.1830 74 1002500 100 32. 212 0.520 0.300 0.800 0.900 0.960 0.800 0.910 0.800 0.910 0.924 0.650~0.750 0.800 0.900 0.945 0.860 0.670. 0.184 0.380 0.950.0.963

0.930 0.945 0.930

Figure directly

Ratio, side or diameter Dirtance between plqnes, D/r 10.7. Values of Factor F, for parallel opposed.

pfanes

Substituting for ibl and ib2 the value from Eq. 10-6 and lo-16 giva for the net exchange of radiation between the two surfaces: 4 = 412- 421 = dr; - 2,;
(cosf?~) (cos&)A~A~/ar~

Eq. 10.21 is designated by F: Eq. lo-22

If the term CO& c~sb~A~/rn~

F = (CO&,) (cos&jA2/d

the expression for the net beat exchange becomes:

q = u(!P

TiFA,

Eq. lo-23

or, similarly

to Eq. 10-18:
(To,lOO)]FA1

g = 0.174 [(ZllOO)i

Eq. IO-24

wt.

Variable swjace temperutures. 1-E the temperature of a surface changes from one end tu the other, then the mean temperature must be used in Eq. lo-24 for the corresponding surface. The term F, Eq. 10.22 10.6. Geometricnl factw. ,is alled the geometrieal factor because it depends upon the geometry of the two surfa&s. their shapes, orientation, and relative sizes. F is always small& than 1 and the symbol FI2 is used to designate the

Petro/Chem

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53

Radiation between adjacent perpendiculor planes.

rectongles

in

r=o.i /-

1 l I Il I , 4 6810 2 0.2 0.4 0.8 Dimension ratio Z =I/X Figure 10-g. Values of Factor F. for retangles norma1 to each other. Radiation between adiacent rectangles in perpendicular planes. I

0
Figure 10.9. Radiation from a plane to of tubes parallel to the plane. Referenze: Hottel, Tram. ASME 53, 265

one or tworow
(1031).

fraction of the radiation leaving the surface AI in al1 directions which is intereepted by the sui-face Az. Evaluation of the value of F is necessary to use Eq. 10-24. Values of F have heen calculated fo different surface arrangements with the simplifying assumption that emisswity e does not depend upon the angle 8, Fig. 10-7. These results are exact for black surfaces and very nearly SO for most nonmetallic and oxidized, tarnished, or rough meta1 surfaees. Legend Direct radiation between planes. Squares. Disks. Radiation between planes eompleted by noneonducting but reradiating wells. ,%mwrieal values of F. For two infinite parallel planes 01 infinitely long cylinders one inside of the other, F = 1. This is also true if one body is completely surrounded by another body, regardless of their shapes and relative sizes. The values of F for opposed parallel planes may be found from Fig. 10.7, curve 1; for squares from curve 2; for discs from curve 3. The faetor F for a rectangle with sides a x b may be found from: 1 2 3 4 -

Fig. 10-9. Values in the, 1iterature.l

of F for other case? may be found An important equation t,he factor F is : that

Additimal

relations.

is of use in evaluating

FEzA = FzIA~.

Eq. lo-26

If Eq. lo-26 did not apply there would be a net heat flow between Al and As when they are both at the same temperature. If Al and Ar are at different temperatures T,l and TS, combining Eq. lo-28 and lo-26 giva:

v(T'~ 1

T4)F12A1 = r(T* ~ T")FuA2 2 1 2

Eq. lo-27

This relationship indicate that interchange of radiation may be determined by evaluating the one * way radiation from either surface to the other, whichever is more convenient. Another useful equation is:

FI1 + Fp2 + F,a

= 1
and therefore

Eq. lo-28 cannot Eq. lo-29

and if AI is flat or convex sei? any part of itself :

FI1 = 0

F = \/F&'a

Eq. 10-29

where F, is found from curve 2 for a square with sides a and Fb, for a square with sides b. For two adjacent rectangles in pe*pendicular planes, the factor F may be found from Fig. 10-S. For B. piane parallel to u syst,em of iows of parallel tuba, F may be found from anes 1 and 3 of

EXAMPLE 10-l. Determine the net radiant heat interchange between two black parallel piane surfaces 4.ft wide, 1%ft long, 4-ft apart, kept at temperatures of 1000F and 400F, respectively. SOLUTION: Eq. lo-24 must be applied: 1000 + 460 = 1460 R; T = 400 + 460 = Al = 4 x 12 = 48 sq ft. The factor F is from Fig. 10-7, curve 2: for a square 4 x 4 ratio D/r = 4/4 = 1, and F, = 0.20; for a

TI

860R; found ft, the square

54

November 1965

Petro/Chem

Engineer

PREHEAT EXCHANGERS SET ONSTREAM RECORD . . . with FI FTO Anti-Foulant L

Since 1958, fouling problems in a midwestern refinery had plagued its hottest crude unit preheat exchangers. A desalta xas delivering uude with a salt content of 1 to 3 pounds per thousand bar&. Residue in thesc exchangers was 60% organic and 40% inorganic. Severa1 anti-foulants were tested, but onstream time was not improved. Then .~FWL* Anti-Foulant was injected at the rate of 12 ppm into a clean system. In comparison with the besl previous run, the heut transfer elficiency conrinued at a considerably higher leve1 while treating costs were much loaer, BS shown in the graph. Savings ira EXC~SS fud ps COSLT nmomted to $5/M ulone bbls.-or three times the COSI of the AFTOL! CUntinued use of A~TOL maintained this efficiency, and surpassrd al1 rxisting refinery records far throughput and onstream time. Results like these are possible in your refmery, tao with AFTOL. TO prove it, calt the Man in the Red Car, or write .

Petro/Chem

Engineer

November 1965

io,F,cw ,nformotion Pradrlr lervis 0 Adre,irsd set Raoder Cd

55

12 x 12 ft, Dir = 1214 = 3, and Fb = 0.54. Therefore, by Eq. 10-25: ~.

F = VO.20 x 0.54 = 0.33

is represented by the combined area AR at u uniform temperature TR: the the factor F,, may be expressed in terms of direct geometrica1 factors
F as: F,, = FI2 : FIKFRI/(l -F,&

With these data, by Eq. 10-24: Il = 0.1713(14.V ~ 8.64) 0.33 x 48 = 108,000 Btu/hr Influente of refractory rwfrfaces. If the enclosure consists in part of black sorfaces t,hat radiate or absorb beat and in part of refractory surfaces, from whieh there is no net new flow but only re-radiation without ar.y absorption, Eq. lo-23 and lo-25 can be rewritten in the general form:

Eq. lo-31

If there are ~two radiating surfaees AI and Az, then by applying the principles expressed in Eq. lo-26 and 10.28, Eq.~ lo-31 reduces t,o the more convenient form: Eq. 10.32

iq.

IO-30

where s is the geometrica1 factor which takes into aceount the eombined mechanisms of direct radiation and re-radiation from the refraetory surfaces,
EXAMPLE 10.2. Determine the heat,exehange for data of Example 10-1, assuming that the peripheries of the surfaces are connected by refractory walls. SOLUTION: In this case Eq. lo-30 must be applied. It differs from Eq. 10.23 and 10.24 only by the factor 3, whieh is found from Fig. 10-7, using the same procedure us in Example 10-l : F = vo.53 x 0.75 = 0.63 rl = 108,000 x 0X3/0.33 = 206,000 Btu/hr

If there are only two radiating surfaees, Al and of them has a negative curvature, then using Eq. 10-26, lo-28 and 10-29, Eq. lo-32 is reduced to: ?
AB, and neither

Eq. 10.33 This case covws the majority of problems of radiant-heat interchange in an encloaure. It must be noted that Eq. lo-33 assumes a uniform refractory temperature whieh for most casa corresponds snfficiently to the actunl condit,ions. The equilibrium temperature of the refractory surface, for the c,ondit,ions assumed in Eq. 10-33, may be computed from the expression:
TR =

The re-radiating refractory walls inerease the heat interchange eonsiderably. This influente incieases with u deerease~of the ratio D/T.
EXAMPLE 10-3. A vertical boiler has a grate 8.ft wide and 7-ft deep; the bundle of tuba connecting the~loru-er cylindrical drum with the upper one has an over-al1 diameter of 8 ft and the opening through which the tubes are exposed to radiation is 4-ft 9-i. high and 8.ft wide. The temperature of the coal-bed surface is about 2400 F; the temperature of the tube surfaee is 390 F; the three vertical sides and the roof of the duteh-oven furnace are of refractory brick and may ~be assumed to, be nonconducting and re-radiating. Determine: (a) the theoreticai amount of radiant heat transferred from the fuel bed to the tuba assuming that both suface8 are black and (b) the approximate temperature of the refractory surfaces. SOLUTION: (a) The amount of heat exehange may be found using Eq. 10-30. The geometrica1 factor ,F,, may be eomputed by Eq. lo-33 in which the factor F1, may be found from Fig. 10-8 assuming that the projected area of the tube bundle can be considered BS a surface perpendicular to the grate surface and having a eommon side z = 8 ft. The faetor 3 has been determined far a few geometrieally simple cases presented by curves 3 and 4, Fig. 10-7. and cuives 6 and 6, Fig. 10.9. For reetangles it can be determined osing Fig. ~10-7 and Eq. 10-25. For other cases it must be approximated. Thns if an enclosure consists of severa1 black surfaces AI, Az ., and the rest of the enclosure, re-radiating refractory surfaces,

4, CA, (-4, -

A#,dT4 AIFIZI

+ (A, - A&)Th 1 + (As - AIFIZ) Eq. 10.34 .

TO use Fig. 10.8 in this case, y = 7 ft and v = 7/8 = 0.875; z = 4.75 ft and Z = 4.7518 = 0.595; with these data FI2 = 0.175. Ne& AI = 8 x 7 = 56 sq ft; Az = 8 x 4.75 = 38 sq ft and this giva by Eq. 10-33: F,s = (38 - 56 x 0.175)/(56 + 38 - 2 x 56 x 0.175) = 0.488 The temperature 71 = 2400 + 460 = 2860 R and TS = 390 + 460 = 850 R, and by Eq. lo-30 modified similarly to Eq. 10.24: q = 0.488 x 56 x 0.174(28.6& - 8.5d1 7 3,160,OOOBtu/hr. *~ The temperature of the refractory surfaees is, by Ea 10-34. ,,,~~ 175) 2860 -(38-56x0.175) 8504 56 x 0.175) i- (38 - 56 x 0.1751 = 2540 R, w 2080 F
References

p. 59.

W. H. McAdams, Heat

Transmission,

OP. cit.,

ZM. Jacob, Heat Transfe~. op. cit., p, 52. 3Eckert, Introduction tu the Transfer of Heat. and Mass, op. cit., p. 277. W. J. King, Mechanical Engineering, Vol. iiL, loc. cit., (19321 pp. 699-704.
Part 11, Radiation Applications, will appear in the Llecember issue.

56

November 1965

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Radiation Applications-

Part 11

Applied Heat Transfer Design for the HPI

hy Wayne C. Edmister and Joseph M. Marche110

11 -. Ro@,1

Nonblack swjaces. Radiating characteristlcs of surfaces dealt with in engineering problems differ from those of a blsck-body surfacc. In most cases it is permissible to consider al1 surfaces as way which simplifies considerably the treatment., If~ a gray-surface body has an emissivity el and an absorptivity al at a temperature T,, then it will both emit and absorb at this temperature proportionally less energy than & black body. The net heat exchange between the gray body and blaek surroundings of temperature Tz may be written, in accordante with Eq. 10.24, as: Q = 0.174[e,(T~/100)~-a~(T~/100)41FA~ . . . . . . . . Eq. 11-l

enclosed body whose surface AI is not For a completely enclosed body whose surfnee Al is small eompared to Ac F, = el . . .b Eq. 11-5 For many other case when the area AI of two parallel surfaces is small compared to the distance
c A

Eq. 11-6

With sufficient aecuracy emissivities mag be considered equa1 to the absorptivities for the same temperatures. If two gray surfaces Al and As have emissivities of el and e2, resp&ively, the ei and ez must be ntroduced into Eq. lo-23 or 10-24. The simplest vuy of doina this is by introdueina a factor F, 11-2. Refmctory sr~~faces. For the case of two which is a finction of , and e2 &d also of the radiating surfaees Al and A2, the combined effect geometrica1 relation, between the area AI and Ap. A b& of the geometrica1 and emissivity factors may he Thus Eq. 10.24 may be written as: ,~,~, q = O.l713A,[ (T1/100)~ - (TJ100)4]FF, r&. ~, -presetyd =s : f (l/el - 1) + Eq. 11-Z gu F, - l/[l/Flz (A1/AZ) (l/er - 1):I Eq. 11-8 EmissivitU factor F, has been determincd for where F,, is the geometrica1 factor which tskes several, more eommon eases. For the general case into account the influente of refractory surfaces of a complete radiant convex surface AI surrounded and for most problems may be calculated from by a concave radiant surface Az: Eq. 10.33. F, = l/[l/el + (AllA,) (l/ez - l)] Since the factor F, by Eq. 11-8 already contains . . . . . . . Eq. 11-3 the goemetrical relations between the surfaees in For large parallel surfaces with AI = AP, Eq. 11-S the faetor FI%, Eq. 11-2 far, this case becomes: 2-J becomes : q = O.l713A, [(T1/100)~ - (Tz/100)1Fe F, = l/(l/el + l/ez ~- 1) Eq. 11-4 Eq. 11-9 . Eq. 11.4 applies also to two equa1 parallel suface if the distance T between them is small eompared with the area~. AI = Az. It also applies to a
EXAMPLE 11.1. A furnaee with a chamber of a rectangular parallelapiped shape is heated by the combustion of gas inside of vertical radi& tubes

the

Eq. 11.6 also applies to parallel surfaces connected by non-conducting reradiating walls. It also applies to two rectangles with comnion sides in perpendicular planes, Fig. 10-8, and for radiation from a piane to t,ube banks, Fig. 10-S. In intermediate cases it may be advisable to use for F, a value interpoluted between values found by Eq. 11-4 and 11-6. A useful equation, based on the same reasoning as Eq. 10.26 and lo-30 is: FemAr = Fez,Az. . Eq. 11-7

Lbg,Evu+

b-a,

Petro/Chem Engineer

December 1965

43

SOLUTION: First the emissivity of an imagina:piane through t,he centei li,nes of the tubes and having an area iil = 6 x (144 + 6)/12 = 75 sq ft must be found by Eq. 11-7. This plane must be equivalent in radiation to the radiation area Al of the tuba. The number of tuba on each side will be in = 12.0/(10/12:~ = 15 and: AI = 71(5/12)G x 15 = 118 sq ft F,, is found from curve 5, Fig. 10-9, with 7 = 1015 = 2 as 0.88. By analogy with Eq. 11-8, assuming the emissivity of the refraetory ez = 0.97, Table 10-2 : FezI = l/[l/O.SS + (1/0.97 - 1) + (75/118) (110.75 - l)] = 0.724 This means that the area Al including the action of the refractory behind it can be replaced by u plain wall Az with an emissivity el = 0.724 and the same temperature as the tuba The new simplified furnace chamber is enclosed by two G x 12.5 ft radiating side walls, 2Az, a horizontal piane A8 = 5 x 12 ft receiving radiation, and refractory surfaces AE. The heat exchange may be calculated by Eq. 11-2 introducing F instead of F because of the refractory surfaces. The factor Fz3 is equa1 to F1 from Az to (A, + str1 ^.. of n,j mmus fil from AB to the strips. Both Fs : ,may be evaluated from Fig. 10-8, for Y1 with 2: = 12 ft, Y = 6112 = 0.5, Z = 6.5/12 = 0.54 and 10 ff i ,_li _ this giva F, = 0.25; for FS. Y = 6/12 = 0.55. & . -.- :_ ~,-i Z, = 1.5/12 = 0.125 and this &es F2 = 0.10. Thus Figure 11-l. Furnace chamber. , "1 n < Fm = 0.25 -~ OJO = 0.15. Now Fz3 may be calculsted by Eq. lo-32 changing the subscripts in In this case A, = F x 12.5 x 2 = 150 sq ft and it aecordanee with the designation applied to the se& AR, Aa, and pari! of itself - the opposite new furnace which becomes: 6 x 12.5 ft piane - and t,herefore F,, = 1 - FZ2 A eompsrisim of the general Eq. 11-2 with Eq. -& is the direct geometrica1 factorbet&en the 11-11 gives: two parallel rectangles 6 x 12.5 ft separated by 8 Ir, = 0.174 FF,C(T,,100)4 - (Tx/100)4],t, - tz) ft. Using Fig. 10-7, curve 2, and Eq. lo-25 giva . Eq. ,11-C? for the 6 x 6.ft sq FI = 0.13 and for the 12.5 x 12.5For blaek surfaces F, = 1 and if one su-face completely encloses the other surfaee. F = 1. The ft sq Fz = 0.30 and ~FL~ = ,/.13~-!0197;1~ values of h, with these simplifying assumptions This gives for Fzn = 1 ~ 0.197 - 0.15 = 0.653. are plotted in Fig. 11-2 which covws the most The other factor, FSR = 1 Fa2 = 1 frequently encountered ranges of temperatures. The FzaAzJA8 = 1 - 0.15 x 150/60 = 0.625; and with deviation of the surfaee properties from those offe these data: Fm = 0.15 + 1/[1/0.653 + 150/(60 x 0.625)] ea = 0.331 and by Eq. 11-8, in accordante with the changed designations : F, = 1/[1/0.331 + (1/0.724 - 1) + (150/60) (VO.92 - l)] = 0.276 The net heat exchange may be now calculated by Eq. 11-9 with T1 = 1540 i- 460 =LOOOR and 22 L 1100 + 460 = 156OR: q = 0.1713 x 150 [ (ZOOO/lOO)r - (1560/100)1] 0.276 = 714,000 Btu/hr. 11-3. Simplified radiation calcula.tions.In many engineering problems, especially if the heat transfer by radiation is of the sane order or smaller than by eonvect,ion, it is desirable tu determine the radia&beat, exchange by an expression similar to equations used in conv&ion problems. Sueh an equation may be written SS: ~7 = hvA,(t, - tz,) Eq. 11-11 where IL, is called the coe.ficient of radiant hat transfel. Figure 11.2. Coefficient of heat transfer by radiation.

placed alongside the two longa walls. The tubes are 5-in. OD on lo-in. centers: and their mean surfaee temperature is 1540F; the floor. sidewalls and roof are of refraetory brick with dimensiom shovm in Fig. 11-l. The furnace is used to anneal steel plates at a temperature of 1100F: The plstes come in sizes up to GO-in. wide and 144.in. long and the depth of the furnace is G in. greater. Assume the emissivity of the radiant tubes 0.75 and of the scale-covered plates 0.92. Find the net heat exchange between the furnace tube und steel p1ates. Fu = Fa + l/Il/Fz~ -1 A,i(AaF,,, ] Eq. 11.10

44

December 1965

Petro/Chem Engineer

Many complete refineries around the world are included in the more than 500 Procon projects now operating. In Africa, far example, Procon has completed three grass roots refineries, in Southern Rhodesia, Kenya and Mozambique; and another is well tinderway in Nigefia. There are many other examples of Procon projects which consist-

ently meet the highest performance standards: on speciiication, on budget, on time. Regardless of where your next petroleum, chemical or petrochemical engineering and construction assignment is located-in Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia or the Americas-it will pay you to talk to Procon and to utilize its experience in each locality.

a blaek-body can be taken int aecount by eomputing the emissivity factor F, by ne of the Eq. 11.3, 11.6 r 11.8, as the case may require. 11.4. Nodunrinmm gnscs. Gases do not emit radiati at al1 wave lengths, as do sulids, but they emit and absorb radiation in certain bands of wave lengths. Of particular interest are hydrogen and carbon eombust,ion produets. These games may be divided into two groups - those with symmetrica~l mole&des. such as xygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and those with unsymmetrical molecules of whicb~ the more important are carbon dioxide, water vapor, and hydrocarbons. Gsses of the first group do not absorb radiant energy at temperatures met in industrial prxtice and therefore do not emit it. On the other hand, when blaek-body rndiation passes through a gas ma.ss containing carbon dioxide 1 water vapor, absorption of heat energy takes plsce in certain regions of the infrarea spectrum. Cunversely, if such a gas mass is heated, it wiil radiate energy in the same wave-length regions. The radiant-beat intercbange between a gas, such as carbon dioxide, at a temperature TQ, and a partial pressure p, and an element of a blsek surface at a temperature T, is determined in the following manner. Suppose that the gas mass has the shape of a hemisphere of radius L and the blaek-body.element is located at the center of the base of the hemisphere. TO the surface A, the gas radiata the amount of heat uT,e,A, where the gas emissivity e, is the gas-to-surface radiati divided by the black-body radiation at the same tempeiature. The gas ala absorbs an amount of beat d,a,A radiated by the surface, where ay is the absorptivity of the gas for the black-body radiation of the surface. The net radia&heat interchange is then: ,J = (rT,e, - <rT,a,)A Eq. 11-13
Cwbon Diosido. For carbon dioxide the emissivity designated by e,, depends on the gas temperature, T,, the total pressure P, and t,he produet p,L. The product p,L is a measure of opacity of the gas - the smaller &L, the more transparent the ga,s and the lower its emissivity e,. Values of er far different T, and p,L may be read from Fig. 11-3 for a pressure P = 1 atm. Values of absorptivity a, may be obtained from the same Fig. 11-3 BS follows: If T, > T,, t,hen a, may be considered to be equa1 e, at the same value of p,L but at the temperature T,; if T, < T,, then a, is obtained by rcnding e, at T, but at pcL (T,/T,I and multiplying the result by (T,/T,),65. If the tota1 gas pressure p differs from 1 atm, both emissivi& and absorptivity values det,ermined using Fig. 11-3 must be multiplied by a factor C, read from Fig. 11-4; C, - ecl,/ec, where cc is the emissivitp a,t 1 atm, as found from Fig. 11-4 and ecP is the emissivity at any ther pressure P. Watw ?fa~r. Far water vapor the emissivity depends on T <,,P,,>L and tota1 gas pressure y, as far COy, and in addition on the partial pressure p,,; of the water vspor. Emissivities of water vapor as a function of T, and p,,L for a tota1 ga,s pressme of

Figure

11-3.

Emissivity

of

carbon dioxide.

2.0 1.5 ci$II 0.8 1.0 4 - I em +0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.05 008 01 Figure carbon 0,2 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 of tota1 2.0 pressare 3.0 on 5.0

11-4. Correction dioride radiation.

for effect

Figure

11-S.

Emissivity

of water

vapor.

46

December 1965

Petro/Chem Engineer

We could build ~this engine but we wont !

for $1,650

less..

l .e

We admit it. We could build Waukesha Engines without balanced and matched pistons, pins and rods. Or without going to such extremes about the crankshafts in forging, heat treating, hardening, precision machining and balancing. Or without such merciless quality control, from engine blocks to the final paint job. Or without dozens of engineering, advancementsthat would lower the origina1 cast. But we build Waukesha Engines the way we do for performance,-proved reasons. TO achieve the maximum in dependable power for a wide range of oil industry jobs: drilling, pumping, compressors, water flooding, electric power generating. Whatever your application calls for in diesel, gasoline, butane-propane, or natura1 gas fuels, Waukesha Engines answer the most exacting demands. From WAIESA 10 to 1560 hp. Write for engine bulletins and specifications today.

Waukesha
WAUKESHA MOTOR

Engines
COMPANY, WAUKESHA, WIS.,

:
New York . Tulsa .

N, OR 0 CO
Huntington Park, Calif

PetrojChem Engineer

December 1965

1 atm and the imaginary case of p, = 0 are presented in Fig. 11-5. The correction for the actual conditions of p, atm, and p,,,, atm, is made by multiplying the value e,, from Fig. 11-5 by a factor C,, read from Fig. 11-6 as a function of (p,, + p)/? and p,,L. The procedure of finding the absorptivity G,~ from Fig. 11-5 iS similar to that for COz. Approximately a,, = e,,,: read from Fig. 11-5 at &,L and T,; more accurately a,,, = e, read at T, and puL (T,,/T,j and multiplied by C,(T,/T,)O,4j. Carbon Diozide and Water Vapor. The tota1 radiation due t,o carbon dioxide and water when they are both present is slightly smaller than the sum of their effects ealculated separately, because each gas is somewhat opaque to radiation from the other. The correct,ion far opaeity ae is resd from Fig. 11-7 and deducted from the sum of e, + e,, each evaluated independently from Figs. 11-3 and 11-5, with the necessary corrections. The emissivity eg of a gas containing both COS and Hz0 is evaluated as: eg = e, + e,, - A, . Eq. 11.14 The same kind of correction aa, read 11-8, must be applied to the absorptivity a, = a, + a,, - na from Fig. giving: Eq. 11.15

the corrections ne and Aa from Fig. 11-8 which is a crossplot of Fig. 11-7. surfaces. If the surface bounding a Nonblack radiating gas is not black, multiplying the right side of Eq. 11-13 by its emissivity e, would take into account the Iosa of energy in the primary beams from gas to surface and surface to gas,

500

750

1000 1250 Temperotures,F for opacity for

,500 f

1700 Po) a

Combustion products of most hydrocarbons used as fuel, both liquid and gaseous, have the ratio of partial pressures p,J(p, + p,) very close to 0.5 and for such a gas it is more convenient to read

Figure 11-8. Correction = 0.5.

P,,./(Pw

1.8 1.6
( h 1.4 1.2

-2 1.0 4, II 0 *-oa % e v 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 AND PARTIAL PRESSURE

respectively. However, due to opacity of the gas, part of the gas radiation initially reflected from the gray surface will be refleeted by the gas and fnally absorbed by the surfaee. As a result, the factor by which the right side of Eq. 11-13 must be multiplied is greater than the surfaee emissivity e, but smaller than unity. The more transparent the gas is the smaller its pL. For most industrial surfaces e, = 0.7 for which the effettive emissivity eJ niay be determined with a sufficient accuracy from : e, = (e. + 1)/2 Eq. 11-16 The fina1 form of Eq. 11-13 for radiant heat exehange between a gas containing CO2 and Hz0 and its bounding surfaee becomes: Q = 0.1713e,[e,(T~/100)4 - a,(Tz/100)4]4
11-5. Beam length L. Eq. 11-13 and 11.17 were established for radiant-heat interchange between a gas hemisphere and a small area on its base. In this case the length of the path L of the radiant beam is the same in al1 directions. For gas-filled spaccs of industrial importancc it has bccn found that any space may be approximately represented by an equivalent hemisphere of a proper diameter, that is, far any space there is a mean beam length L which can be used in evaluating emissivities and absorptivities from Figs. 11.13 and 11-15 As pL approaches aero, the mean beam length approaches as a limit, the value 4V/S, where V is the gas volume and S is the bounding surface. For values of pL encountered in praetice, L is always less than the limiting value, and generally a satisfactory approximation is : L = 3.4V/S Eq. 11.18

Figure 11-6. Correction pressure.

far

effect

of

tota, and partial

0.07 0.06 0.05 ne 004 0.03 0.02 0.01 , 0 0.2 0.4 OE 0.8 ID 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0,8 1.0 0 0.20.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 P.(P,+P,) G (& + 4) P, (P,G)
due to special

Figure 11-7. Cowction to gas emissivity overfap of water and carbon dioxide.

48

December 1965

Petro/Chem Engineer

Table 11-1 gives some frequently encountered shapes and values of the numerica1 factor by which the governing dimension of the space must be multiplied to obtain the beam length L. 11-6. Variable tempemtures. If the temperature of the gas and of the surface change continuously from one to the other, the temperature differences governing the heat exchange may be determined by integration over the length. A simpler, usually satisfactory procedure, is to use an arithmetic mean of the surface temperatures for the surface temperature: t, = (t.1 -l- t,r)/Z Eq. 11-19 and the average surface temperature, t,, plus the logarithmic man of the temperature differences between the gas and the surfaee at the two ends, for the average gas temperature: t, = t, + 1 ct,i ~ tsd - (hl - td m.3 lw10 - t,z)l . Eq. 11-20 r (hl - ts,),& EXAMPLE 11-5. Flue gas containing 9.2% CO? and 10.0% H20, wet basis, flows through an oil still eonsisting of bands of 3-in. tubes on S-in. equilatera1 triangular centers. The gas enters at 1750F and leaves at 1100F. The oil flows countercurrent and the tube temperature rises from 750 to 950F. Calculate the average beat-input rate per square foot of tube surface due to radiation only. The tube-surface emissivity is 0.82. SOLUTION: By Eq. 11.19 : t, = (750 + 95O)j2 = 850F By Eq. 11-20: t, = 850 + [(1750 - 950) (1100 - 75O)l /2.3 l<rg (800/350) = 1394F From Table Il-l, case 8; L = 3.8x(9-3)/12 = 1.9 ft p,L = 0.092 x 1.9 = 0.171 atm-ft, p,L = 0.10 x 1.9 = 0.19 atm-ft. Far CO1, from Fig. 11-3, at p,L = 0.171 e,, at t, = 1394F, is 0.096: a,, at t, = 850F, is 0.090. No pressure correction is needed. From Fig. 11-6 the correction for partial pressure with (p, + p)/2 = 0.55 atm, C, = 1.10. The correction for opacity, with pw/(pw + p,) = 0.52, from Fig. 11-8, P,L + P,L = 0.361, Ae = 0.005 and Aa = 0.003 and by Eq. 11-14 and 11-15, respectively : eB = 0.096 c 0.091 x,1.10 - 0.005 = 0.191; a, = 0.090 + 0.123 x 1.10 - 0.003 = 0.222.
Figure 11-9. Chart for of luminoos flames. determining absorption strength

t,, = Red brightness

t, tr = Green brightness

Temp., F (X = 0.6651~) Temp., OF (X = 0.5553~)

A = t, -

t,

= True Temp., F k,Lr = Absorption strength

The effettive emissivity of the tube surface, by Eq. 11-16 is: e: = (0.82 + 1)/2 = 0.91 The temperature terms: T,/lOO = (1394 + 460) /lOO = 18.54; TJlOO = (850 + 460)/100 = 13.1 and by Eq. 11.17: q = 0.1713 x 0.91 (0.191 x 18.54) 0.222 x 13.14) = 2490 Btu/sq ft-hr. 11-7. Oaer-ali emissivity. Sometimes it is helpful to know the emissivity of an equivalent gray body which can be used instead of both the emissivity of the gas and absorptivity of the surfaee. This emiasivity also takes into account the shape of the surface and therefore is called ovw-al1 missivity and designated by er. In this manner, Eq. 11.13 becomes: q = <~ep(T,4 - 784) Eq. 11-21 Equating, the right sides and solving for eF gives: of, Eq. 11-21 and Il-13

eF = e,(T,/Ts)4
( T,/T,/) 41

Eq. 11.22

Be

TABLE case

11.1. Beam Lenzths Radiation Calcul Shape Of space

Far Gas Esem hgth L

1 Sphere, diameter D ; ;$jL ciiFucylinder,

, _~ ,,

height equal diameter D

I.I..

4 5

Infinite cylinder, diameter D Rectangular parallelapiped, 1 x 2 x 6. shartest edge H, radiatmn +o all or any face 6 Soace between two infinite oarallel olanes seoarated bv distance H, radiation inio the skface 7 Space autside infinite band of tube, centeri on equilateral triangles, clearance C=d. tube diameter

0.90 1.06H UH 2.EC

8 same. clearance C=Zd

3.8C

-A. 1. Haslam and H. C. Hottel. Tranractionn ASME, FSP. 50, 9 (1928).

11-a. Radiation from, flames. In general flames may be divided into two different classe& namely, nonluminous flames and luminous flames. Nonluminous flames are either invisible or appear as transparent bluish flames and their radiation may be determined by the same formulas as giva in Section 11-4 for gases. Luminous flames are made visible by incandescent solid particles of soot or carbon Iiberated due to dissociation of hydrocarbons at high temperatures or of powdered coal particles suspended in the combustion gasa. Accurate eomputations with luminous flames are difficult because their emissivity and absorptivity decrease with an increase in wave length and the tota1 emissivity is 1~s~ than the emissivity in the visible spectrum. For this reason dire& visual determination of luminous-flame emissivity is often misleading. However, by using an optical pyrometer with red and green color

Petro/Chem Engineer

December 1965

49

screens it is possible to determine the true time temperature tr, F, from the observed red-brightness temperat~ure t, and green-brightness temperais obtained from ture t,. The flame temperature Fig. 11-9: the point of intersection of a vertical line through the observed t,. and an inbxpolated curve corresponding to At = t, - t,., referred to the two nearest curves of~ t,;, giva true flame temperature f,r. A horizontsl line drawn through the point of intersection to t,he left-hand scale gives the absorption strength klLr. In the product klLB. the frst term is a function of the soot concentration in the flame; and LI,. is the thickness of the flame through which the pyrometer is sighted. This absorption strengt,h must be multiolied by a factor from Table 11-1, depending upon

luminosity of the carbon e,>. = Cu?,

particles,

results

in: Eq. 11-24

The main difficulties are in estimating the value of Cc which depends upon the amount of excess air present, temperature of combustion, and fineness of atomization of the liquid fuel. From availuble dat,a it is snggested that for good atomization and avelage combustion temperatures, n-hm there is no excess air present, CL = 4, with 100% excess air CL = 3, and vith a, oery large excess of air, about 9 time the theoreticul amount, CL = 2. Il-8. Steam boiler jirrnaces. A determination of the radisnt heat absorbed directly from borning fuel by the heating surfaees of a boiler is neeessary in order to find the hest given up by the hot gases by convection. Theoretical computations are rather involved and it is convenient to use an empirica1 formula. One of the best knawn and simplest is, for slag-free heating surfaces ? m = wh&e: which radintion, I,~ = 1s = l(1 -l- O.O37r,, \/Wi.A:) Eq. 11-25 m = the fraetion of the tota1 heat released is absorbed by the boiler surfaces by

the air-fuel ratio, lb air per lb fuel, the weight of the solid fuel actually burned, expressed as equivalent weight of bituminous coal, lb/hr, A = t,he boiler surface exposed to radiat,ion, sq ft. Far boiler surfaces, rvhich may become coated with Ag, a modifed formula is reeommended:3 Figure Il-IO.
Emissivity of Iumiflous flames

m = the shape of the Rame. Using this corrected absorption strength kL, the total emissivity is found from Fi,g. 11-10 the ordinate corresponding to the point of interseetion of a vertical line through kL and the corresponding temperature curve. The rate of beat transfer by radiation from a luminous flame wit,h a temperature ta to a surface at a temperature t, enelosing the flame is giva bv a formula similar t,o Ea. 11-2: q = 0.17134[ (TJlOo); (!f,/lOO)~lepe, Eq. 11.23 where: A = the area of the flame ermelope, sq ft. Tr == the absolute true flame temperature, t, + 460, R, T, = the absolute surface temperature, t, + 460, R, t?p = the flame emissivity found bg Figs. 11.9 and 11.10, e, = the effettive emissivity of the surface. Approzimate cahlations. The burning of liquid hydrocarbons generally is accompanied by some smoke formation, at least in the furnace near the burner. If an optical pyrometer with red and green screens is not available or cannot be used, the radiant heat released may be estimated by Eq. 11-23. Using the gas temperature t, for tF and the gas emissivity en for er, from Eq. 11.14 and multiplied by a factor Cr. to take into account

0.572 (0.5 -l- 1.1s) (1 -=1 + O.O37v&W,A

0.8s)

Eq. 11.26

where s is the proport,ion of the absorbing surfaee covered with slag and ash, and ,ma,y vary from ~0 to 0.4. The value of m increases wit,h increase of s, because the amount ot heat absorbed by convection deereases. Far oil and gas-fired furnaces the following equationd may be used for a box-type fornace with a single row of absorbing tube: m = 1111 + (r,r,/Q/A)/3200] Eq. ll-27-~ where: & ,= fuel, Btuihr. the tota1 net heat released by the ei

References II. C. Hottel and F. P. Broughton, Determination of True Temperature and Tota1 Radiation from Luminous Gas Flames (Use of a Special Two-color ryrometer) , Imi. Eng. Chem.., and. ed., Vol. 4, 699-704 (1932). Orrock-Hudson formula diseussed in Trans. ASME. Vol. 47 (19251 n. 1148.55: also .74arks Handb~ok, op. cit.; p. 362. %I. 0. Croft, Tlierwmd~nnmics, Flzrid Flhu and Heat Tmnsmissim, op. cit. p. 195. D. W. Wilson. W. E. Lobo and H. C. Hottel. Heat Transmission in Radiant Seetions of Tube SMls, Znd. Eng. Chem. 24,486 (1932). Part 12, Conduction, Convection and Radiation,~ will appear in the January 1966 issue.

50

December 1965

PetroKhem

Engineer

Technology in 1966
data in the low temperature region, and the experiente gained in gas liquefaction and other cryogouic processes will provide valu,able data for 8e in new gas processing plant design. Adsorption processes will continue to find limited application on small volume streams. Increased emphnsis will be placed on power and wnst,e heat recovery to attain better fuel economy. Both gas expander and fluid drive equipment Will be sed more ext,ensively. Continued improvemeut in both equipment and technolog?for power and wastc ~beat, recovery can be anticipated. The increasing movement of mixed product streamu by pipeline affords new opportunities for economie processing of streams which eannot support a complete plant with fractionation, storage and loading facilit,ies. Even in larger plants there in a trend away from on-site fractionation. As greater emphasis is placed on minimizing labor costs and improving efficiency, process contro1 becomes an increasingly important faetor in design and operation. Improvemerrt is evident in the continuing development of instruments for monitoring and/or contro1 of the composition of critica1 plant streams, and in the wide range of contro1 hardware available to the industry. TO date, progress in mntching instrument application and process design for maximum benefit has bee limited. This area, however, will eommand increasing att.ent,ion and offws promise of affording substantial brnefits. Plant layout and construction concepts are also undergoing change. The keyword in layout is eompactness, with its inherent benefit,s of minimum piping and insulation req,uirements. The trends toward reduced valving and minimum provision of sland-by equipment also contributes to more compact 1ayout. Plant constructors are seeking new ways of raduciug plant costs. Along with compact plant layout t,here will likely be continued and improved se of prefabrication techniques, and further development of unitized equipment syst,ems.

more profitable operations. This aetivity is stimulated by n combinntion of factors,~ including: 1) increased demand far propane and ethane, produds which m;my older plants were dcnigned t,o recover either in nomina1 quantity, or not at al1 ; 2) opportuuities for sale of mixed produet st,reamn; 3) increasing labor and maintenanc,e costs; 4) decline in gas volumes, or, availability of new sources of gas for processing, and 5) increased fuel and tility costs. Modernization and consolidation opportunities offer a rea1 challenge to the industrg, for such projects require careful evaluation and planning. Processors, however, will eontinue to find this challenge a renarding one.

Plant Safety
Severa1 of the present trends in the industry have implications directly related to the matter of plant safety. Far example, reduction in operating and maintenance personnel, more compact plant layout, and redueed provision of stand-by equipment al1 impose factors which can adversely affect, safety. The gas processing industry prides itself in its safety conxiousness, and will undoubtedly meet the challenge of applying its changing technology and methods in a manner whieh will not sacrifice, but rather maintain and strengthen its safety standards. n

Correction:
Economie Alternatives in Petrochemical Feedstocks, Peter W. Sherwood, PKE, Nov. 1965, page 26. During typesetting, severa1 lines were left out at the bottom of the first column on page 26. The corre& version is: The bulk of capacity utilizes Lindes IsoSiv and Universa1 Oil Products Molex processes. (In addition, Esso, Texaco, and British Petroleum have developed different commercia1 versions of molecular sieving) Of the two main commercia1 processes, the former is operated entirely in, the vapor phase; desorption is carried out at reduced pressure. By contra&, the Molex process calls for liquid-phase operation in both the absorption and desorption parts of the cycle; desorption is, effected by use of low-boiling paraffinic solvents.

Modernization and Consolidation

Processors are giving increased attention to existing plants in seeking opportunities for improving product rec~ovrrirs xnd/or reducing operatmg costs through modernization of individua1 plants or consolidation of separate plants into larger,

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Januarg 1966

Conduction, Convection and Radiation-

Part 12

Applied Heat Transfer Design for ,the HPI

by Wayne C. Edmister and Joseph M. Marchello
n 1.2-I. Introduction: The basic principles of heat transfer by conduction, eonveetion and radiation were discussed in the preccding chapters separately. Usually heat transfer from one substance to another takes piace not by one of these mannew alone but simultaneously by two or al1 three manners. When the beat which has entered a body is given up by convection,~ either the full amount or a considerable part must be conducted through the body. Thus, the combined action of conveetion and conduction must be considered. In many problems, in addition to heat given up by eonvection, it is also given up by radiation. 12-2. Rod heated at me end. Consider beat, flow through a rod connected at one end to a heated wall and cooled on its entire surface by a fluid. The constant cross-seetional area of the rod is A, its circumference is C, and its length is 1. The temperature of the wall is tl and that of the fluid is t,. Assume that the surface coeffieient h has a constant value over the whole surface. Consider a different,ial element of the rod with the length dz at a distante z from the wall,~ Fig. 12-I. Under steady state conditions, the amount g, of heat energy coming byeeonduction from the wall must, be equa1 to the amount ql> of energy passing through the element to the free end and heat ,IC lost by conveetion to the swrounding fluid: q<I = q~ + qc Eq. 12-1 The heat flow ria by conduetion q CL -,&dt = dx is: Eq. 12-2 If the symbol 7 = t - t, is used for the temperature differente, t( = const, dtjd9 = d2r/dx2, Eq. 12-5 beeomes:

Introducing

the symbol

m, where:

Eq. 12-6 can be simplified D

and written = m%

as: Eq. 12-8

The general solotiun of this tion is: T = CI~~ + Cpe~~

differential

equaEq. 12-9

where Cr and CZ are two constants of integration which can be found from the boundary eonditions. The first boundary condition is taken at z = 0, when the rod has the temperature t,. This gives: The second condition, is taken at z = I, when the free end transmits heat to the surrounding fluid. This process is presented b+ the equation:

If

the cross-seetion

area

A, is mm11 compared

where t is the temperature of the rod at the distance z. The heat flow qb is smaller than qz,,by the amount 2 dz or, using for & Eq. 12-2:

4a=-kA$+kA$dz. and the heat flow g< is: rlc = hC dz (t - tf) Substituting qn, Q and qc from Eq. 12-1 results in: kA g = bC (t tt)

Eq. 12-3

Eq. ,X-4 Eq. 12-Z to 12.4 in

Eq. 12-5

Figure

12-l.

Steady

heat flow

in a rod.

50

January 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Many complete refineries around the world are included in the more than 500 Procon projects now operating. In Africa, for example, Procon has completed three grass roots refmeries, in Southern Rhodesia, Kenya and Mozambique; and another is well underway in Nigeria. There are many other examples of Procon projects which consist-

ently meet the highest performance standards: on specification, on budget, on time. Regardless of where your rat petroleum, chemical or petrochemical engineering and construction assignment is located-in Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia or the Americas-it will pay you to talk to Procon and to utilize its experience in each locality.

with the length 1, the heat flOw at the end can be disregarded. This results in the equation: (%):ccl Differentiating dT Comhining Eq. 12-9 and 12-12 result,s in: c,,,,~,e>~Lll>*e-. = 0 Eq. 12.14 Eq. 12-14 may be presented as: 5 = e-lml CZ Soloing the simultaneous C, and Cp giva: 6, = TI- + # / 1 and Eq. 12-15 Comparing Eq. 12-20 with Eq. 12-21 shows that the incurred error becomes zero when the dimensionless number (lk/hj is a very small fraction, or h is small compared with kC/A, and at the sane time ml is not too small. 12.3. Finned awfaces. The beat-transfer eoefficient between a gas and meta1 wall usually is rather low and the tota1 amount, of heat transferred from a giva area is correspondingly low. The amount of heat flow can be consi.derably increased by increasing the heat transfer surface area. Finned surfaces are used extensively in many apparatus sueh as automotive radiators, cylinders of air-cooled combustion engines, economizers in steam-power plants, eleetric transformers, condenser eoils of household refrigerators, etc. Straight +Y. For straight~~ fins of constant thickness IJ, and height 1, Fig. 12-2 and the equations derived in Section 12-2 apply. With the deaignations of Fig. 12-2, the cross sectional area A of the fin is bL and the perimeter C is 21, sinee b is small eompared with IL. Introducing thene values in Eq. 12-7 givas: Eq. 12-22 The hest loss of the fin is gioen by Eq. 12-20. Under what conditions can the heat flow from a wall be increased by the use of fins? Evidently, fins are useful if the heat flow t,hrough a fin-~ increases with an increase of the fin height. If the beat flow dccreascs with an increase of the fin height, the fm is retarding beat flow and should probably not be used. The limit of this condition is found by setting the first derivative of Eq. 12.21 equal to zero. This condition States that there i,s n,n rhange in ,heat flow rate mith change in fin length. The resulting equation may be sihnplified to the expression: li w12= T<Y. Eq. 12-23 Figure 12-Z. Heating surface with rectangolar fins. Eq. 12-9 giva: = 0 Eq. 12.12

Eq. 12-10 and G-15 for Cr z -~~.,.L 1 + e-a Eq. 12.16

Substituting these values in Eq. 12-9, simplifying it by using u common denominator and the symbol At for temperature differences, results in:

cosl~ m. ii -1; + e- A t, -cos,Lml .,.. The temperature with 2 = 1, is: * t2 = Ah1 coslr differenee

lEq. 12-17 of the free end, Eq. 12-1X

The heat flow through Eq. 12-13 is:

the base of the rod with

:L kAm(CI-

CI)

Eq. 12-19

Subatituting the values for Cl and Ca from Eq. 12-16 and simplifying the equation by using a common denominator results i,n:
el ~ e-l

(1, = kAm t,

3-+

= kAm.at,

tmh

n1.1

Eq. 12-20

Eq. 12.20 is derived assuming that the heat fow from the free end is negligible, as giva by Eq. 12.12. The derivation of an equation without this simplifying ansumption given:

Substitut,ing for m from Eq. 12-22 and rearranging terms gives : 1 -==
ti b

Eq. 12.24 heat-

The left

side of Eq. 12.24 is the surface

January 1966

Pet,ro/Chem Engineer

transfer resistance; the right side is the heatconduetion resistanee of a piane wall with a thiekness equal to b/Z. If both resistanies are equal, the fins are useless. In the preceding csleulation, it was assumed that the temperature varies only in the direction of 1: and is constant on normals to 1. Actually the temperatures decrease from the center of u fin toward its faees. This influences the numerical relations in Eq. 12-24. ,In general, it is advantageous to use fin8 if : $> 5 Eq. 12-25

been determined that fins will increaue the beat flow in accordante nith inequality, Eq. 12-25, the fina1 selection depends on which of the possible savings, in cast, wright or space, is the deciding factor. The savings in eost and space can be determined best by comparing two alternate designs, one with fins and the other without fins. Swing in weight. The problem of exchanging the ~greatest amount of heat wi~th the least amount of weight of the beat, exchanger can be solved analytically by the following procedure. The weight W of each fin, with the designations of Fig. 12-5, is: W = bZLw = AILw Eq. 12-26

EXAMPLE 12-l: Determine whether cast iron fins l/s in. thick are useful on a heating surface when heat is transferred: (a,) to air and (b) to water. Use representative h values sueh as those employed in previous examples. SOLUTION: The thermal conduct,ivity of cast iron may be taken as k = 28 Btu/hr-ft-F. (a) For air in motion, h = 9.25 Btuhr-sq ft-F and : -m g = gyy=; = 581 case.

where w is the specific weight of the fin materia1 and AI is the cross-sectional area norma1 to L. The length L is given, and the fin dimensions b and 1 must be selected to give a, maximum beat Aow q1 for a giva area Ar = bl. By introducing m. = \,2h./kb, and I = AJb in Eq. 12-20:

Sinee 2Wh.b 1 5, fms will be useful in this For stili air, h = 1.04 Btu/hr-sq ft-F. Evidently fins will be even more useful. Ib) For laminar flow of water inside h = 24.2 Rtu,hr-sq ft-F and: 2k xX=

This hecomes a maximum ducing the designation:

for

dq/db

0. Intro-

pipa, Differentiating Eq. 12.27, setting the quotient equa1 to zero, results min: different,inl

12 ~~ x 28) (12:) = 222 24.2 x 0.125

Solving this equation by trial and error giva for the dimensionless number u, a value of 1.419. Thns, the maximum heat flow through a fin of a giva weight is obtained if 1x/-L> = 1.419. This relationship may be presented in the form: ft-F 21 = 1.419 ,/ll b Eq. 12-30

4s 2k/hb is greater than 5, the advantsge of ,fins will be significant. For turbulent flow of water outside pipes, h = 600 Btu;hr-sq ft-F and:

2k -= hb

(2 x W,,pJ
600 x 0.125

= 8,12

Therefore, fins are useful. For non-agitated water, h = 200 Btu/hr-sq -and:

2k
11 b

(2 x 281 (12,
200 x 0.125

= 26,2

Again fins would be useful. These examples show that, in general, fina are useful for air and other gasa where h is low, and are of less value wit,h water and other liquida, when h, is high. Spacing of fins. In order to take proper advantage of fins, they should be placed as close to each other as possihle. However; the fins must be SO spaeed that the boundary laqers which are built up on their surfaces do not influente each other. Therefore, the diutance between two fina must not be appreclably smaller than twice the boundary-layer thickness. This distance may he computed hy equations developed earlier. i2-4. Advmtages g&ed b,v fins. Afta it has

The ratio of height to half the thickness is a function of the same characteristic ratio (2k/hbj that enters into inequality Eq. 12-25 determining the usefulness of fina. The temperature differente b%tween the tip of the fin and the surrounding gas is obtained from Eq. 12.18:

For an exchanger in operation, measuring the temperatures Atl and Atl will show whether the fins have the optimum height. Fin eflectiveness. Far a heating surface with fins, the heat flow from the fins is, by Eq. 12.27 and Eq. 12.28: q1 = L,/2h,kb Atl taniru Eq. 12-32 the

If the surface

has no fins, the heat Aow from

Petro/Chem

Engineer

January 1966

53

AI = g($$.

Eq. 12-35

Figure 12-3, Effectiveness

of straight

fins.

area equal to the fin base is q = hbL ntl. The ratio of the. beat flow qi to q shows the effectiveness of the fins:

Eq. 12.33 determines far giva h, k, and b, the maximum possible beat-flow inerease by the addition of fins to the area coverai by them. of fin surface. In discussing the 1.2-5. Eficiency performance of fins it is useful to introduce the concept of effectiveness of the fin surfaee. This term is defined 88 the ratio of the amount of heat actually dissipated with and without fins when the smne film coefficient h, is used and the fin surfaces are assumed to be at the temperature of the fin base. Using Eq. 12-32 for the heat actually dissipated, the effectiveness 7, after reducing the terms and using Eq. 12-28, heeomes:
Ld2hkb
?1= 2Lth

Consideration of Eq. 12-35 indica& that it ie advisable to make fins as urna11 as possible and increase their number. Far example, in order to doublethe~heat flow vl, it is better to use two fins of the origina1 size and area, A,, than t,o use one fm with an eight time larger section and weight. Eq. 12-35 also afforda a means of comparing different materials far use in fins. It shows that the cross-s&ional xea Al is inversely propoitional to the heat eonductivity k. Hera, the ,fin weight is proportional to w/k. Table 12-1 giva average values of heat conductivity st 212 F and of weights of various metals and alloys and permits a direct comparison on the basis of w/Jc ratios. The right column gives a eomparison with the weight of aluminum fina taken as 1. It shows that by using aluminum instead of copper, it is possihle to save 78% in weight in spite of the higher heat conductivity of copper. Of the ferrous materials, cast iron is better than carbon steel, and stainless steel on the weight basis; should never be used for fins. 12-6. Va~iotcs fin shapes. The fin with a rectangular section is the simplest shape available and is ued quite extensively. However, due to u gradua1 heat dissipation by the sides of a fin and due to R decrease of the fin temperature, the heat flow toward the fin end decreases. Under such eonditions a betta utilization of the fin materia1 will be ohtained, if the thickness of the end. The calculation the fin decreases toward for other fin sections is eonsiderably more involved and only the result,s will be giva here.2 Triangulw fG1z.s. For an optimum triangular fin, Fig. 12-4, the ratio of the height, Z, tp the halfthickness b/2 at the base is giva by: 21
b = 1.309 4%

Atl t.anh u
At,

- ~

fAm7l~21

Eq. 12-34

Eq. 12-36

This equation is represented by the lower curve vV in Fig. 12-3. Required area. The optimum cross-sectional fin area +t,, required for a giva beat flow ql, is bobtained from Eq. 12-28 and Eq. 12-32 by mtroducing the numerica1 values tanh ?c = 0.889 and u = 1.419 and eliminating the thickness b. Under these conditions :

which is smaller by 22.576 than the same ratio for a rectangular fin, as giva by Eq. 12-30. The temperature differente on the fin tip is: Ata = 0.277 At, Eq. 12-37

which is smaller by 40.6% than the temperature differente for a rectangular fin, by Eq. 12.31. The

TABLE

12-1.

Comparison

of Materials

Far

Use

in Fins

Aluminum, pure Aluminum alloy Cast iron Copper Magnesium Steal, mild Steel. stainlesr

119 100
30 218

82 26
9.5

170 175 450 555 110 487~

490

1.43 1.75 15.0 2.54 1.34 18.7

51.6

1.0 1.22 10.5 1.78 0.94 13.1 36.5

January 1966

ratio of the thickness bt of the triangular fin at its~base to the thickness b, of the rectangular fin with~ equa1 beat, flow is 1.31. However, ,the:ratio of the cross sectional areas is 1/1.44, therefore the triangular fin requires 44% less material. The efficiency vt of a triangular fin is also slightly higher than that of a rectangular fin and is show by the eorresponding curve in Fig. 12-3. Fin of sm.aZZest weight. The determination of a fin having the smallest weight for ,a given heat flow is of considerable practical interest. In sueh a fin, every part should be utilized to the same extent, which means that the specifie rate of beat flow must be constant throughout the fin height.3 The beat-flow lines, therefore, must be equally spaced straight linea, parallel to a plane passing through the center line of the fin, as shown in Fig. 12-5. For a constant specific beat-flow rate the temperature decreases linearly along any flow line from tl at the base of the fin. The limit of utilization of the fin will be reached if the tip temperature equa18 the temperature t, of the sui= rounding gas, as shown in the upper part of Fig. 12-5. The differente between the fin temperature t at a distance z and the gas temperature t, may % expressed 8s:

Figure

12.5. Fin with smallest

weight

t, ~ t, = (tl -

tn) $.

Eq. 12-38

ConsideT a surface element of the fin at the distance % which forma an angle OLwith the center piane. The specific beat-flow rate through this element is q siri 01, where Q is the specific beat-flow rate in the direction of the fin height. This heat flow must be equa1 to the heat 1~(t. - ta) transferred to the gas, or: q siri 01 = h (t, Introducing Eq. lo-38 ente, results in: Sind _ h(t1-G

the axis of the cylinder and 1 is the height of the fin. Numerically the effeetiveness r), can be expressed by the eficiency 7v of a reetangular straight fin as: q = T,~ -- AT, . Eq. 12-41 where the value vr is giva by Eq. 12-34 or Fig. 12-3, and the correction APJ may be taken from Table 12-Z.

TABLE 12-2. Correction Values Aq For Circumferential Fins

AT, for q = (RI + l)/Rl n
1.0 0.9

t,)
for the temperature

Eq. 12-39 differ-

of: 2.0
0

1.1
0 Il.004

1.25
LI 0.010

1.50
0 0.020

1.75
0 0.029

:z

Eq. 12-40

The fraction on the right side of Eq. 12-40 has a Therefore, the contour of the :@yonstallt .alu,c mvestlgated fin is a circle, because a circle is presented by the equation sina = x/? which is identica1 with Eq. 12-40 if T = qdh (tltu). HOWever, it is not necessary to make the fin with an infinitely thin edge shown in Fig. 12-5. Any pakt of the cirele can be used to form the contour far a fin with a constnnt beat-flow rate, us shown by dashed lines. The ~difference in weight between a fin with a circular contour and a triangular contour is small. The triangular contour is easier to make, therefore, practically it may be considered as the best shape. 12-r. Cirmmferential fina. Circumferential fins attached to a cylindrieal surface cannot utilize the fin materia1 as effieiently 8s fins norma1 t0 a fiat surface.4 The efficiency Q of a eireumferential fin decreases with an incresse of the relative height of the fin as expressed by the ratio Y = UZ, + Z)/R,, where RI, is the radia1 distante of the fin base from

0.8 0.6 0.4

0.009 0.013

0.020 0.029

0.035 0.050

0.048 0.070 0.066

0.033 0.057 0.086

Special. equation There is available a more dire& procedure for eomputing beat 108s from a mediumdiameter cylindrical surface with fins to an air stream. This procedure eomists in finding a special overall heat transfer coefficient U referred to the outside surface of the cylinder A and computing the heat flow from the equation: Q = A U(t,, t,i Eq. 12-42

where t, is the temperature of the cylinder wall, t, is the temperat,ure of thn conling air and U is found from the following equation expressed in units and symbols used herein: U = &(&( 1 i- &)

tanh. Cm(I + b/Z)l

Eq. 12-43

Petro/Chem

Engineer

January 1966

65

radiant energy at the temperature met in industrial practice. As a result, the effe& of convection and radiation are simply superimposed and the combined beat, losr. q mny be presented as: q = A(h., -II IL,) (tl ~ tl Eq. 12.44

where t, is the temperature of the hot surface, t2 is the temperature of the air and of the swroundings. For a body completely enclosed by the surrounding surfaee, F = 1. If the surroundings are assumed to haue the properties of a black body, F, = c, where e is the emissivity of the body. In this case it is giva by:
h,. = 0.00696e (&)" '. Eq. 12-45

0.0040005 0.005 0.008 0.0,

*verage Figure 12-6. Film coefficient ai,-stream "docities.

0.015
for various

0.02

0.03

004 and

fin space. s, ee, fin spaces

where:

11,= a film coeflieient to be taken from Fig. 12-6 ,T = the space between t,wo fins, oi s + b is the pitch of the fins i = determined by Eq. 12.22 I = the height of the fins D, = the diameter of the cylindricnl surface

The flow of air between the fins is retarded by their frictional resistance; therefore, the film coefficients giva by the cuives of Fig. 12-6 are considerably lower, than formed far smooth cylinders without fins. ,f%S. Combimd, convection and .radia~t%on. some In practical problems, where heat is lost simultaneously by convection to the air and by radiation to the enclosing surroundings, it is convenient to take advantage of the fact that sir does not absorb

where T,, is the average of the temperature TI of the surface and of the temperature TP of the enclosing walls, T,,, = (Tl + T%j/z. Eq. 12-45 giva a reduced value forh, but if T1 5 1.5 Ti, the error is less than 4%. Sinzplified. procedwe. For preliminary calculations when the beat-loss conditions, particularly th temperature differente, are not known with any9 (h, + h.,,j for accuracy the combined coeffieient still air may be taken directly from Table 12.3. Values in Table 12-3 are determined foti bare steel pipes and flat surfaces. Sinee values~ of F for insulating materials do not differ much from e ,from oxidiaed steel, they may be used also for insulated pipa. For small temperature differences, BS exist in buildings, the experiment,al values of the combined coefficient (!l., -1 h,) for still air in cantact with various materials are :7 cement plaster finish, 0.9; concrete or corkboard, 1.3; brickwork, sheet asbestos, or finished wood surface, 1.4; magnesia board or window glass, 1.5. For air in motion, the above combined coeffieients should be multiplied bg a factor taken from Table Y-4.%

TABLE 12-3. Combined Coefficient (h, + h,) in Stili Air At Roo,m Temperature, Btulhr-sq ft-F Outride oiametsr
indles 50 2.15 2.10 100 2.45 2.40 150 2.75 2.70 200 3.05 3.00 250 3.40 3.30 3.00 2.90 2.85 2.80 2.70 3.00 3.25 2.65 0.84 1.32 Temperature diiference, ts-t,, 300 3.75 3.62 3.35 3.20 3.15 3.10 3.00 3.30 3.60 2.95 400 4.50 4.35 4.05 3.90 3.85 3.80 3.70 4.00 4.30 3.60 500 5.30 5.15 4.85 4.70 4.65 4.60 4.50 4.80 5.10 4.40 "Fd 600 6.20 6.05 5.70 5.55 5 50 5.45 5.35 5.70 6.05 5.25 700 7.15 7.00 6.65 6.50 6.45 6.40 6.30 6.75 7.05 6.25 800 8.40 8.25 7.90 7.75 7.70 7.65 7.55 7.05 6.20 7.40 900 9.75 9.60 9.25 1000 11.2 11.0 10.7 1100 12.8 12.6 12.3

3.50
5.56

1.90
1.85

2.20
2.10 2.05 2.00 1.90 2.10 2.30 1.85

2.50
2,35 2.30 2.25 2.15 2.40 2.50 2.10

2.73
2.60 2.55 :.50 2.40 2.70 2.95 2.35

9.10
9.05 8.95 8.85 9.20 9.55 8.70

10~5
10.5 10.4 10.3

12.2
12.1 12.0 11~9 12.3

8.63
12.75 24.00 Vetiicald Horiz.f.u.h Horiz.f.d.=

1.80
1.75 1.65 1.80 2.00 1.60

1O.G 11.0
10.2

12 G
11.8

~"ertical rurfiee ~Hori.a"trl surface facinp ulnvanl

'Horizontsl suriaee facing downwnrd 'It. is suriuce temperature; t;,, il air iempemtuw

56

January 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

temperature of the air. The a,mount of heat conducted radially from the surface 1 to surfacr 2 and is equa.1 to the amount dissipated through convection and radiation and giva by Eq. 12.44:

Often t,he temperature t2 of the ootside surface is not known. The simpiest way of finding the heat losi by Eq. 12-46 is to use a trial-and-error procedure for finding the temperature tr and then to use Table 12.3., For this procedure it is convenieut to present Eq. 12-46 in the form: TABLE 12-4. Factors to Multiply SII-Air Coefficients (h, + h,) by for Air in Motion
Air velocity, mph Type of surface Brickwork Wood, finished 5 2.4 2,.3

10
3.0 2.7

15
3.8 3.0

20 4.2 3.2

EXAMPLE 12-3. Find the heat loss far the, pips of Example 12-2 if the pipe is covered with V!&in. insulation that has a thermnl conductivity Ii = 0.035 Btu/hr-ft-F. SOLUTION: The inside d&meter, D1 = 5.56 in., and the outside diameter. & = 8.56 in., or 0.713 ft. Substituting al1 known quantities in Eq. 12-47 results in:

ABLE

12-5. Combined Coefficient (h, + h,) From The Surface of a Rotating Cylinder to Air. Rtufhr-sq ft.OF
Velocity oi rotating surtace, fps

1ype Of sur:ace

20 1.97 2.39

40 2.79 3 32

60 3.14 3.95

80 3.30 4.50

100 3.38 5.00

Smoath (polished copper) 0.47 Rough (dull black, varnished) 0.47

Loss of beat from the sorfaee of a rotating cylinder to air, BS in flywheels or armatures, can be calculated from values giva in Teble 12.5. EXAMPLE 12-2. Calculate the heat loss per linea foot from a 5.in., horizont.al bare standard steel pipe whieh carries saturated steam at 10 psig and is exposed to stili air at 68F. ) The temperature differente, t = .,,:.:u:= 171F The outside diameter, D = 5.56 in. Interpolatinp data from Table 12-3 gives: 2.35:) (171.5 - 16 (200 -.- 150) = 2.4G Btu/hr-sq ft-F as compared with Ir,, = 1.04 Btuhr-sq ft-F found in Example 9-l for conoection alone. The outside area of 1 ft, of the pipe A = v x 5.56/12 L 1.455 sq ft. The beat, 10s is: g = 1.455 x 2.4F x 171.5 = 614 Btu/hr 12.9. Combined conduetion, convection, and mdiation. When a surface is insulated, the beat mast pass through the layer of insulation by candurtion before being dissipated by convection and radiation. Consider the important case of an insulated pipe shows in Fig. 12-7. Let t, br the temperature of the Dioe surfaee. %. the temnernture of the outside ,(,. ,m ],,,- = ;,35 .@O -

Assume first that tz = 90F, then Eq. rl giva it,,: + h., = 1.54. Extrapolating ill Table 12-3, the Lione far the nearest diameter Dl = 8.63 to t = 22F gives h.,: + h,, = 1.66. This shows t,hat ta must, be slightly lover. Assume next, tY = 89F. Then Eq. a giva h, + h,- = 1.63 and from Table 12-3, Ir, + il,, = 1.65. A further decrease of t% will make the differente in the opposite direction and lager. Thuti t2 = 89F and from Eq. 12-4G: y = 1.G3 x 7i x 0.713 (89.681 References ID. R. Harper and W. B. Brown, Mathematical Equations for Heat Conduction in t,he Fins of Air-Cooled Engines, Nat. Adv. Committee for Aeronauties, Technical Report No. 158 (1923) pp. l-30, 2. E. Schmidt, Die Warmeubertragung duxh Ripoen. Zeit. TDI. Vo1 70 (19261 DD. 885.889 and ..
i47:951.

= 76.ti Btu/hr

3E. Schmidt, loc. cit., p. 948. Hnrper and Brown, loc. cit., p. 2. A. E. Biebermnnn and B. Pinkel, Heat Transfer from Finned Meta1 Cylin,der in an Air Stream, IVACA Repwt No. 488 (1939i pp. 15 and 11. Ibid, p. 11. rA. C. Willard and 1,. C. Liehty, A Studi of the Heat Trnnsmission of Building Materials, Univ. of Illinois Bulletin, No. 12 (Nov. 19, 1317). BA. C. Willard and L. C. Lichty, loc. cit. Marks Handbook, op. cit., p, 378.

Heat Transfer, Part 13, Overall will appear in the February issue.

Petro/Chem

Engineer

January 1966

pine? sugar maple and birch, but redwood, beech, yellow poplar, yellow pine, red, oak, white oak, ponderosa pine and spruce have also been treated.

Hydrocarbon Processing
M Production of synthesis gas from cellulosics is under study as a means to supply synthesis gas in countries which do not hsve ready access to fossi1 fuels but are rich in agricultuml wastes such as rice hulls, bagasse, sawdust, etc. Recent studies by M. W. Kellogg Co. have demonstrated the feasibility of such gasification in a reactor in wh,ich feed mamrial ~wasdropped continuously on a packed bed maintained at 1000 C. In the gasification of wood, for example, the gas formed on steel wool (at heating contract surface) contained approximately 50 mol % each of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, with only minor formation of carbon dioxide and methane. In the case of sugar gasificatio a on the other band, formation of the latter two products was more substantial. Mention might be made bere that one version of a wood gasification process has been commercially operated in Frante during the early 1950s. 8 In-line chromatographs continuously monitor ultrapure hydrogen at National Cylinder Gas Div. of Chemetron Corp. in Dallas Tex. With tight limits of 2 ppm Nz, 2 ppm HzO, 0 ppm hydrocarbons and O,, the unit samples from 2400 psi gas which has been purified by ,Palladium diffusion. One analysis is made automatically every 12 min and automatically checked against a standard every 2 hr. The earrier gas is also hydrogen purified by a small Palladium diffuser. This avoids time consuming purges of equipment between analyses. A 5 cc sample is used. The equipment has performed satisfactorily sinee 1962. A similar unit is used ,for monitoring Ns. On the basis of performance another hydrogen unit is ed going into NCG plant in Barherton, Ohio.
n Modification in method of determining Reid vapor pressure for gasoline can improve aceuracy. An investigation,at Phillips Petroleum Co. compared a number of vapor pressure measurement methods as to correlation with dire& vapor to liquid ratio measurements and automobile acceleration performance. A modification of the Reid method increasing air t,o liquid ratio from 4:l to 25:l and test temperature from 100 F to 130 F gare the best correlation with direct V/L measurements at 120 F, 140 F and 160 F. It was also found to be suitahle to characterize a fuel with regard to acceleration of automobiles in hot weather. Values determined, were satisfactory for adequately precise blending of fu&, equivalent to the standard Reid values.

PROGRESS HPITECHNOLOGY IN

Petrochemicals
A potential answer to the detergent problem in water treatment may be provided by foam fractionation techniques. Operating on principles similar to those applied in ore flotation, feed water is passed continuously through a unit where it is caused to foam by air introduced through spargers. Dissolved detergents, along with other contaminants, both solid particles and dissolved impurities, are concentrated at the foam interface,. The foam is spilled over a baffle or through a pipe, the foam broken and the sludge disposed of. The improved water is drawn off continuously ;at the bottoni. 70% removal of ABS is reported. It is suggested that the method may be useful in purification even when only soft detergents are present. For a 100 MM gal/day installation, capita1 eost has recently been estimated at 1.26 gal/day and operating cast at 1.4$/1000 gai.
n

w Polymerization of methyl methacrylate in situ by irradiation improves and stabilizes the properties of wood. Investigators at the University of West Virginia bave processed wood by first saturating with nonomeric methyl methacrylate, styrene or vinyl acetate (other monomers may be used) and polymerizing within the strutture of the wood by exposure to gamma radiation. The wood is vacuum treated to withdraw air and impregnation is carried out under reduced pressure. Irradiation is done in an atmosphere of nitrogen, because the effe& of irradition take piace more rapidly in the absence of oxygen. Work has been done principally with white

January 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

formation on fluids and gasa iu listed in alphabetical order for eauy referente. Jordax Valve Div., Richnrds Industries, Inc.

Ani~rher Unique Verti-Line Pump Advantage . . .

EQUIPMENT for tempere ture and pressure correction instrumentation is show in an Spa@ brochure. Detailed are Temcorector types 1, T and W, which are adaptable t,o large capacity positive displacement gas meters. Applieations, specifications, temperature and pressure ranges are listed. Roekwell Mmufactwriny
CO.

25

Although there are other verti4 turbine pumps using stainless steel bearing sleeves between the line shafts and their Ruid-lubricated bearings, only orve-Verti-Line-has developed stai&% steel sleeves that can be frmly locked nnywhere on the shaft without threads, wirhout welding or soldering, and without undercutting CIT any other way in weakeninr! the line shaft!

W6

GENERATOR SYSTEMSA brochure deseribing the nev 750 kw Saturn indust,rial gas,turbine eontinuous duty generator set, including a discussion of system economics using exhaust heat recover, is offered by this firm. Dimensional drawings, curves and other teehnieal data are included. Solar Div.,

What

This Verti-Line

Adwncement

Means

to You. . .

~:~::,

International
Harvester

Co.

METALLURGICAL AND Meehanical Prnpertirs of Tit,anium Alloy Ti-679 is the title of a 20. page manual with 19 graphs, 15 microstructure~ photographs and 8 tables. The manual notes that the metal has eharacteristics desirable in applications requiring prolonged exposure to high stress at temperatura in the 650-900 F range.

27,

l -..+&

Titaniuna

Metals

Cm-p.

~~~~~~~.

of America.

OI othenuise interfere with quid<, easy release when replacement or re-locadon are desired!

SHOT CLEANING SYStems-This 12.page brochure deseribes shot cleaning as one of the best methods of cleaning tubular air heaters and other boiler sections which operate below the ash fusion temperature. It gives details Y how the system operate5 and shows what the system has accomplished in various plants. Diamond Power speciazty cwp.

28

Troublefree bearing sleeve lockr are iust one more of the many unique advancements built into Verti-Line Pumpr -advancemen+s pioneered and develaped ovei more than a holfxentury of leadership in the verti& turbine pump field. May we send you more de+& explaining why Vertiline Pumpr are the atondard of the industry? wli-l;nePmpr are exch,rie,y Ihe piodclr 0,

8. BOWLER PUMP COMPANY LOS ANGELES zip Ida;, Mdrerr.. .80X,300,LaPuerile,Cd,. 9174, NewYark20,N.Y.. Aurora,111. (Chicago Area). Hastingr,Neb.. Monroe. La. Atlanta, Ga.. Farwell,Texas Twin Fallr, Idaho. Fremo,Calif.

LAYNE

Petro/Chem Engineer

February 1966

Over-Ai1 Heat Transfer-

Part 13

Applied Heat Transfer Design for t,he HPI

by Wayne C. Edmister and Joseph M. Marche110
13-I. Introtluction. As brought out in the previous part, heat transfer from one medium to another usually takes piace simultaneously by al1 three mechanisms - convection, conduetion and radiation. 4 large number of the problems met in engineering work deal with steady-state heat transfer from one fluid to another fluid separated from .the first one by a solid wall. Generally spesking, the heat from the hotter fluid is conveyed tn the solid wall by convection and radiation, travels through the wall by eonduction, and is transferred to the eolder fuid by radiation and conveetion. Even at low temperatures when radiation can be neglected, there stili remain two different manners of heat transfer to be considered - convection and conduetion. Far ?hese problems the logica1 procedure would be to ealculate the temperatures on both sides of the wall and, knowing the fluid temperatures, calculate the corresponding heat transfer rate for eonvection radiation and conduction. However, for practic+ purposes it is often desirahle to simplify the calculatiions and calculate the rate of heat flow directly from the equation:
q ~ AU(tl tz)

Since thermal conductance is defined aa the reciproeal of thermal resistance, the tot,al resistance to beat flow may be obtained from Eq. 13-1 as: Eq. 13-4 On the other hand, the tota1 resistance R evidently is equa1 to the sum of al1 separate resistances in seria : *~~~
R-RykRgf.<.R,,.

.Eq.13-5

~~~

From Eq. 13-4 and 13-5: LI= 1

RI -I- Ro -II R,,

Eq. 13-6

Eq. 13-1

where tu and tl are the temperatura of the two fluida and U is the so-called over-ali beat tmnsfer coefficient, or simply the over-al1 coefficient. For some practieal conditions the over-al1 eoefficient has been determined experimentally. However, in general it is determined by taking into aecount the separate faetors affeeting the beat flow. These factors are physieal and thermal properties of the fluids, slow conditions of the fluids and thermal and geometrica1 eharacteristics of the wall. 13.2. Ikenr~al Resistance. The application of the over-al1 eoefficient to heat transfer problems is made easier by the introduction of the concept of resistance t,o beat transfer :
R, =

In design prohlems it is important not only to determine the over-al1 coeffieient U for given con~~~ ditions but also to know how to increase the coefficient U for beat exchzmgers and decrease U for parts thst must be protected from heat 108s or heat gai. Depending upon the seleet,ed condi~~ tions, the values of the different resistanees RI, Rs can be vsried by design modifications. According :~ to Eq. 13-6, in order to change the value of U :~: appreciably, it is necessary to change those resi& _~ anees t,hat have the higher values. Thus, in design- ~~ ing a heat exchanger between a liquid and a gas, ~~~ the resistance to eonductivity ususlly is small compared to the resistances to convettive beat AO a from and to the two fluida. Therefore, changing the meta1 wall from steel to brass which has a much higher conductivity, or decreasing the thick-

1 7r

Eq. 13-Z

where R, is the resistanee to heat flow by convection. Similarly, R,, the resistanee to heat flow by radiation is : 1 Rv = x Eq. 13-3
Figure 13.1. Heat transfer between two fluids.

56

February

1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

ness of the wall, will not change U appreciably. Also, since the film coefficient of a liquid is usuaUy much higher than that of a gas, the over-al1 coefficient can be increased primarily by deereasing the thermal resist,ance between the gas and wall, i.e., by inereasing the gas-film coefficient. 13-3. Over-dl eoeffrcient. An expression for the over-al1 coefficient U can be derived for heat transfer from a fluid with a temperature, t, to u second fluid having a temperature td. The physical situation is shown in Fig. 13-1, where tz and ta are the surface temperature6 of the wall and z is its thickness. The flow of heat from the hotter fluid to a unit area of the hotter wall surface is : * = hi(tl b2) Eq. 13.7a

thermal resistance is increased by a film coefficient at each su-face facing the inner air space. For a narrow air space, beat is earried aeross the space by convection currents and by radiation. The resistanee of such an air space may be expressed approximately as the sum of the two surface resistanees, or as Uh,. Fig. 13-3 shows such a wall for whieh the over-all coetlicient is: Eq. 13.13

ahere hl is the film coeffieient on the hot side. At steady-state conditions the same amount of heat will flow by conduction through the same area to the other side of the wall: k q = Z(ts ~ t3) Eq. 13.7b

For relatively large vertical air spaces with the distane between the walls s > 0.125 ft, h.r may be determined from earlier discussion and depends on the height of the air space. Enclosed Air Spaces. For narrow enelosed air spaces, as encountered in hollow walls and double windows, Eq. 13-13 may be modified by introdueing the resistance of the air space l/C, where C is the conductance: u = ~~i---~.~~~~~,~, 1 1 -+x+c+c+1L, h.2 or 1 . Eq. 13.14

where k is the thermal conductivity of the wall material. The flow of heat through the same area to the other fluid is: q = h:s(ta ~ tr) Eq. 13.7~

where ha is the fdm coeffieient on the corresponding wall surface. On the other hand, the same heat flow may be expressed by Eq. 13-1 as: q = U(t, ta) Eq. 13-8

where U is the over-al1 coefficient of heat transfer. Substituting for Q in Eq. 13-S the three temperature differences from Eq. 13-7~1to 13.7~ may be written ZJ: tl ta = u (tl 11% ti) Eq. 13-9n Eq. 13.9b _ td Eq. 13-9~

While convection~ decreases with a decrease of the air space thickness, from 11/ in. down, the total beat transfer coefficient inereases due to an increase of heat transfer by conduction through a thinner layer of relatively stagnant air. The effwtivanasti oi &n air space used for heat insulation can be increased by cutting the space up both vertically and horieontally. Sectioning the vertical height reduces the eonvection currents by limiting the air buoyancy differente. Subdividing the space horizontally into severa1 narrower spaces by layers of aluminum foil or thin sheets of other

tz-tj=+t-tnl t:, t4 = $(tl

Addmg these three Eq. 13.9a to 13.9c gives:

Eq. 13-10 from which: LI= 1 &+G+& For a case where there are more than three resistances, Eq. 13-6 may be applied dire&. In the case shown in Fig. 13-2 when the beat-exchanger wall is covered by scale, U may be expressed as: Eq. 13-11
Figure 13.2. Heat transfer through a composite wall.

13.4. Air

spcms.

When ai wall has air spaces. its

Figure

13.3.

Heat

transfer

throogh

wall

with

air spa&.

PetrojChem

Engineer

February 1966

61

bright faces,

material, decreases

parallel to the main vertieal suiboth convection and radiation.

EXAMPLE 13-l. Determine the over-al1 heat transfer coefficient of a brick wall 8 in. thick. The inside surface is beat insulated by celotex sheetg 7/16-in. thick fastened to the briek wall with u ?-in. air space and covered with u ::/b-in. layer of plaster. The room temperature is 70 F, the outside air temperature is 10 F. Assume a nind, velocity of 15 mph. SOLUTION: In order to facilitate the working of the problem, the main data are shown in Fig. 13-4. Designate the outside surface coefficient by FI,%, the inside surface coefficient by ho, and the conductanee of the air space by C. The thermal conductivity of briek rnay be taken as k = 0.40, assuming 1% moisture. The thermal conductivity of eelotex is: k = 0.028. The thermal conduetivity of the plaster may be taken as k = 0.40. to be on the safe side. With these data, the equation for computing the over-al1 coefficient is similar to Eq. 13-14, only for composite walls on both sides of the nir space: u= 1
0.0304 +0.028+

Figure

13.4.

Data

for wall

of Example

13-l

Eq.~a The value of hl may be determined from the observation that at an air velocity of v = 15 x 5280 = 79,200 fph, the flow is turbulent. k = 0.0135 Btu/hr-ft;F, p = 0.0845 lb/cu ft, and ,L = 0.040 lb/ft-hr, and taking for L the limit value L = 2.0 ft, ,gives:
hz = 0.055 0.0135 ~ 2.0 (2) [ (79,200:) 0.040 i:o.o84oj

the temperature differente At is then found from v and from it the approximate value of hr,; t,he value of hg is then recalculated with the value of At found as a first approximation and a new, corrected value of U is cnlculatcd. With At = 20 F: hs = (0.23) 20% = 0.625 Btu/hr-sq ft-F Substituting the calculated values of h2, C, and ?L, in Eq. (ai gives: u=-1 0.20 + 1.67 + 0.85 + 1.30 + 0.08 + 1.60 1 =5.70 = 0.175 Btu/hr-sq ft-F

By Eq. 13-l: Q = 0.175 (70 ~ 10) = 10.50 Btu/hr-sq This hent flows through every and the temperature differente, imate value of hG, is: 70 ft

= 5.15 Btu/hr-sq

ft-F

0.m

separating surface with the approxEq. c coefficient is

The value of the conductance C may be found by Eq. 8-29 (see Sept. 1965, p. 63). As a first approximation t, may be taken as an average between the outside and inside temperatures. However, Fig. 13-4 shows clenrlg t,hat the ?esistance to heat flow from inside is much greater than to the outside; therefore, it is advisable to loner the average temperature, sxy by ZOy&, or:
t, = (70'.lIOj (0.5) (0.8) = 32 F

ti; = 10.50,0.623

= 16.8 F over-al1

The corrected value now changed to:

of the 1

1 5.79

0.173 Btu/hr-sq of Q is:

ft-F

Eq. d

and the new value 1.17 Eq. b

and :
C = 0.009/0.052 -I0.09 \/32

rl = 0.173 (70 ~ 101 = 10.38 Btujhr-sq -II 90 = Btu/hr-sq ft-F This giva a new temperature differente:

ft

If lata it is found that t, differs appreciably from the assumed value of 32 F, the value of C should be recaleulated. The value of 11.6 may be calculated from eorrelations. Unfortunately, there is no sound basis for estimating the temperature At, in this case (70 te). The simplest way is to entimate this temperature, say as At = 20 F compute hs, find the value of C and the corresponding heat flow 9 by Eq. 13-l ;

70 -

ta = 10.38iO.591

= 17.3 F

This is suffieiently close to the previously assumed value of 17.0 F and no further adjustment of the value of li.6 is r~ecessary. However, before considering the value of L = 0.173 found by the Eq. (di) us final, the value of C should be checked by finding the temperatures ts and tp. At the same time it is advisable to check the correctness of U by finding tl. The proee&~re is based on the eonstsnt flow of

62

February 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

READY NOW.,

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CMDENSED CATALOG )I
of forged valves,, lI steel

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beat, as used in Eq. = 52.7 F: tj = (52.7 t4 = (51.9 tp, = (38.4 ~ t2 = (29.6 tl = (12.3 -

(c).

With 0.08 1.30 0.85 1.67 0.20 = = = = =

t6 = 51.9 38.4 29.6 12.3 10.2

70 F F F F F

17.3

10.38) 10.38) 10.38) 10.38) 10.38)

The temperature t1 = 10.2 F is sufficiently close to 10.0 F m that this check may be considered as satisfaetory. Now the conductance C, Eq. (b), may be checked. The man temperature t, = (t4 f td/2 = (38.4 +, 29.6)/2 = 34.0 F, whereas it was assumed as 32 F. The differente is SO mm11 that it will not affect the value of conductance C. Thus the value of U = 0.173 Btu/hr-sq ft-F may be taken as the fina1 answer. Accwacy. It should be remembered that the aecuracy of the over-all coeficient eannot be very high because SO many factors enter in, the caleulations and eaeh factor usually earries a probable erro* of i-5 to 10%. 13-5. lJnequ.aZ surfaces. The foregoing discussions dealt with piane walls with equa1 surface areas on both sides. When the outer and inner surfaces are not equal, BS in a box with relatively thiek walls or in a pipe with thick walls, the value of U~must be applied to a square foot of either the outer or inner or mean surface. If the ,subseript o is used for the outside terms and the subscript i for the inside terms, A, is the area of the outside surface, Ai is that of the inner surface, and A, is the area of the mean surface. Then the value of U, referred to the outer surface, may be presented by modifying Eq. 13-11 as: u=AD. A& ;, 1. Eq. 13-15

EXAMPLE 13-2. Superheated steam at 450 psia and 800 F flows at a velocity of 12,000 fpm through a 6-in. horieontal extra-strong non-insulated steel pipe suspended in a large tunnel with air at 100 F. Calculate the over-al1 coefficient U, referred to the outside surfaee of the pipe. SOLUTION: The outside~diameter of the pipe is D, = 6.625 in., inside diameter Di = 6.761 in. The ratio D,/D; = 1.15 and therefore the simpler Eq. 13-17 may be used. The data are: k = 0.0443 Btu/hr-ft-F; Di = 5.761112 = 0.48 ft; the specific volume of steam v = 1.6074 CU ft/lb and therefore: G = 12,000 x 60 .-- = 404,800 lb/hr-sq 1.6074 Viscosity p = fi = 7.09 x specific heat c and Eq. 6-14 ft

7.09 x lo- Ih sec/sq ft or, 1O-i (115,813) = 0.082 lb/ft-hr; = 0.54 Btu,ilb-F. From these dat,a (see May 1965, p. 74) :

= 307 Btu/hr-sq

ft-F.

0 +Yi;j;+x

In Eq. 13.15 the thermal resistance of the inner surface, l/hi, is multiplied by A,/A< to take into account the greater resistame to heat flow of the smaller inner surface. Likewise the term x/k, thermal resistance to eonductance through the materia1 of the wall, is multiplied by the ratio A,/A, to take into account the greater resistance ,of the smaller mean area as compared with the outside area. For & thick-walled cylinder or pipe, the ratio A,/Ai = D,/Dl. Substituting far the mean area results in : u, = 2% + g D,$Li 1 In L!!? + .,+ 0 Eq. 13.16

The temperature of the pipe can be assumed to be equa1 to the temperature of the steam. The thermal conductivity of mild steel at 800 F is k = 23.6 Btu/hr-ft-F. The outside beat transfer coefficient k, is the. result of the simultaneous action of free convection and radiation, or h, = h, + h,. In order to obtain the modulus a the temperature of the air film may be calculated using for a first approximation the steam temperature as the pipe mrface temperature, or:

t < = 100 +

(800 -

100)

x 0.25 =

275 F

and hence a = (0.365) 10; L = D, = 6X25/12 = 0.552 ft. The approximate temperature difference~# is 800 - 100 = 700 F. Thus the term: No, x Nrr ,(0.552j = aL3 At = (0.365) (700) = (4.3) 10 10

Therefore C = 0.45. For t = 275 F, the conductivity of air is K - 0.0198:. h, = 0.45 gg = 1.31 Btu/hr-sq (4.3) (107) .X

However, if A$A1 < 2, the arithmetic mean area A, = (A, + Ai)/2 may be used with sufficiant aeeuracy and Eq. 13-16 then beeomes:

ft-,F.

u, =

1 DO + +(D, - DJ ~+ ,,JJ D;hi (Do + Di) k lf.,,

Eq. 13.17

For smooth, strongly oxidized steel, using t = 800 F, by interpolation, e = 0.84. Since the tunnel eneloses the pipe completely, F = 1. For a first approximation T1 = 800 + 460 = 1260 R and T, = 100 + 460 = 560 R. Thus: }~, (0.84) (12.6 800.100 = 4.98 Btu/hr-sq ft-F. (o.in3j 5.6)

If it is desired to refer U to the inner surface, U, from Eq. 13-17 must be multiplied by D,/Di, or Ui may be obtained direetly from the equation:

64

February 1966

PetrojChem

Engineer

and with

these values: ft-F

h, = 1.31 + 4.98 = 6.29 Btu/hr-sq Substituting u these values

in Eq. 13-17 giva: 1

<I

= J.lJ + M:2(0.552 - 0.48) 1 (0.5jzf~o.48)23.6 + 6% 307 = 6.08 BtuIhr-sq ft-F flow per lineal (6.08) foot (800 of the pipe 100) = is, by 7,380

The hbat Eq. 13-I: q = ,r

(0.552)

Btu/hr Using this value the temperatura of the inside and outside pipe surfaees may be determined using the pertinent areas : 800 t,j = 7,380/(r) (0.48) (307) = 15.9 F.

In determining the temperature pipe wall thiekness the avenge A = ?i (0.552 0.48j

drop through the area must be used:

x 0.5 = 1.62 sq ft z = (0.552 0.48)/2

and with the wall thickness = 0.036 ft, t, _ t

= ~~,,.- x 0.036 = 7.0 F 7,380 1.62 x 23.6

With these data the average temperature of the pipe wall becomes 800 - 15.9 - 7.0/2 = 780.6 F and this giva /c = 23.9 and: t; ~ Thus t,> = 7,380 x 0.036 = 6,g F 1.62x 23.9 pipe temperature becomes:

the outside

Thus the seeond approximation of the surface temperature resulted in a lowering of U, hy less than 4%. A third approximation would give a very slight increase of U,. However, this increase can be only a small fraction of the per cent found above and therefore, much below the probable accuracy of the final result. Therefore additional calculations are not justified. Composite umll. Consider a wall composed of severa1 layers of different materials of appreciable thickness, as in the case of a pipe covered with beat insulation. The middle term in the denominator of Eq. 13.15 whieh expresses the resistance to conduetion, must be repeated for each layer using corresponding values of k and of the inner and outer diameters D,i and Da. 13-L;. 3oding. In operation of heat exchangers, dirt, scale, oil or other foreign materials are deposited on the tube surfaees, and products of COTrosion also may be formed. Such deposits are referred to as fotdhg. They ,increase the thermal resistanee of the tube nalls and thus lower the over-all heat transfer eoefficient. The fouling resistance is directly proportional to the thickness of the deposit and inversely proportional to its thermal eonductivity. Fouling is produced by most fluids, liquide., vapors, and gases. Figure 13-5 may be used to evaluate the fouling resistance R, of some eommonly~ encountered deposits. The influente of fouling upon the over-all coefficient U may be taken into account by eombining Eq. 13-6 with Eq. 13-4, RI = l/U. Designating the resistance of the fouling film by R, the new over-al1 eoefficient~ U may be found from the expression :
U =

t, = 800 The corrected t,, = 100 +

(15.9 + 6.9) film temperature (777 -

= 777.2 F is: 1,X

1 -l- R,

Eq. 13-19

100) x 0.25 = 269 F correeted modulus is found aL At = (0.38) 10 (0552 107 corrected conductivity of the 0.0197 Btu/hr-sq ft-F and: (lo)] 45

By interpolation the as a = 0.38 x 100 and (777 100) = (4.33) By interpolation, the au at 269 F is k = Ir.,: = 0.45 gg; = 1.30 Btu,/hr-sq The corrected radiation i- ~460 = 1237 R: ,~~,= +713

As may be seen from Eq 13-6 and 13-19, the influenee of an additional resistance in the denominator depends upon the sum of the other resistances. Far a small combined resistance and hence a high

-~~~.
TABLE

13-l. Thermal Resistances of Scale Deposits From Water R. Hr-Sq Ft- FIBtu

L(4.33) ft-F

sourceand cordition 0, heatadwatsr T, = 777

coefficient, [5.6])

with

x 0.84 ([12.37]4 777 - 100 = 4.78 Btu/hr-sq ft-F

and : 11, = 1.30 + 4.78 = 6.08 Btu,hr-sq With these corrected values ft-F

Distilled water 5ea water Treated boiler feed water

0.0005

F.iW iacllet _..D ,__.._ Wltts .._ -

0.0005 0.001 ~l

0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 ~05 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.003

0.0005 0.001 0.001 O.Ol 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005

0.0005 24: 0.001 o.wz 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.005

Eq. 13.17 giva:

LT0 = -..

1 1.15 0.552 x 0.072 1 307 + 1.03 x 23.9 + 6.08 = 5.89 ,RlhL;~h,-sq lsF

Treated makwp for cooling 0.001 tower City, well and Great Lakes 0.001 water !drac;h; and clean riw

0.002

Hard over water, 15 grains/gal

1966

Muddv or siltv river water

0.003

0.003

Petro/Chem Engineer

February

65

o0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.06

0.10

0.12

014
inches

0.16

O.l8

0.20

0.22

thickness of loyer,

over-all coefficient U, the addition of a eertain fouling resistame will affect the coefficient U much more than the same fouling resistance will affect a~smaller U which has a larger combined resistance. Compare the relative influente of a fouling resistance R, = 0.005 hr-sq ft-F/Btu upon two clean tubes which have (a) U = ZOO,and (b) U = 50 Btu/hr-sq ft-F.
EXAMPLE 13-3. SOLUTION: (a)

TABLE 13-3. Ovwall Coefficients Building Constructions Type Of construction

for

u. [ ,,;.:;fi.oF~

l/U

= 1/200 = 0.005 and by

~Eq. 13-19, 1 =lOO Btu/hr-sq u = 0.005 i- 0.005 (b) l/U , 1 - = 40 Btu/hr-sq u ~ o.oi + 0.005 ft-F

= 1/50 = 0.02 and by Eq. 13-19, ft-F

Brick vaII, 8 in. thick. plain Brick wall. 8 in. thick. % in. plaster inside Brick wall, 8 in. thick. furred, plastered inside Brick w.4, 12 in. thick, plain Concrete wall, 6 in. thick. solid. plain Concrete wall. 6 in. thick. furred and plastered Frame wall. plaster inside typsum sheathing. wood siding Frame waII, plaster inside, wood sheathing, stucco outside Hollowtile wall. 8 in. thick, furred. plastered. stucca outside Ceiling. plaster on wood lath, no floor above Ming, ,plarter on wood lath. 1 in. pine floor above Ceiling, plastered 3% in. rock wood fili between joists Roof, wood shingles on wood strips, no Ceiling Window, ordinary Window, double or daub+glared

0.50 0.30 0.36

0.79 0.39~ 0.31 0.30 ;:X?; 0.28 0.08 i:E 0.46

0.46
~0

The same fouling resistance R, = 0.005 reduce6 the clean-tube, over-al1 coefficient U by 50% in case (a) and by only 20% in case (b).
TABLE 13-2. Thenal Resistances of Deposi& From Some Industrial Fluids Flid
Organic vapors, clean stesm. liquid gasoline ftefined liquid petroleum fractions. arganic liquids Brine, oil-bearing steam, refrigerating liquids Gas-oil or naphtha feed under SOOF.distillate bottoms, over ZOoAPI Refrigerant wpors. dusty air Gas-oil feed over 500F. vegetable oils Naphtha feed over 5OOF. quenching oil Fuel oil, residua1 bottoms, below 2OAPI Cokeaver and other manufactured gas, diesel exhaust

--

0.004 0.005 0.01

%3

In service the thickness of the fouling deposit on beat-exchanger surfaces increases gradually up to a certain limit which is still permissible and is called nownal. fouling. The amount of norma1 fouling depends upon the fluid and varie8 from Rf = 0.0005 for distilled water or for sea water below 125 F, and up to Rf = 0.01 for dirty river or pond water at low velocities and higher temperatures. For various industrial oils Rf varies from 0.001 to 0.005; for lubricating oils it is much higher, as shown in Fig. 13-5.a For manufactured gases and far diesel-erigine exhaust R, is about 0.01; for organic vapors and clean steam, R, = 0.0005, and for refrigeratory vapors and air Rf = 0.002. More data are given in Tabler; 13-1 and 13-Z. 19-r. Values of ouer-dl coefGwLt. Values of ll for various components of building constructions

66

February

1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

made up of different materials and thicknesses have been calculated and are available in the technical literature~in the form of tablmJ These tables pive rather conservative values far heat losses to air but have been ehecked experimentally and may be safely used in designing buildings. A few representative values for an outdoor wind velocity of 15 Ales per hour are reproduced in Table 13-3. Far other combinations of materials the values of U may be determined by the methods illustrated in Examples 13-Z and 13-3. Over-a.11 cuellicienls of beat trsiufer for meta1
TABLE 13-4. Over-AH Coefficients For Various Heat Exchangers

tubes and surfaees as encountered in seine powerplant and refCgeration equipment are given in Table 13.4. However, the values for i7 in Table 13-4 must be considered only BS limit values for the different conditions. The coefficient U depends upon many variable faetors, such as velocities and temperatures of the fluida, cleanliness of the miface& and shape and arrangement of the elements that influente the degree of turbulence of the flow of fluida. Therefore, the data of Table 13-4 may be used only for rough estimates. If the factors affecting heat transfer are known or specified in a new design, the values of U should be calculated using the methods out,lined in the preceding sections. References
Properties

-.

Type of Heat Exchanger

Air Preheaters Ammonia condensers. atmoapheric. drop type Ammonia condenaerr, double pipe Ammonia condensers, sbell and tube Brine coolers, double pipe Brinecoolers,Shell and tube Brine to freezing water in canE Caoling ccils, brine ta rtill air Cooling CO+ boiling refrjgerant to aid 1-4 125.200

J. H. Keenan and F. G. Keyes. TI~ermodymmie of Stemn. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1936.
Standards of Tubular

150-250 2.5-5 2-2.3 4-8

90-100

Exchanger

Manufacturers

150-300

Association

150-300

l ~;;;%%?:5 ta r

ZOO-1500
50-150 3-13 8-15 200-1000

5-9 z-10

Oil coolers. water circulation. transverse flow Steam boiler tubes superheaters, c,ose to turnace Surface steam condensers Water coolers. Shell and coi1

(abbreviated TEMA) 3rd ed., ,New York (1952) p. 83. 3Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditiming Guide. Published each year by the ASHVE, New York. Giva a very complete tabulation of values of U as encoutitered in praetice computed on the assumption of dry materials and an outdoor wind velocity of 15 mph.
Part 14, Over-All Heat Transfer Applications, will appear in the March isbe.

15-25

. softens ondFilterr Water l Stopr Sludgeand ScaleBuild-Up l NewMognesiumR ReducerElectrolysi l EosyTOClean. Ar.i,.b,eThrwgh Your horifesuppl Store M-C-M
Okla.

MACHINE
l

WORKS

901 S.E. 29th St.

P. 0. Box 94485 City, Okla. 73109 l OR 7-2449

Petro/Chem Engineer

February

1966

by Dave Mistrot,

Enginsering

Editor

Natura1 Gas Odorizings

New Plant

Uses

Direct Synthesis for Mercaptans

refinery at Baytown, Tex., 20 mila cast of Natura1 Gas Odorizings old plant in Houston. The ew loeation is adjaeent, t,o the refinery from whieh high-purity hydrogen sulfide and ethylene are delivcred by pipeline. Propylene and isobutylene are received by pressure tank ears. Natura1 Gas Odorizing spent almost $2 million for ew equipment and plant site. They reloiated a subst,antial amount of equipment and al1 heavy pressure st,orage tanks 20 mila, had delays due~ to weather and equipment delivery in the 1965 0 boom-year of construction, and stili were in full operation far the winter senso. It took a lot of doing, but this is the history and reaso for success of Natura1 Gas Odorizing, division of Helmerich and Payne, Inc. They are and always have bee the worlds largest producer and seller of odorants and other warning agents to the natura1 gas industry. Over 7 million lb of odornnts are sold annually under the trade ame of CAPTAN to more than 1300 eustomers throughout the U.S.A. and abroad. They are aold in quantities ranging from 1 lb containers to 65,000 lb tank car loads. The research facilities of Natura1 Gas Odorizing, plus their modem plant, puts them in a position to expand their odorant line and to mannfatture other spticialty chemicals for themselres and others. They started their first contract to custom manufacture specialitv mercanta sulfur compounds as soo as- they &oved in their ne-7 p1ant 1ast fall.

Drum-filling equipment weighing of each drum

of prodoct shipped.

with

scale

provides

accurate

Who would think it ecessary or eeonomic to make ethyl mercaptan from hydrogen sulfide and ethylene? Natura1 Gas Odorizing didnt 20 years ago when they first separated mixtures of mercaptans and hydrocarbons obtained from oil refinery chemieal treating. But with growth of hydrogen treating in refineries, mercaptan mixtures have bee in short supply and the price has increased. SO they developed their ow methods of direct synt,hesis for ethyl mercaptan and heavier mercaptans that constitute their full line of odorants. The first problem met by Natura1 Gas Odorieing was location. They were too far from sources for the two main raw mnterials, hydrogen sulfide and ethylene, to receive them economically by pipeline. Nor was receipt in t,he liquid form economie, and more plant capacity and greater flexibility was eaded for their relatively seasonal products. SO Mohammed had to go to the mou. tain, in this case, Humble Oil & Refining CO.s
n

New Plant Details

The ew plant can manufacture up to 13 million lb annually of merca,ptan sulfur compounds. Hydrogen sulfide and the appropriate olefin (ethylene, propylene, ete.) are charged continuously at high temperature and pressure through fixed-bed catalytic reactors. The resultant product is purified in 60.ft tal1 by 20-i. diam st,ainless steel fraetionation towers using sieve-type trays. Fabrication of ew preusure vessels and trays was by ABCO Fabricators of Houston, Ta. The latest in pneumat,ic and electronic controls are used. Data is transmitted continuously to recorders and remote eontrollers in the centra1 contro1 building. A modem laboratory with a chromatographie analyzer provides around-theclock quality control. Over 250,000 gai of storage in a dozen pressure

68

February

1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

7 /

by E. Villanueva and E. J. Bardouille

La,go Oil & Transport Co., Ltd. Aruba., Nethehmds Antilles

x / / e Figure 1. The system is comprised of an insertion type gas burner which can be moved from boiler to boiler and the flame detector equipment.

Portable Flame Dectector IS

Safeguard for Boiler Startups

n A 7%hoor warm up on gas reqoired by pitch fired boilers presented the Lago Oil refinery -4th severa1 re.4 and costly problems. Safety considerationn in preventing flame-outs dictated constant operator vigil during the long startup. This limited the operators nctivity around the powerhouse. Recently, Lago devised a means to put a Honeylue11 Flamr Detector on wheels. New. one uortable . unit safeeuards al1 boiler startups and the operat.ors costly starting time has been eliminated. On the process side, the system comprises an inscrtion t.ype gas burner of our own design (see Fig. 1). This burner has a 3,i,-in. flexible hose extension terminating in a %-in. Asco solenoid ralve. The valve is of the normally elosed construction type and is explosion proof. The solen,oid end of the hose is tied into the main gas supply header with a regular plug-in connection. The eombined burner. hose and valve can be diseonn,ected and moved easily from one boiler to another as required. The flame detector uses a C7012A Honeywell Flame Radiation (ultraviolet) Detector as t,he primary element. The detector activates an R7023A Honeywell Flame Relay. This sends a signal t,o the solenoid valve in the gas supply line. The Radiation Detector has been modified. It has been provided with a special adapter flange to suit the peephole over the burner. The adapter, which has a single bolt connection, enables quick and easy mounting of the detector. The flane relay is assembled in a Foxboro rect,angular casinp. The casing is mounted in a mobile pane1 as shown in Fig. 2. The Foxboro easing also incorporates two indicator lights, alarm beli, a transformer, a wiring terminal and the main switch for the electric power supply. The use of flexihle conduit for the eomponents Signa1 and power supply lines permits storage of all components external t,o the reetangular casing.~ The components are stacked on the tray at t,he bottom of the mobile panel. In the presente of a flame and with switch S,

Figure 2. The flame relay is assembled in a rectangular casing which is mounted io a mobile panel. Auxiliary components far the flame detector are stacked on a tray at the botto,,, of the pane,.

Petro/Chem

Engineer

March 1966

41

closed, a rectified current is permitted to flow through the electronic network of Fig. 3, energizm ing the flame relag. The relay closes conta& between terminals 6 and 8 and bet,ween terminals 3 and 5. The green light is on as current flows through its circuit, indicating that the flame is on. The closing of conta& 3 and 5 allows current flow through the solenoid, which, in its energized condition, maintains the valve in open position. When a flame-out occuis the relay breaks contacts 6 and 8 and contacts 3 and 5. while con tacts G and 7 and 3 and 4 are made. The red light come on with the closing of G and 7, setting off the alarm bel1 which is wired in parallel. Switch Sa is used to acknowledge and silence the bell. At the same time, the breaking of conta& 3 and 5

PROFItE/continued
was drained, the water in the line to the sparc pump V7as not. TO make the drain system fool-proof, we cut off the second nozzle and carne down with one line from the bottom head of the vessel SO that it would be connected to, the same drain line. This helps the operators by halving the number of points they have to check for collection of water. Jesse Ducommuns safety manual series has reeeived wide acclaim throughout the industry for pointing out hazards in refinery and related operations and suggesting ways of correcting or eliminating them. It is a singular tribute to their practital usefulness and accuiacy that most eompeting, oil companies have included them in their own employee education programs. As Ducommun continued to work his way up through his companys corporate management strueture, he became more attive in promoting process safety on an industry-wide basis through the American Petroleum Institutes Division of Refining. In Janoary 19G0, just, before Dueommun bccarne a director and vice presidmt of manfacturing of American Oil, a group dedicated to the p& vention of refincry processing accidents carne into a being in API8 Division of Refining. Called the Opeiating Practices Conmittee, its creation mpped u two-year drive by Ducommun to set up a forum in which refining executives and operatmg supqvisois could interchange process-safety ~knowledge and experiencou for common good. 1 saw the need for the Operating Practices Committee, Dueommun says, because theie was a segment of the industry not attive in API-theoperating supervisors. If you were a vice president. you were attive in API. If you were a staff engineer or a research man, you were attive in API committee work. But the operating management of ihe refineries mainly attended socia1 functions ut night. 1 thought we ought to have an interchange between engineers, teehnical people, research and operating management. That.s what led to the Operating Practices Committee, which was designed to be an open forum, an int,erchange between the var- a ious oil companies of case history atudies of accidents. Its pretty hard to get up an,d te11 about your mistakes, but this is the only way that we can aeeomplish ou1 goal-m exchange of ideas. Jesse Ducommuns three-decade drive to improre process safety in oil refineries reaehed a high-point last year when American Oils 12 refineries reeeived the Award of Honor, the highest award recognition of the Sational Safety Council. Ducommun, receiving the whitr peunnnt of snfety on behalf of Americans 7700 refinery cmployees, summed up his approach to process safety this way : Winning the award is impressive, but not as important as the safe-working practices that earned it. Thats th,e rea1 purpose of our safety program.

Figure 3. Diagram
network of the

showing the electronnz detector system. flame

cause8 the solenoid to be de-energized, thus closing the valve in the supply line to the burner. TO supply the initial gas for ignition, a problem is presented. In the absence of a flame, the valve would be in closed position (de-energized.) Some means of energizing the solenoid valve had to be devised. The solution was found in spring-returned, push button switch SB, wired in parallel with terminals 3 and 5. Depressing SS energizes the solenoid and opens the gas supply to the burner. The push button is held unti1 the green light cornea on, indicating the flame is on and the relay has closed the eont,scts between terminals 3 and 5. In operation, the det,ector system has performed well. When flameouts occurred, the solenoid valve shut off the gas supply within two to four seeonds. n

42

March 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Over-AU Heat Transfer Appl&atons

,,,,,

- Part 14

~~ Applied Heat Ttyansfer

Design for the H PI
I)y Wayne C. Edmister and Joseph M. Marche110

ie,
4 I

.-

14-1. Mean temperatum differente. Whenever beat exchange takes piace between two fluids, . their temperatures change; the temperature of the colder fluid goes up, and that of the hotter goes down, Fig. 14-1~~ and lb. However, in cases where condensation of a saturated vapor or evaporation against a constant pressure take place, the temperature of the eorresponding fluid remains 2 constant, SS shown in Fig. 14-1~ and Id. The lines % ^ representing the ehanges of temperature are actually cuives because the temperature gradient
Jong

where At is the mean temperature differente. The two com~only used expressions for determi&g the mean temperature differente are: (a) the arithtiktic-mean temperature differente, At, and tb) the loga.rithmio-man temperature differente, At,. The arithmetic, or average, temperature differente is obtained finn the expression:
At, = (Ati Atyjz <

Eq. 14.2

the path of the fluide changes. Thus the

beat transfer rate is a fur$ion of variable temp&ure differences ~Y and Eq. 13-l may be changed to: q=AUAt. _/. .Eq.14-1

(tit2)

where At, = tl - tl, the differente between the temperatures of the hot and cold medium8 respectively at the beginning of heat exchange and ~b2t~ - t?. at the end. Since the temaeratures of the Auids change along curved lines, Eq. 14-2 gives

surfoce A: Heat exchangeparallel flow.

C: Condensation.

Surface

Evaporafing Liquid I Surfoce 8: Heat exchanger-counter flow. Figure 14-l. Temperature L D: Evaporation differences Surfoce

in beat exchange.

Petro/Chem

Engineer

March 1966

43

@~ produces

NEW PENEX

balanced blend gasoline

Here is a commercially-proven process which enables the refiner to economize and upgrade pentane and henne fractions from naphthas and natura1 gasolines. It provides a high octane product with improved performance qualities, good sensitivity and warm-up, clean burning, betta lead susceptibility and improved ignition properties. The Penexa process is specifically designed far the continuous catalytic isomerization of norma1 pentane, norma1 hexane and mixtures of both. Reaction conditions are mild because of the nature of the reaction and the catalyst employed. Conditions selected are such that regeneration is not required, thus reducing capita1 investment costs, simplifying operation and minimizing maintenance. The non-corrosive nature of both catalyst and reaction provides additional econorny in installation. Yields are exceptional, with a high rate of conversion. Operating manpower reguirements are minimum due to simplicity of process flow and optimization of design features. There are no by-product, sludge, catalyst or chemical handlingproblems as may be encountered in other processes, and which can reduce yields and pose disposal problems. TO more fully apgreciate the profits which may be realized with a Penex unit designed to your specific needs, cali or write taday far further information or a preliminary analysis-at no obligation. Contact your nearest UOP area representative located in New York, Houston, Los Angeles or Des Plaines.

an exaggerated vahe for the temperature

differente At. It is necessary to use the logarithmic-mean temperat,ure differente:

Ah- Ah nti = l%( ~$t,,/Atz)

= 2.3 log

nti- at2 (At,/Ats) Eq

14-3
Figure 14-Z.

If the temperature differenee nt, at one end of a beat exchanger does not differ from Ati at the other end hy more thsn 50%, the arithmetic average temperature differente nt, from Eq. 14-2 will be higher than the true mean temperature differente by less than 47%. 14-Z Pamllel .fiow and cozmterflow. The directions in which the fluids flow in a beat exchange? materially influente its performance. Counterflow whic,h is obtained when the hotter and colder fluida move in opposite direetions has two important advantnges : (aj for counterflow the end temperature of the colder fluid can be raised nearer to the initinl temperature of the botte? Auid than~ with paralle flow; (b) for exchange of a giva amount of beat, al1 other conditions being equal, a smaller surfaee area is required with count,erflow than with parallel AOW. The first advantage may tie easily seen from Fig. 14-la and 14-lb. Regardless of how far the area is inereased in the case of parallel Aow, Fig. 14.la, the fina1 temperature of the hotter fluid can never become equa1 to the fina1 temperature of the colder fluid because ii Atv would become zero, no beat exehange could take place near the outlet end of the heat exchanger. On the other hand, for counterfow, the fina1 temperature of the hot liquid tends to approach not the fi?.al temperature of the colder fluid bu,t its initial temperature and the tnal temperature of the colder fluid may not only equal the fina1 temperature of the h?tter fluid but even exceed it. The expression for the mean temperature differente may be written, as:

Doublepipe

exchanger.

+d

Figure 14.3.

Diagram

of a I-2

exchanger.

The second advantage of counterfow, smaller sorface area, is explained hy the fact that between the same temperature limita the mean temperature differente far counteriiow is greater than far parallel flow. The separate resistances and hence the over-al1 coefficient do not depend upon the direetion of the beat flow. If the temperatures of both fluids vary, for the same beat flow and the same initial and fina1 temperatures and hence, the same value of U, the surfaee A in Eq. 14-l must be smaller for counterflow, Fig. 14.lb than for paralle flow, Fig. 14-1~1. Double-pipe beat ezehmyeis. An example of a counterflow exchanger is a small pipe positioned cancentrically inside another, larger pipe. One fluid flows through the inner pipe, the other through the annular space, Fig. 14-Z. Usually it is desired to have approximately equa1 pressure drops in both circuits and the lager mass flow is put through the larger cross-sectional area. In order to obtain

an adequate beat-exchange surface, pipe sections 8s shown in Fig. 14-2, usually are eonnected in series. For large mass flows, two or more exchangers made up from unita connected in series art! connected ta headers and th,us work in psrallel. 14-3. Mdtipass and CTOBS Am. In a large numher of heat exchangers one fluid passes through tuba that are located inside a shell through whieh the ~@ second fltiid passes. Such equipment, called shelland-tube exchangers may have the flow paths arranged SO that either or both Buids redense directions of flow une or more time8 and trave1 back and forth through the exchanger. As a result a combination of parsllel slow and counterflow, called rwsrsed jZvu>, iu obtained. Reversed flow is osed to obtain velocities that give higher beat transfer coefficients. Exchangers with reversed flow are also ealled multipass exchangers. The simplest arrnngement of this kind is shown schematically in Fig. 14-3. It is called a i-2 uzchanyer because it has one shell pass and two tube passes. Usually the hotter fluid trave18 inside the tubes and the eooling fluid passes through the Shell outside the t,ubes. In the first,, upper tubes the hot fluid travels in parallel with the colder fluid while in the lover tuba it travels in counterflow. The expression for the mean temperature differente Atm, even for this comparatively simple arrangcment, beeomes very cumbersome. It is customary to use the Iogarithmic 0 mean temperature differente atz calculated for counterflow multiplied by a. correction factor F = At,,Jat, to take into account the lesa efficient parallel flow. For Fig. 14-3 the logaiithmic differente At, calculated by Eq. 14-4 and the effettive or actual mean temperature differente is: Eq,. 14-5 t, = FAt, The eorrection factors F ale found from diagram plotted in terms of two dimensionless parameters, X and Y:

y = Pi

-2

'-

t",

t'a

-- tl

Eq. 14-7

The psrameter .X repiesents the ratio of the temperature change of the cold fluid to the differ-

46

March 1966

Petro/Chem Engineer

---e I

.,.

,..,.

,,.,

,,<

I,

,.

,L,

,,I

,,,

,,,.,

,,,

,,

.,

,,,~,

,, I, ,.,, ,I ,.,, ,,1 ,:, .,, ,I 1, ,, , ,,,. .,, ,, I, ,.,, ,,:,, ,,, ~, ,1,, ,, .

Figure 14.4. Schematic arrangements of shell.and-tube multipass heat exchangers. A: 1 Shell pass. 6: 2 Shell passes. c: 3 stie,, passes. D: 1 shell, 4 tube passes. E: 1. Shell pass with mixing baffles.

l TyLcY.~

ence between the initial temperatures fluids and therefore may be called

of the two tenzpemture

Fig 14 4 shows a few typical srrangements used in multipass heat exchangers. Fig. 14.5 gives diagratis for determining F BS a funetion of X and Y far the three basie schemes of Fix. 14-4a. 14.4b. _ and 14-4~. Some exchangers have more than two

passes for each Shell pass, as shown in Fig. 14.4d. The grcater numbcr of tube passos simply increnses the heat transfer area of the exehanger but does not affect the parameters X and Y and the correction factor F: In order to obtain better utilization of the fluid passing through the Shell by mixing it more thoroughly, baRle plates may be inserted as shown in Fig. 14-4~ Such an arrangement affects the temperature differences fd - t:, and Y2 - VI but does not affect the parameters X and Y and the factor F. In some heat exchangers, called wowjiow exchangers, the directions of the fluid ase at right angles as shows in Fig. 14-6. In these exchangers the mixing of the Shell fluid lowers the value of the correction factor F.2 Thus, for & one-tube pass nxchxnger, the factor F may be obtained from Fig. 14.7~3~ if both fluids are unmixed. If the Shell fluid is mixed, more accurate, results may be obtained from Fig. 14-5s. With two-tube passes, Fig. 14-7b may be used. For the Shell fluid mixed, the diagram of Fig. 14.7b mag be used. If in Fig. 14.6b, the SO direction of flow of one of the fluid is reversed, thst the Shell fluid first flows over the seeond tube psss and then over the first tube pass, t,he factor F may be obtained with fair aceuracy from Fig. 14-5b. Far a drip-type beat exchan&r, Fig. 14.6~ as is often used in cooling towers, the factor F may be obtained from Fig. 14-k. Diagram for finding F for other exchanger types may be found in the literature.3

A: 1 Shell PSSS and 2, 4 o, any even nomber of tube passe% Figure 14-5. Correction

B: 2 Shell passes and 4 or any multiple of 4 tube passes. factors far mean ,temperature differences in

Petro/Chem

Engineer

March 1966

160-110 160.55

0.476

and by Eq. 14-l: ~ = --.X5-55 = 0.67 160-115 With these parameters, Fig. 14.5a gives F = 0.93. The value of At, wa,s found to be 65F. Thus: At,, = 0.93 x 65 = 60.5F This is praetically the average between parallel flnw and counterflow, as cuuld be expected. I.@. Vnriable ovewdl~ coe.fieient. In the above discussions and formulas it was assumed that the over-s11 coefficient U is constant. If U varies only slightly with temperature, an average value of U may he used. If U varies considerably but the variation is linear in temperature, and hence ii the recommended nt, or U = U1(l i- b nt), average expressio+ is derioed by a similar procedure BS was used for the derivation of At,,. This enuation is:

Figure M-6. Schematic exchangers. A: 1 tube type, 2 tube passe*.

arrangements of cross-flow beat pass. B: 2 tube passe*. c: Drip

EXAMPLE 14-l. Determine the mean temperature differenee for a. Shell-and-tube exchanger with two tube passes, Fig. l-1.4a, operating with the hot water flowing through the tubes. Water at the rate of 6000 lb/hr must be cooled from 160F to 1lOF and cooling water at the rate of 10,000 lb/hr will be used. The cooling mater enters at 55F and leaves at XEF. SOLUTION: In Eq. 14-5, F must be taken from Fig. 14-5a and with the designations of Fig. 14-4~1, by Eq. 14-6:

u1 aa,- uy @tl 4 = A G.(U, At2/U2 at, 1

Eq. 14-8

where each product conta& U at one end of the exchanger and At at t,he other. Eq. 14-8 applies both to parallel and eonnterflow and also to cases where the temperat,ure of one of the fluids is constant, BS when a liquid is heated by eondensing steam.

48

March 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

If the over-al1 coeffieient~ U varia considerably throughout the exehanger but not linearly, the use of Eq. 14.8 is possible. However, more accurate results w-ill be obtained by considering the exehanger divided into several exchangers in series, in eaeh of whieh U varies more or less linearly in temperature, and calculating the beat transfer fol each exchanger separately from Eq. 14-17. EXAMPLE 14.2. A double-pipe beat exehanger made of a Z-in. standard pipe jacketed by a 3.in. pipe must be used to cool 20,000 Ib/hr of aniline from, 250F down to 120F; the average specific beat of aniline is 0.53 Btu/lb-F; water enters at G8F and flows, in counterflow through the jack& at a high veloeity of 300 fpm; the values of U, referred to the outside of the 2-in. pipe are U1 = 540 Btu/hr-sq ft-F at the hot end and Ux = 320 Btuihr-sq ft-F at the cold end. Determine the necessary length of the pipa. SOLUTION: The amount of beat to be taken from the aniline is 4 = 20,000 (260 ~ 120) x 0.53 = 1,378,OOO Btu/hr. The amount, of water is found, assuming an average water temperature of lOOF, p = 61.99 Ib/cu ft; the cross area of the annular space is S = 0 7854(3.068 -~ 2.3752:)/144 = 0.206 sq ft ; and t,he flow per hour : TV = 0.026 x 300 x 60 x 61.99 = 23,000 Ib/hr. The fina1 water temperature will be:

The mean 320(250 -

logarithmic value of Unt 128j - 540(120 - 68)

is:

= 33,100 Btu:hr-sq and the nece~sa~v area, br Eu. 14-8: A _-1,378,~0~ ^ = 41.6 sq ft 33,100

ft

The outside surface of 1 ft of a 2-in. pipe is A = ii x 2.375112 = 0.62 sq ft and the required length will be 41.G;O.W = 67 ft. EXAMPLE 14-3. Dry ssturated steam at 2.5 psig pressure must be used to beat 10,000 lb/hr of crude petroleum from 80 to 210F t,hat flows inside straight tubes. The speeific beat of the oil may be assumed as 0.49 Btu/lb-F; the over-al1 coefficient U from steam to oil varies with the bulk temperature of petroleum as shown below. Find the required area of the inside beat transfer surface. Temperature t, F Coefficient U, Btu/hr-sq ft-F 80 29 120 51 160 70 210 89

t2 = 68 +

1,378,OOO = 128F 23,000 x 0.997

SOLUTION: The exchanger is divided into three parts inside of which U is assumed to vary linearly with the temperature. The~ beats absorbed by petroleum in each part are found as q1 = 10,000 x 0.49(120 --- 80) = 196,000 Btu/hr q> = 196,000 Btu/hr q = 10,000 x 0.49(210 - 160:) = 245,000 Btuihr

--

A 1966SHOWCASEOFLATESTINNOVATIONS.IMPROVEDTECHNIQUESAND ECONOMICBREAKTHROUGHS

Petro/Chem

Engineer

March 1966

Far Informolion Pmdur,r IPWkP hr,har 0Adwrlirad les RWdW hd

49

From stesm tables the temperature of the steam is found ai t = 220F. Auvlying - Eq. 14.8 and solving it for A gives for ._. the area of the first part:
A I = 106,000 h j29(220 120)/51(220 8011

29(220 -

120) -

51(220 - 80) = 41.6 sq ft

fm the second part: As =

~96,000z~[5i~220~160j~70(220-120)1
51(220

160) -

70(~220 - 120) = 41.2 sq ft

for the third part :

A

245,000

Zn [70 (220

70(220 -

- 210) 189 (220 - 160) 1 210) ~ S9(220 - 160) = 107.5 sq ft

Thu,s, the tota1 required surface is 190.3 sq ft. Alternate proeedwe. Sometimes, even if U varia considerably, it may be preferred to use the logarithmic temperature differente At, and to introduce a specially eorrected value of the over-al1 coefficient which may be designated by L,. The basic Eq. 13-1 then assumes the form: q = AU, nt, Eq. 14-9 The value of the over-al1 coeffieient is found from the expression: u, = u,, + (U, - UJF Eq. 14-10 where the factor F is found from Fig. 14-8 as indicated on it. This method may be used only if the change of the over-al1 eoefficient from U1 to llr can be considered to be linea with temperature. 14-5. He& transfer in cliemicd reactors. Invariably ehemical reactions are aecompanied by thermsl effe& whieh aie ari important feature of practieal reactor design. Since most commercially

important reactions must be carried out at temperatura other t,han ambient, the problem is often one of heat transfer as well BS kinetics. The heat evolved or absorbed by a chemical reaction may be obtained from thermodynamic considerationas Since enthalpy is a state function, the heat of reaction may be evsluated by adding the beat of reaction values for individua1 reaetions which make up the over-all reaction.O The heat of reaction depends upon the reaction temperature because the enthalpies of the products and reactants depend upon this temperature. Iressure also must be specified to eompletely defme the States of the products and reactant,s from a thermodynamie oiewpoint. The deyree of completion of a. chemieal reaction is dependent upon u number of factors. The maximum conversion that can be obtained for a chemical reaction is t,he equilibrium value. The rate of conversion is obtained from chemical kineticss and is used to determine the operating conditions necessary to produce a desired amount of product. EXAMPLE 14-4. A reaction is conducted isothermslly at 180F in a jacketed, batch reaetor.g The rate eauation is:
7 = $ = 40

C lb molesihr-gal

Temperature is controlled by regulating the rate of water supply which enters +t 90F. Other data are : AH, = - 5000 Btu/lb mole at 180 F v = 100 gal li = 80 Btu/hr-ft-dee F A = 125 ft C, = 0.2 lb mole/gal Please turn to page 57

Figure

14-8.

Moditied

Colburn

Chart

tor evaluation

of over-dl

coetticients.

50

March 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

HEAT

TRANSFER

TOPICS/ISSUE

NO. 8

BECHTEL/ FLORIDAPOWER AND LIGHT SELECT FINTUBES

LONGER LIFE-BFTs oxclusive method of welding fins to tubes creata a full weld between ,the entire base of the fin and ,tubing. No amuunt of honting/coaling cycles rvill wark the fin loosa. There are no gaps Tor sludge to collect and start corrosion. Heauy 10 gage tubes add corrosion allowance. VERSATILITY -If you beat viscous chemicals, heavy lubricants, resins, paint products, heavy cru,des, asphalt, Bunker C il, molpsses, etc., ou enginrrrs iwkonLe LiK! 0pportunrL.y of helping you sdoe youi problems. Ca11 us far process and high pressure exchangers, too. USER ORIENTED DESIGN-RFT heaters have the design features users need far year-after-year profitable operation, including heavy tube walls, grooved tubesheets to eliminate leaks, studded tubesheet far removable tubeside bonnet, full penetration welds, and ASME Code construction. NO SLUDGE DEAD SPOTS-Fintube constructiun enables straight through flow with no,dead areas far sludge buildup behind cross baffia. Also tube bundle removal is easier.

Far the demanding reliability essential far the four new. centra1 station power plant,s being erected far Florida Power and Light, Brown Fintube tank suction heaters, pipe line heaters, and fintube hairpin section burner fuel oil heaters were combined to efficiently heat Bunker C oil. The BFT heating system reduces pumping costs and achieves the necessary XOF temperature without coking, far boiler burner requirements at al1 firing rates. Relying on Brown Fintube heaters to handle fuel oils, asphalt, and viscous chernicals, far every job from refinery to end use, results in these bene&: LESS FOULING-Fintube heaters foul less as fins keep metal temperatures of heaters lover. This virtually eliminates coking and residue build-up. Fintube heaters commonly operate far years without cleaning. Far 15 year case history, write far data sheet 6634. ONE-STOP SOURCE-Fintube tank heaters, suction heaters, line heaters, high presare heaters, fired fintube line heaters, fred fintube immersion heaters-whatever the need, BF2 has the xight equipment to me& your tota1 heating needs.

BROWN

FINTUBE
ELYRIA, OHIO
FINTUBE

COMPANY
44035

BROWN

IS WORLDWIDE

Petro/Chem

Engineer

March 1966

Far Infomlolion Produrlr lorvica Furlhar on IdWli$Pd SP. Reader Cd

51

Wehave sa,id YE!$ the to oil Industry onmorethan s2ti billionin loans

rive

us an opportunity

to

say YES! to YO

First National inDallas Bank

MEMBER FEDERAL DEPOSIT INSURANCE CORPORATION IN

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52

March 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

It is sufficiently accurate to take the logarithmie mean-temperature differenee. Establish the exitwater temperatare and flow ra,te as functions of
the concentm.tin amI the tirmi. SOLUTION: The wte of he&t evolution by reaction equa16 the rate of beat pickup by the water and also the rate of beat transfer:

Q = v, AEI, = VkC AH, Q = 20(108)C2

Q=UAaT=

= 100(40)(5000:)c~

sionless correlations for the heat transfer coefticient, using ai temperature differente uased on the bulk mean temperature of the reaction mixture. The presente of solid particlesl such ai catalyat inereases the heat transfer coefficient in packed and fluidized beds to severa1 times that in an empty tube at the same fluid flow rate. Leva 11,L2and others have correlated fissd-bed heat transfw coefjTcients for air over a wide iange of variables. The c!mpirical expressions for air data are:

X0(125) (T? - 90) Zn 90/(x30 -- TI)

These equations are solved hy assuming values of 2~ and then calculating the corresponding valoes of Q, w, C and @. The solution equations are: Q = 10,000 AT Btu/hr lb mole,gal 0 = 90(;-5) m lb/hr
Summary T, of Results

rvhere: h, = the beat transfer eoefficient in packed tubes (1, ==diameter of the tube d, = diameter of the packing particles,
tion

sec wat,er rate

Dow and Jacob13 proposed the following correlafar fiuidized-bed beat transfer coeficients.

Eq. 14-15 wbere:

-

Q/lOOO 397 680 545 364 256 132

1, 399cul 17000 9080 4550 2940 1470

c 0.1998 0.1844 0.1651 0.1350 0.1130 0.0813

0 000.45 038.0 095.1 217.0 346.0 657.0,

110 130 150 170 177 179.9

ki = heat transfer, coefficient at the inside tube wall L = length of tube kg = conductivity of gas pg = density of gas pS = density of solid particles C, = specifie heat of gas C, = specific heat of solid partieles.

References:

Heat transfer in batch reactors hss heen correlated for hoth the walls and tube coils. The results may he represented by the following dimensionless equations. Far jack& heat transfer:

R. A. Bowman. A. C. Mueller, and W. M. Nagle, Mean Temperature Differente in Design, Trans. ASME, Vol. 68, 283-94 (1940). =K. A. Gardner, Mean Temperature Differerxe in Multipass Exehan&vrs, Ind. Eng. Chem. 33, 1495-1500 (1941). 31bid, pp. 1215-1223. lA. P. Colburn, op. cit., Ind. Eng. Ch,em. 25, 876
(1933).

For coi1 heat transfer:

where:

d = diameter of the vessel

hk = kettle side coefficient

pS = p = P = N = p = C= k =

at inside surface in Eq. 11:30 and at outside coi1 SUIface for Eq. 11.31 viscosity at surface temperature viscosity at bulk temperature length of paddle agitator agitator shaft speed, revolutions:unit time density of mixture at bulk temperature speeifie heat at bulk temperature thermal conductivity at bulk temperature.

The correlations presented earlier Cane be used to estimate the heat exchange with the surroundings for tubular j?ow reactors. The heat transfer rate at the wal! of the reactor is giva by the dimen-

J. M. Smith. Ch.emical Engin.eer&g Kinet.ics. New York: MeGraw-Hill Book Co., Ine. (1956) p, 8. American Petroleum Institute, Research Project 44, U.S. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. (1946). iO. A. Hougen and K. M. Watson, Chemical Process Principles. New York: John Wiley and sons, Inc. (1943). sJ. M. Smith, loc. cit. S. M. Wales, Reaetim Kinetics for Chemical Cngineers. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. (1969). T H. Chilt,on, T. 8. Drew, and R. H. Jebens, Ind. .&.g. Chom $6, 510 (1944). M. Leva, Ind. Eng. Chem. 39, 857 (1947). lzM. Leva. M. Weintraub. M. Grummer. and E. L. Clark, ha. Eng. Ckem. 40. 747 (1948). laW. M. Dow and M. Jakob, Ch,em. Eng. Preg. 47, 637 (1951).
Part 15, Evaporation, will appear in the Apri1 issue.

Petro/Chem

Engineer

March 1966

WHATS GOINGON/cootinued -, Air Praducts Ends Merger Talks

Mergw negotiations betwee ,Air Products & Chemicals and Souther Nitrogen have been terminated. No raso was giva far the de&io. Grate Sells PE Units to Allied w. R. Grate & Co. has sold its high-density polyethylene plant at Baton Rouge, La., and its research laboratory at Clifton, N.J., to Allied Chemical Corp. The Baton Rouge plant has a capacity of 125 million Ib/yr. A reason ciled far the move was a lack of basic ethylene position by Grate, while Allied is building a ew et,hylene plant at Geismar, La., in cooperatio with Wyandotte Chemical. Bllied also makes polyethylene at Orange, Tex., a,d Tonawanda, N. Y.

Sept. 22-23 - Board of Directors Meetingz Hilton Hotel, Denver, Colo. Oet. 11.13 - Q&A Session. on Refining TBcII.?AoZO~~J, Marriott Motor Hotel, Dallas, Tex. Dec. 6-8 - Conqmtw Cmfemnce, Jack Tar Motor Hotel, Sa Francisco, Calif.,

CyanamidExpandsCatalyst Units
American Cyanamid Co. w-ill expand facilities for production of petroleum refining and chemical processing catalysts by more than 10 million lb/yr. Work at the Michigan City, Ind., and Woodbridge, N. J., plants is essentially compl&d. Construction has started to expand hydroge processin,g catalyst production at Fort Worth, Tex., with complet,io due mid-qear. During the last half of 1966, expansion of facilities at Willow Island, W. Va., will be completed.

Poerto Rican Firm Formed by Phillips

Phillips Pet~roleum~has filed papers in Delaware to incorporate a ew firm t,o handle the companys petrochemical activities in Puerto Rito-Phillips Puerto Rica CORE, 1~. The firm will be 75% owned by Phillips and 25% by the Puerto Rito Induatrial Development Co. (PRIDCO).

Cities Service Expands NGL Stake

Cities Service Oil has formed two ew divisions in a move to ex~ pand its natura1 gas liquids business. A ew LP-Gas Marketing Div. will be responsible for all LP~.~ i gas sales. 4 ew Project Develop- m ment Div. will be resuonsible for increased NGL supplyethrough acquisition, construction and expansion. Fred H. Ramseur Jr. has u bee named, manager of the Natural Gas Liquids Dept. A. R. Olsen will manage the ew Marketing Div. and W. G. Osborne will head the Project Development Div.

Dow ChemicalSets Up Energy Unit

Dow Chemieal is setting up a ew Hydrocarbons and Energy Dept,. to formulate company strategy for gaining and maintaining supeliorit,g in the acquisition, of hydrocarbons, fuels and energy

Phillips to Make Nylon in Puerto Rito

Phillips Petroleum ad RhonePoulec SA of France will form a jointly owned company to make nylon ti6 fiber in Puerto Rito. As yet unnamed, the ew firi will build a 40 million Ib/yr fiber plant, in the Guayama area of Puerto Rica An eventual capacity of 120 million lb/yr is planned. CompIetion is due late 1967. Rhone-Poulene is said to be the largest privately owned industrial eorporatio in Frante, with a current production of 450 million lb/yr of non-cellulosic fibers in Europe.

s&ces.~~

Macaulev Whitinp. nresident of Dow Che&cal It,&latioal, has bee give the responsibility for establishing the ew department.

WHATS GOINGUP/continoed
Front& Chemical, diviaion of Vulcan Materials, will incresse methylene chloride capacity at its Newark, N. J:, plant by 30%. Completion is due the third quarter of this year. General Tire & Rubber Co.% Chemical Div. is expanding facilities at Odessa, Ta., and Mogadore, Ohio. The present 170 million Ib/yr lata and rubber output at Odessa will be increased by ZOy&. Output at the Ohio plant will be increased by 25%. Both expansions are due far completion late t.his year. BT F. Goodrich Chemical Co. plans to expand polyvinyl chloride resi and compounding eapacity at its Avori Lake, Ohio, plant. Completion, ia due the first quart,er of 1967. Herculeu pleted a 40% for Parlo its Parlin, N. Puwer Cu. bau colincrease in facilities chlorinated rubber at, J., plant. ty of 2580 b/sd and will use the single-stage version of the Unicracking-JHC process. Feedstock t,o the plant w-ill he a blend of heavy atmospheric ,and vacuum gas oils which will be coverted entirely to gasoline. Staffa Chemical Co. has ca. tracted for Wellman-Lord t,o de- *Y.~ sign and construct a 2000.ton/day sulfuric acid plant at Houston, Tex. The proposed plant, capacity is said to be more than 25th larga than av existine lant. Comoletion is die late 1366: Air Product,s & Chemicals, Inc., is ow operating its ew 600 ton/day anhgdrous ammonia plant at New Orleans, La. The plant was engineered and construeted by M. w. Kellogg. Union Carbide Corp. has eompleted a major expansion of aectic acid facilities at Brownsville, Tex. The ew facilit,ies add more than 200 million Ib/yr to Carbides capacity for aeetic acid equivalent, as well as additional capacity for bi-products, including methyl ethyl ketone.

CSC.Reichhofd Merger Called Off

By mutua1 agreement, Commercial Solvents Corp. and Reichhold Chemicals have terminated egotiations for a proposed merger of the two firms. Au it was discussed, the merger would have set up H ew firm-CSC-Reichhold, 1~.

NPRA Meeting Schedule for 1966

The meeting schedule for the remainder of 1966 ha been announced by the National Petroleum Refiners Association: March 28-30 NPRA Annua2 Meeting, The St. Anthony Hotel, San Antonio, Tex. June 7-9 -. Mi&conti~w~t Regional Meeting, Lassen Motor Hotel, Wiehita, Ka,s. Sept,. 15.16 - Fu& Meetin.g, Marriot,t Philadelphia, Pa. & Lxbricants Motor Hotel,

Sequoia Refining Corp. has received a license to build a Unicracking-JHC plant at Hercules, Calif., The unit will have a capaci-

58

March 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Evaporation-

Part 15

Applied Heat Transfer Design for the HPI

by Wayne C. Edmister and Joseph M. Marche110
of State. When a liquid is evapoehange of state to vapor or gas occurs. This is connected with a change of its physieal properties such as density, viscosity, specific beat and thermal conductivity. During the change of state, a quantity of thermal energy called latent heat of mporization is absorbed. All these effects must be taken into account in problems of beat transfer during the process of evaporation. Boiling. Evaporation of a liquid from a free surface int,o a space filled with vapor of the same Q. bquld by the addition of heat from an outside source and with the formation of bubbles is called hoiling, or ebullition. Boil,in~g point. An, important factor in analyzing problems concerned with boiling is the boiling point temperature. The boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temperature at which its vapor pressure is equa1 to the total pressure on an, enclosed vessel containing the liquid and its vapor. There is no definite relation between the boiling point and the temperature of the liquid subjected to boiling, except that the latter is always higher than the boiling point. Ususlly the differente is small. However, under certain conditions the temperature of the liquid may be consid&ably higher than the hoiling point,before ebullition starts. Even when a liquid is boiling vigorously, its temperature may remain higher than its boiling point. Superheating. An inerease of the temperature of the liquid above its boiling point is called @ s~perheatz?zg of the liquid. In an industrial process : liquid superheating is undesirable because iti interferes with oraerly evaporat,ion ana meansadaitional beat losses. The influente of various factors that proauce superheating cannot~ yet be expressed numerically. However, it has ben established that the tendency of a liquid to beeome superheated is reducea by: (ai the presene 0f ais50lvea gases or small particles that form nuclei for the formation of bubbles, (b/ bubbling vapor through the liquid, (e) localized hot spots, such as presented hy electric heaters, and (dl raising the pressure. 15-e. ?&echanism of boiling. Vapor rising from a free surface is invisible when the beat input is small. but becomes visible due to entrained droplets as the heat input is inereased. When the heat input is increased above a certain amount, vapor bubbles begin to form somewhere below the surfaee. The bubbles increase in siae due lo evaporation of the enclosing liquid rise to the surface, break

ratea, a

15.1. Clmnye

through it, overcoming the surfaee tension of the liquid, and join the vapor above its sui-face. This kind of boiling takes piace due to the, presente in the liquid of some solid particles, impurities, dissolved gases or other nuclei that set as ebul.latoru on which hubbles are formed. Hence such boiling sometimes is ealled nuclear, or nucleate, boiling. However, it is often referred to simply as ordinary boiling. Bubbles are also formed on the metal surface of the vessel where the surface temperature is higher than the boiling point of the liquid. The formation of sueh bubbles is also enhanced by the presente of nuclei, SO t,hat this phenomenon does not differ appreciahly from ordinary boiling. The bubbles that are formed first cling to the meta1 surface. Vaporization of liquid into, the hollow space of a bubble inereases its size and buoyaney unti1 the latter force breaks it from the meta1 suiface and forces it to rise to the free surface and burst. In this case the rate of formation of the bubbles, t,heir shape, and their eonnection with the metal surface depends upon the surface tension at the interface between the liquid and the heating surface, as illustratea in Fig. 12-l. Fig. 15-la shows u bubble on an unwetted surface, such BS would occur when the liquid is water and the meta1 sui-face is covered with a thin layer of oil. The free edge of the bubble is drawn as a fine ~wedge between the heating surface and the liquid and thus is held fast against the action of buoyaney. As a result the steam hubhles get comparatively large, up to 516 in., before they become detaehed and are at once replaeed by new ones. The bubbles spread themselves out densely on the whole unwetted sui-face. The evaporation of pure mercury in a mercury boiler probably follows a similar pattcrn. Fig. 15.lb shows evaporation from a smooth half-wetted surface. The bubbles originate at only a few spots of the surface and are distrihuted over it irregularly. The buhbles rise from these points

0
Figure 15-l. ing surfaces. Typical shapes

b
of steam bubbles

c
on heat-

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Apri1 1966

77

in the form of columns thut become larga ns they rise. These columns eonsist of a great number of small bubbles rising uninterruptedly. The number of colunms increases with an increase of heat input. Fig. 15.1~ shows a bobble that is formed when the heating surface is completely wetted. The bubble rests only at one point; the Huid tends to shear it off and to puh it away. The bubble has a globulau or oval shape and leaves the heating surface while still very small. The whole wetted surface is cooered with these small bubbles. The existence of types of boiling WBB first clearly presented by Nukiyama,2 although earlier investigators had been avare of the existence of maximum and minimum rates of evaporation. The various regimes of boiling are sbown in Fig. 15.2 for the atmospheric boiling of water. In Fig. 15-2, the region 4-B corresponds to the low rate of evaporation which occurs when there is no bubble formation in the liquid. Heat is transferred from the heated surface by natura1 conveetion and evaporation occurs at the free surface of the water. Nncleate boiling t,akes pluce in the region B-C. The outstanding feature of this type of boilpoints ing is that bu,bbles form at speeific preferred on the hot surfuce. In other words, the vapor phsse is nucleated at attive site on the solid suiface. A maximum or peak heat flux occurs at the c~it%ca.l-te?n,psrat,Ll~~e diffewnse designated by the symbol C in Fig. 15-2. Beyond this point the heat flux from the heated surface to the boiling liquid decreases as the temperature differente is increased.~ In the tiansition wgion at least part of the surface is insulated by a vapor film which serves to retard the rate of beat, trsnsfer. At the point D in Fig. 15-2, a minimum occurs in t,he heat flux.~~ Further increase in the temperature differente between the heated surfacr a,nd the liquid increases the rate of hest transfer. In the region D-E and beyond. jX?n boili?ty occuis. Heat is transferred through a vapor film at the solid surface hg conduction and radiation. 15-S. Facto+s %n~henci?zy boil%ng hcat trmzsfev. Quantitatively, heat conductance to a boiling liquid is influenced by the following factors, which are stated in the approximate order of their importance : (aj intensity of beat flow, (bj pressure and/or temperature, (c) nature, of the heating surface, (d! additional agents in the liquid and (e) agitation. Heat flw. The intensity of the specific hert flow q, Btu per hr per sq, ft, ha8 a great influente upon the coefficietit of heat transfer h and on the temperature differente At = t, ~ ti, where t, is the temperature of the heating surface and ti is the temperature of the boiling liquid as measured by a thermometer. As the heat flow 4 is increased, al1 other conditions being the sane, both the coefficient 71. and the temperature differente Lt increase up to a certain point, called the cviticai tcmpwatwe diffeyw,ce. When the critica1 point is reached, a futher increase of the specific heat flow will continue to increase At, but t,he coefficient h will begin to decline as may be seen from Fig. 15-3b.$ For other liquids and conditions, the peak may be less pro-

nounced, Fig. E-4. Obviously, an evaporator should not be operated st greater than t,he critica1 value. ha Fig. 15.3b shows that for water the critica1 value of At was about 35F. Fig. 15-4 shows that for vsrying conditions, different materials and surface conditions of the heating plate, the value of the critica1 Ot may change considerably. Thus, for ethyl alcohol the critica1 At may change from 45F to about, GOF, and even higher. Tempwa.t~we and ~ressure. For a pure substance or a mixture of a volatile and a non-volatile substante, the boiling point is a function of the vapor pres8ure, and temperature is regulated by contro1 of the pressare. Fig. 15.3a shows data obtained by severa1 experimenters for liquids boiling at atmospheric and reduced pressures. For a given temperature diffeience Ot, the coefficient 71. decreases very fast with a decrease of piwsore and temperature of the liquid. In other words, in order to maintain a certain coefficient 11,with a decrease of the pressure and temperature, At must be in-

78

Apri1 1966

PetrojChem

Engineer

NEXT

TURNAROUND-1970!

Crude Preheat Exchangers On TO Record FourYear Runs With New, Low-Cost Nalco Antifoulants

Way

New you em break through the production bottlenecks caused weiy year or two by fouled crude preheat exehangers. Naleo has developed new antifouling additiva that work better to extend time between turnarounds. In some cases they have already doubled norma1 exchanger rum and the units are still going strong with wery indication of reaehing four years on-stream. And, Nalcos new antifoulants provide these results at a eost that can be easily justified in your operating budget. especially when you add up the dividends reeeived from increased throughput, improved heat transfer efficieney and important fuel savingi. In addition, the additiva will help minimize maintenance labor and parts replacement. Your Naleo Representative has the complete details and can assist you in setting up a program to meet your speeific needs. Contact today. Or, if you prefer, mite Nalco direct.

Nalcos Petroleum Research Center conducts a cantinuous search far salutions 10 the industrys processing problems. Here, Nalco Researchers developed antifouling addilives to control deposits formed by organic binders, salts and other inarganic matler that foul crude preheat exchangers, bath before and after desalters.

him

NALCO

CHEMICAL

COMPANY

,...Serving

the Petroleom

lndustry

fhrough

Practical

Applied

Science

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Apri1 1966

Fo, Informotion Produrlr IP,YiCP FWfh 0AdWlhd sea Radar <Nd

79

ereased. The required increase may be quite appreciable. Data showing the effect of reducing the pressure and boiling temperature upon the over-al1 coefficient U, obtsined from an experimental evaporator condensing steam inside a copper coil, are given in Table 15-Lr
TABLE Boilinipoint 15-l. OvwAll Coefficient Steam TO Water Temperature differente U

KW;; 6000 4000 2000

From

AtF 70 600 80 660 90 720

20 212 187 158 390

30 490

40 500

50 520

60 600 510

% 600 400 200

Nat,we of heating mrfaco. A rough meta1 mrface has a tendency to absorb air when exposed to the atmosphere. The absorbed air assista formation of bubbles in the range of moderate heat input and results in a. high heat conduetance and evaporation. However, the air is soon boiled out and the conductance drops and approaches the conductance for a smooth surface. The met,al of the heating surface bus a gr& influenee.8 Fig, 15-4 shows surface caeffieients found for boiling ethyl alcohol, CnHoO, at atmospheric pressure on a horizontal piate provided with severa1 different surfaces.Y With a temperature differente At = 40F, il is 3400 Btu/hr-sq ft-F for a freshly polished copper plate, Ir is about 2000 for a fresh gold plate, 1500 for a fresh chromium plate, and 500 for an aged chromium plate. Fig. 15-5 shows over-al1 coefficients from steam to. water for a horizontal submerged-tube evaporat,or when evaporating water boiling at 167F by condensing steam at different pressures. The use of a coppa tube more than doubles the coefficient obtained with an i,ion tube. Scale deposits. In evaporators for boiling aqueous solutions heated by condensing-steam, the heattransfer coefficients on both the steam and liquid sides are large, if the surfaces are clan. Therefore, even a thin layer of scale or rust mi11 affeet the over-al1 caeffieient materinlly, ns shomn in Fig. 15.5. The data from Fig. 15.5 may be used to determine the influente of the scale in these tests. Table 15.2 may be used far estimat,ing the thermal resistance of scale from water, and Table 4-2 (see p. 47, P,/CE, Mareh 1965) forresistance of scale from some industrial fluids. SJmpe and~size of mrfa.ce. The shape of a heating surface seemingly does not affect the eoefficient h, provided the vapor bubbles can detach themselves and rise to the free surfaee. Vertical and horizontal platea show approximately the same values of 11.~~ In the case of tuba submerged in boiling liquids, neither the number nor the diameter of the tubes seem to influente the coefficient h. Wetting agents. Substanees that decrease the ,surface tension of the liquid, or wetting agents, increase the film coefficient 11..For water boiling at atmospheric pressure, the addition of less than 1% of, an organic solution, Nekal BX, redueed the

Ico~ 6 1 20 40 60 200 300 8 IO 80100 3 4

Temperature differente, A/,F Fieure 15.3b. Effect of temperature on h:-singk? horizontal tube% Ethanol boiling at 1 atm: a - Freshly polished copper plate. b-Fresh gold plate. cFresh chromium piate. d -Aged chromiom plate. pressure on

IO
Figure 15-4.

20 30

40

50 60

80

100

Temperature difierence n t, F Effe& of meta, andcondition of surface,

surface tension by 47% and increased h hy 23%.11 In another experiment the addition of Triton W-30 reduced the surface tension by 277% and inereased h by 2076.~ Agitation. Experiments indicate that in the range of moderate specific heat flow, agitation increases the beat-transfer eoeficient h becsuse of a more vigorous formation of bubbles. However, during agitation, the coefficient h does not increase for art increase in the heat flux and a resulting increase of AP Nature of liquid. The beat-transfer coefficient 1~ is a, function of the thermal characteristics of the liquid; therefore, h. varies for different liquids as may be seen from Figs. 15-3. Table 15-3 shows the influente of dissolved solida in water. The solutions

80

Apri1 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

were boiling at atmospheric pressure in the same evaporation with which data of Table 15-l were obtained.17 Salt slightly increases the overall coefficient whereas organic malasses decreases V very appreciably. 15.4. Eqmtions far fi1.m condmtanee. Attempts to develop a general equation by means of dimensional analysis have not been successful because of the complexity of the phenomenom and lack of dependable, eonsistent experimental data. Jakob and Linke have developed an empirica1 dimensionless equation based on theoretical c,onsiderations, whieh giva satisfactory values of the heat transfer coefficient h for specifie beat flows q, ranging from 9000 to 50,000 Btu,hr-sq ft. This equation is?

TABLE

15-2. Representative Values Heat Transfer Coefficients

Material and Conditionr

Of

Made of Transfer Condurtion

k or h Btu/hraq n-v

Aerogel, silica, opacified at 24BF Concrete, dry at 70F Steel. mild. 70F to 4OOF Copper, pure. 70F to 300F

0.013 0.5 2:;

Radiation

3.7 11.3 NStURI

Convection

Plane surfaee in air plane surface in water 2.in. pipe in water

where: (r is the surfaee tension of the Iiquid, Ib per ft, p, is the density of the liquid, Ib per CU ft, pn fs the density of the vapor, lb per CU ft, q 1s the speeific heat flow, Btu per hr per sq ft, h is the latent heat of vaporization, Btu per Ib, ub is the average veloeity of bubbles, 9i8 ft per hour. The left side of Eq. 15-l represents an effettive Nllsselt number NN,. Eq. 15-l gives :

ForcedCanwtion, Tsrbulent Ffov

4 Air moving in a duct 160 8te.m flowing in pipe Alcohol and other light organic liquids ,;;; Water in pipe
Ammonia. evaporatine. Alcohol on copper PIate. maximum flow Water on steel plate, maximum flow Water on chromium plate, maxinwrn flow Benzene. film condensation Ammania. film condensation Steam, film condensation Steam. droewise condensation 200

Boiling Liquids

1200 2700 4200 1600 2000 15000

300

There exist a number of other empirica1 correlations of the heat transfer coefficient for nucleate boiling. These expressions are more involved and merely serve to emphasize the difficulty of selecting a satisfactory empirica1 correlation. The theoretical methods of Rohseno@ and of Forster and Zuberz are improvements on the emPirica approach. These investigators were al80 forced in the end t,o the use of dimensionless groups with empirica1 coefficients and empirica1 exponenttj. The principle difficulty is t,hat at least two processes . ae nwolved during nucleate boiling: The formation of bubbles and the subsequent growth of these bubbles. Difficulty arises because the impor-

TABLE 15-3. Ovet=All Coefficient Steam TO Solutions

Btu/hr-sq ti-F

u From

Weight of solids in water, per cent Operating Conditions

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Saltsolution,At=18F 420 430 440 Molasses, LLt=12F 360 350 340 320 290 250 210 170 ---.

tant variables for these processes are not necessarily the same and either one or both of the processes may be rate eontrolling. Surfaee tension. The surface tension of a fluid is the tangential force per unit length appearing in the surface layer of the fluid when it is in contact with another fluid. This tangential force at the interface of the two fluids is caused by the interna1 molecular forees in t,he fluids. Surface tension is measured in pounds per foot and, like viscosity, decreases with an increase of the tem perature of ,the fluid. Values of surface tension for a few liquids in contact with air or with their own vapors are giva in Table 15-4 and Fig. 15-7. Influente of ~ressure. Eq. 15-l was developed for standard atmospheric pressure p,. psia. The actual value of the eoefficient h, eorrected for the influente of the pressure p may be found approximately by using the expression:22 = (5.) : Eq. 16-3

IO 20 30 40 50 60 Over-oll lemperature ditference, OF Af,

Figure 15.5. Effect of surface in horizontaf.tube evaporaor. condition

70

on beat transfer

where h is the value found by Eq. 15-2.

PetroKhem

Engineer

Apri1 1966

81

Simplified~ eqr~otions. The following formulas are recommended for water boiling at standard atmospheric pressure p, under free-convection eonditions: Ca.1 Far horizontal heating surfaces in a ivide vessel with a mal1 specific beat slow, up to Q = 5000 Etujhr-sq ft: Ir = 4Sf',Ys Eq. 15-4 and for a heat florv from 5,000 to 75,000 Btu/hrsq ft: 11 = O.txqO.j ; Eq. 15.5 (bi For vertical heating surfaces in a wide vessel with a very small heat flow, up to 4 = 1,000 Btu/hr-sq ft : il = 50q-125 Eq. 15-G and for a heat flow from 1,000 to 20,000 Btuihrsq ft, h = O.?IJ~.~ Eq. 15-7 For the inside of vertical and slightly inclined tuba, it, is recommended that values of 71 found by Eq. 15-4 and 15-5 be increased by 25%. The~influenee of pressure is taken into account by using Eq. 15.3. As iti the natura1 convection correlations where At was expressed in (degrees Fahrenheit] /(l degree Fahrenheit,), q in Eq. 15-4 through 15-7 is expressed as iBtu,/hr-ft)/il~ Btu/hr-ft?). The constants in these equations ae not dimensionless and have, been selected to give IL in terms of (Btu/hrft-F). 15-5. Vaporizin.g equipnzent. If it, heat exchanger is used to evaporate water or aqueous solutions, it is conventionally termed an evapomtw When used to supply the heat requirements at the bottom of a distillation column, whether the vapor is steam or some other substame, it, is a mfioiler. Used in connection with a power-aenerating system it is a ~mue~-plant evaporator and when used to concentrate a chemical solution by evaporation of solvent, it is a clr~m~~ical em~oioratw. Most vaporizing equipment is designed on the bais of over-al1 heat transfer data obtained from experimental studies on proto-type or pilot models. This is due to the high transfer coefficients with which evaporators operate and the diffieulty of i,dentifying and correlating each of the individua1 resistances whieh make up the over-al1 resistance. MzdtipTe-e.fcct evapo,.&m In the chemical industry the manufacture of heavy chemicals such as caustic soda,, table salt and sugar often starts with dilute solutions from which large quantities of solvent must be removed before the crystallization process can be carried out. ,In poner-plant evaporators the unevaporated portion of the feed water is residue, blowndown, Fig. 15.Za. In the chemic~l evaporator the unevaporated feed is product, Fig. 15..%b. In many evaporation unitu the vapor formed is useful steam. If a pound of steam is supplied to a process as shown in Fig. 15-Sa and the vapor produced in the first evaporator was then used as a heat source in a second evaporator operating at a lower pressure than the first, a greater utilization eould be made of most, of the beat.= When the vapor

TABLE

15-4. Surf& In Contact

Tension Of Liquids With Vapor Tensiono-,

Temperatures,F 212.392 40-212-482 140~212 62 572-680 140-212-392 15dL pounds perftx 1.23.0.51 2.00-1.14-0.12 1.26.1.00 3.18 271~25.8 1.x-1.03-0.32 1.77 4.40-4.03 ~~~~, ~~~~_ 103

Liquid Benzal Carbon Tetrachloride Ethyi Alcohol GlYCOl Mercury (under YBCUUITI) Methyl alcohol Petroleum water Mostly from Interna&

Critica, Tables, op. cit. _ ~~ ._

2 80 70 60 g i40 2 E 30 50

0 Figure 15-7. (Blaty~teyainly 2 3 4 5

40

80

120 160 200 240 280 320 360 Tmperoture, F

Surface tension of liquids vs temperature. on data from International Critica1 Tables.) 6 n-octane nitrobenzene 7 n-hexane 8 carbon tetractl,oricie chlorobenzene 9 methyl and ettly, a,coho, toluene benzene

formed in the first effe& is reused as the henting medium in a second effe&, the combined unit is called a double-effect evaporator. In order to maintain temperature differences for heat transfer betneen the vapor from one effect and the ~boiling liquid of the next effe& the pressure on each succeeding evaporator must be lower than its predecessor. Boili?~g Point R%sr (BPR,J. The boiling point of t,he liquid in an evaporator is effected by both composition and hydr&atic head. A concent~rated aqueous solution undergoes a hoiling point rise above the saturation temperature

I ! 1 1 I I I l 1 I

82

Apri1 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Procon completes
third Cosdeninstallation
Cosden Oil and Chemical Company recently asked Procon to design and build toluene hydrodealkylation and cyclohexane facilities at its Big Spring, Texas refinery. The project was completed and producing specification products eleven months from the contract date. Design capacity of the HydrarB unit is 510 BSD: the Hydeal@ unit, 2220 BSD. When Procon does the job, its done right: on time, on budget. on specification.

Condenser Feed Steam

Produci Figure 15-8~3. Doubfe effect and horizontal tobes. evaporator with Condensate paraffel feed

there are negligible radiation losses. Calculate: (aj steam consumption, Ws, (b) heating surface required for each body, Al, Ai. Aa, (cl cOnden8er water requirement. The aceepted over-al1 eoefficients of heat transfer for the different effe& will be Ui = 600, Uo = 250, and Uz = 125 Btu/hrf+F. SOLUTION: Tota1 feed, .wof = 50,000 lb/hr; t,otal solids in feed = 0.10 x 50,000 = 5000 lb/hr ; total product = 5000/0.50 = 10,000 lb/hr; tota1 evaporation, wl.3 = 50,000 ~ 10,000 = 40,000 lb/hr;cr = 1.0.

zwall

vopor

vapor

Feed Figure farward 15.8b. Triple effect chemical feed and vertical tube evaporator with

Material:

wl, + w* i- LC~ = IL,.;]

t, = 100F
corresponding to pure water at the same pressure. S,uppose steam enters the ehest of a chemical evaporator at 45 psia and is to evaporate water from a salt solution. The steam temperature is 274F. If pure water is evaporated at 18 in. Hg, the temperature of the vapar farmed would be 169F. However, the dissolved salt mises the boiling point to 206F at 18 in. Hg instead of 169F. The temperature differenee across the heat transfer surfaee is only 68F and the BPR of 37F represents lost potential which eannot be attained owing to the dissolved salt. The BPR can be calculated only for dilute so1utions2j and for most rea1 casa must be evaluated experimentally. The effeetive boiling point is also retarded by the depth of liquid above heat transfer surface. The effect of hydrostatic heat may be estimated from: T Ri At, = 0.03 AAP Eq. 15-8 5 where: At, = elevation of the boiling point due to hydrostatie head, F TR = boiling point of the solution, R 2) = specific volume of vapor at Tnz ft3,0b. As = latent beat of vaporization, Btu/lb. Ap = hydrostatic head, it. In most casa, L)p is taken aa one-half the indicated liquid level. The influente of liquid head will be greakr as the condensa pressure is lowered, since v varies considerably with pressure while hs is only slightly premure dependent. EXAMPLE 15-1.26 It is desired to concentrate 50,000~ lb/hr of a chemical solution at 100F and 10.0% solids to a product which contains 50% solids. Steam is avsilable at 12 psig, and the last effect of a triple-effect evaporator with equa1 heat transfer surfaces in each effect will be assumed to operate at a vacuum of 26.0 in. Hg referred to a 30-i% barometer. Water is available at 85F for use in a barometrie condenser. Assume a negligible BPR, an average specific heat of 1.0 in al1 effe&, the condensate from each effect leaves at its saturation temperature and that TS at 12 psig = 244F Ts at 26 in. Hg oacuum (1.95 psiaj = 125F Tota1 temperature differente = 119F When a forward-feed multiple-effect evaporator employs equal surfaees in each effect experience indicates that the differenees in the pressures between effe& will be nearly equal. This will rarely be entirely true, but it forms an exeellent starting point for the caleulation of the pressures in the effects. Any discrepancies can be adjusted later. Average premure differente
26.70 ~ 1.95 := -m3~,~-

= 8.25 psi per effect

Breakup

of The Tot.4 Pressure

Prersure Psia Ap psi 8.25 8.25 8.25

Differente
h, Btu/lb

.steam or Vapor, F TS = ti = ta = ts =

Steam Steam Steam Yapor

chest, 1st e!fect chest, 2nd effect chest, 3rd effect to condenser

26.70 18.45 10.20 1.95

.~._
224)

244 k= 949 224 h,,, = 961 194 hz = 981 125 h= 1022

949Ws

-- 50,000(100

961w,

~0

961w, -t (50,000 - .wlj (224 -- 194) = 981wz 981w2 I (50,000 - wlwz) (194 - 125) = 1022wa
w1 + w2 + W~ = 40,000

Solving

simultaneously

1uI = 12400 70% = 13300 w:, = 14300

ws = 19100 A, = A, =
Uz(t, Aa = w&

Wshs UI(Ts-t,) WAl

-

= 19100 x 949 = 1510 ft 600 x 20

= 12400

x 961=
x 30

15go

ti1 g =

250 13300

Ua(tz -

x 981 = 1510 125 x 69

(Use 1600 ft*/effect) Heat to condensa- = iuaha = 14300 x 1022 = 14,610,OOO Btu/hr

84

Apri1 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Three Armco Steels ,Team to Up Save Money in Refrigerated Ammonia Barges

StrrJCtre* Of?.h&Lo-Temp are stee,. Al1 major elements of this new refrigerated ammonia barge are of a modem economica1 Armco steel. For the critica1 storage tanks, Shef-Lo-Temp plates we~e used. This normalized carbon steel has excellent impact properties down to -75 F well below the storage temperature for liquid ammonia. Armco ABS hull quality plates were used far the barge strutture. Both Shef-La-Temp and ABS plates are members of a full rage of carbon and allay plate products available from the Armco plant in Houston. The strategie location of this mi11saves shipping costs for fabricators throughout the South-

Refrigerated

ammonia

barSe is launched

at Port Houston

Shipyards.

Critica1 tank

west and West. In addition, Armco ZINCGRIP@-EI hot-dipped, zinc-caated steel-provides a durable outer skin protection far the insulation materia1 surrounding the tanks. Fabricator of this barge-and many more like it-was the Port Houston Shipyards, Houston, TCCFiS.
Helpful Data Available

Armco can provide convenient, useful data to help your design and fabricating work. Write us, outlining your needs. Armco Steel Corporation, Dept. W-1046, P.O. Box 1367, Houston, Texas 77001.

ARMCO
Petro/Chem Engineer Apri1 1966

STEEL

ARvo

Water requirement

Economy, = 2.09 During operatin the equal pressure-drop distribution may not maintain itself. This uill occul if there is undue scaling in ne of the effe&, if a body is gas bound, or if liquor levels are not properly maint,ained. Another factor may be the wi~thdrawal of a large quantity of steam from ne of the effe& as a source of low-pressure heating steam. Any deviation from an equa1 pressure-drop distribution does not mean that the entire multipleeffect assembly will fai1 to operate but instead that the unit will a-sume a new pressure distribution and operate with a xduced capaeity and steam economy. the steam xhe?-~,,~oeo~r~pr.euuion. In an evaporator genera& oapors which have nearly as much heat content BS was originally present in the steam. If the vapors from the evaporator are compressed to the saturation prrssure of the steam, the tem-

= 14,610,000/(120 85) = 418,000 Ib/hr = 415,000/500 = 830 gpm lb evaporation/lb steam = 40,000/19,100

Reboilers are usually operated with either forced or natura1 circ.nlations.z8 Tn general forced circulation is used only on small installations and in casa in which the liquid is very viseous FO that natura1 circulation is impeded. References Max Jacob, Heut Transfer in Evaporation and C,ondensatin, fifech. Enginewing SS, 643-660, 720.736. Reprint No. 10, Univ. of Ill. Eng. Exp. Station i:193G) 24. Nukiyama, J. Soc. .ifech. Engm. (Japen) 37, 367, S53 (1934). J. W. Westwater, Boiling of Liquids, Advwxes in Clmnical En.gi~~xwing, Volume 1, Academic Press Inc., New York (195Gj. This is the Leidenfrost point representing the ecurrence of a repulsion between u liquid and a very hot solid. (see Westwater, op. cit.) W. A. McAdams, Heat Tvansnksion, op. cit. p. 380. Ibid., p, 375. .?V. A. McAdams, Heot T.yaarm,issio??., op. cit. p. 382. RH. M. Xurihara and J. E. Mgers, A. 1. CkE. Jmmml 6, 83 (1960~). C. F. Bonilla and C. N. Perry, He& Transmission t Boiline Binarv Liauid Mixtures. Tmnu. A. I. Ch. E., 37,685.705 (1941). OW. L. Badeer and G. E. Seavov. He& Tmnifer and Cv@dL&tiox, Harvey, &is : Svenion Evaporation Company (1945) p. 33. L. A. Pridgeon and W. L. Badger, Study in Evauorator Desien. Ind. Eno. Clmn. 10. 473.78 I ci9i4j. lrM. Jakob and W. Linke. Fwrlr. Gefiieted Ingeniew, 4, 75 (1933). lsM. Jakob and W. Linke. Der Warmeuberzanz vn eine urangerechten Plat,ten siedender Wasser, Forsh..a..d. Gebieted Ingmiewr Wesm 4, 75.81 !1933). T. H. Insinger and H. Bliss, Transmission of Heat to Boiling Liquids, T,rans. A.1.Ch.E. 56 401-516 (194Oj. %D. B. Robinson and D. L. Kata, Ctmm. Eng. Preg. 47, 317 (1951/. ,lGWestwater, Op. cit. 17MeAdams. 00. cit. D. 382. lsM. Jscob,H& T~&s.fer, Op. cit. p. 642. Westwater. On. cit. ?OW. M. Rohs&w, He& Transfer and Fluid Mechanics Institute. D. 123. Stanford Univ. (1953). =H. K. Forster;&d N: Zuber, J. Appl. P&. 25. 474 (1954). =M, Jacob, Heat T.rnnufw, op. cit. p. 698. Jakob and Hawkins. Heat Tmnsfer and Imulatim, op. cit. p, 164-65. =D. Q. Kern. Process Heat Twwfe?. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., (1950). =D. F. Othmer, Ind. Eng. Clwn. 32, 841 (1940). ?D. Q. Kern, op. cit. %?C. S. Robinson and E. R. Gilliland. El~emcnts o.f Fra.ctional Dist%lla.t%m. New York: McGrawHill Book Co., Inc. (1950). l*J. W. Pala and W. M. Small, Hydrocarbon Processing and Petroleum Refiner, 43, 199 (19641. Part 16, Condensation, will appear in the June issue.

Liquid LeveI Bottam Product

perature of the vapors would be raised to that of the origina1 steam. The compressed vapors can then be mi,xed with the st,eam to improve the evaporator economy. During compression a small portion of the vapor will be eondensed and enter the stesm chest BS liquid. The operation of recompressing a vapor t,o permit its reuse is called thermocompression. The compression may be accomplished with a centrifuga1 eompressor, or, where steam is available at a higher pressare than that needed in the eraporator, the recompression can be carried out in a steam jet booster. Relmilols. The heat exchanger used t, supply heat at the bottom of a distillation column is called a reboiler, Fig. 15.9. If a liquid is il mixture of compounds it does not ordinarily boil isothermally. Instead it has an initial boiling temperature (bubble pointi and a fina1 boiling temperature (dew point:) This means that throughout the reboiler there is a temperature range over which boiling oeeurs. The beat, requirements for a reboiler can be determined from heat balances over the distillation col~rnn.?~ In most columns a portion of ,the condensed product from the t,op of the column is returned as reflux. Assuming that enthalpp data are a,vailable, the heat duty of the reboiler can be determined if the distillate, feed and bottom quantities and temperatures are known and if the reflux ratio and heat losses are aleo given.

Apri1 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Our mode1 HPI is al1 API

Read OUYspecifications
Just compare ourspecs with API 610 Standards. Right down,to the throttle and throat bushings! Youll see what we mean. Twenty-three sizes cover the range of on-site refinery services far single stage proc:ss pumps. TO 1,800 GPM, to 750 ft. Pressures to 600 PSIG. And an advanced design in the high-head. low capacity group. Send for a free copy of the API 610 Standard, plus our Mode1 HPI hightemperature process pump bulletin. Youll have everything necessary for a detailed technical comparison.

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GOULDS

@PUMPS

Condensation-

Part 16

Applied Heat Transfer Design for the H PI

by Wayne C. Edmister and Joseph M. Marche110
61-l. Introduction. Heat transfer during condensatian of steam 01 other vapors differs from heat transfer during ordinary cooling of a fluid in two rape&. First, the cooling fluid has to absorb and carry away the latent heat liberated by the condensing vapor, and second, the beat transfer has to overeome an additional resistanee in the form of a liquid film which covers the cooling surface either completely or at least psrtially. The thickness of this film depends on its viscosity and on the condition and position of the cooling 8urface. The thinner t,he film, the smaller is its heat resistance. Roughneus of the surface increases the film thiekness. Drainagc is more rapid from a vertical than from a horizontal or even inclined surface, and the film is accordingly thinner. On a vert,ical surfaee, the film thiekness will gradually beeome greater toward the lover end, due to additionsl condensation of the vapor in contact with the surface. Hence, the effectiveness of a vertical or inelined eooling surfaee decreases toward the lower end. surface they will be most effieient if they are smooth. in horizontal nosition with the condensation taking piace on the *outside of the tube SO that the condensate can drip off readily. In this respect, Therefore, when tubes are used as condensing for severa1 horizontal rows of tuba the arrangement of Ginobat, shown in Fig. 16.lb, w-ill pive thinner films on a considernble portion of the surface and will be more effettive than the arrangement of Fig. 16-1~ The rate of condensation may also be increased by increasing the velocity of the vapor over the surface covered with a film of condensate. Film condensat,ion takes piace on a suiface that is metted by the liquid. On u nonwettable sui-face, that is, on a surface in which there are large interfacial forca, the vapor is condensed in drop form. From the principles of capillarity, when~ the droplets originate they are very small. As the droplet,s grow by further condensation, t,hey run down, under the a aetion of gravity and vapor friction, and unite with other droplets on the surface. In film condensation, the vapor is in contact with a fluid of nearly saturation temperature. The temperature differente and hence the condensing effeets are relatively smoll. In dropwiee condensation, the vapor is in direct contact with t,he cooling surface. The effettive temperature differente is much higher and the formation of droplets takes piace in a much more intensive way than in the case of film condensation. In addition, the coetlicient of heat transfer to droplets with u small radius of curvature is much higher than to a plane surface. As a result the surface coefficient for dropwise condensation is severa1 times jfor steam 15 to 19 times) larga thnn for film condcnsotion. However, it mnst be remembered tha,t the presente of film-t,ype or dropwise condensation affects only one of the coeffieients entering in the make-up of the over-all heat t,ransfer coefficient V. Aceord- * ing to Eq.~ 13-11 the coefficieht U is controlled by the smallest individua1 eoefficient, which case iti on the side of the cooling Rquid. Thus, the influente of dropwise condensation upon U is mach smaller than the influente of fouling or scale on the liquid side of the cooling surface. 16%. Fih condenmtion. According to Nusselts liquid-film theory, saturated vapor forms a continuous liquid film on the wall, and the beat flow is b 0 determined by the thermal Figure 16-l. Film condensation &resistance of this film. The on *uiEs, one above anottler. I

Mechanism of condensation. Two types of condensation are known: one called film condensation, and the other called dro~uise condensation. A combination of the two and may be called mized~ condensation. In film condensation, the saturated vapor coming in conta& with a, cooler meta1 surface eovers the cooling surface with a thin layer of condensate. The condensate flows down due to gravity and is eontinuously renewed by the condensing vapor, so that the cooling surface is never free of liquid.

June 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

In gasoline parlance, 1921, was the year of the dlddle pin.Used to determfne degree of Euel knock, the diddle pin was the heart of the World% first knock-test engine, deve& oped byEthyl.So significant was the engine, Ct led to industry-wlde st antiknock measurement. More recently, Ethyl re cefiners the Compression Ratio m octane rating, an automatic pushoctane number device, and the 66Ethy199Octane Analyzer for automating octane monitori control. These have resulted in . better gasoline quality conm trol at lower cast. Providang customers with reliable and progressive quality control devices and procedures will always be one of the goals of Ethyl research and development.

ETHYL CORPORATION
100 PARK AVENUE, NEW YORK, N.Y. 10017 ETHYL CORPORATION OF CANADA LIMITED ETHYL INTERNATIONAL

Petro/Chem

Engineer

June 1966

FO Informotion Produrlr sarvics hrther 0Adwlired 199 RdP, hd

49

Figure 16.2. Condensate velocity and film thickness. temperature profile far film condensation on a vertical Wall.

where:

k is the beat conductivity of the condensate, z is the distante from the upper edge of the wall, and h is the Iatent heat of vaporization In this case the film coefficient h is the same BS beat conductance C, therefore, it can be presented as:

film t,hickness is zero at the upper edge of the wall, increases donnward as indicated in Fig. 16-2, and reaches thickness 6 at the bottom. The temperature of the wall t, is assumed constant and the temperature, of the film increases lineally frqp t, to t,, the temperature of saturation of the vapor on the outside film surface. The velocity v of the film is zero at the wall and its inerease within the film is assumed to follow a parabola. Under these conditions the mean velocity- v,, at the lower end of the wall, where the film thickness is 6, is found as: Eq. 16-l where: p is weight density, lb per CU ft, g is acceleration of gravity, 4.17 x lOa ft per hr sq, fl is dynamic viseosity of the condensate, lb per ft per hr. The values of p and p must be taken zit the mean temperature of the film, (t, + t,)/2. The mass flow rat,e at 2 is obtained from the eontinuity equation. For unit width the area at 5 is (8) (1) and the mass flow G per unit width beeomes :
G = ~ ps%? Eq.

In dimensionless form, Eq. 16-6 may be written:

It should be remembered that Eq. 16-7 is derived far laminar flow; therefore, before applying it, this condition must be ehecked by comparing the corresoondinx Revnolds number with its critica1 value. For sheet flow the film thickness must, be used for the hydraulic radius :i

The critica1 value of NRe usually is giva as 2000 to 2300. ~16-3. Hm-tran?fer coeficients. Eq. 16-6 giva the loca1 heat transfer coefficient at a distante z from the upper edge of a vert,ical surface. The mean value alang the distante L, designated by /&,,, is found by integration, namely :
h.,,, = ; h

Eq. 16-9 equa-

and, by Eq. 16-3, for s = L, the theoretical tion derived by Nusselt results in:
h.,,,, = 0.943 (/AL)

16-2

3P

!%f!!

Eq. 16.10
m

In a small distante dx, the mass-flow rate will have been inereased by dG, which from Eq. 16-2 is pWg/p. This additional mass added to the layer is the, result of condensation. If the latent heat of condensation is h. then: dG = F
(t, t,,)dz

Published test datai in general confirm the coirect,ness of the theoretical Eq. 16-10 but pive, for

Eq. 16-3

2800 --thearatlcal

,fAdf:gF;

The left-hand side of this expression is the tota1 beat that must Aow for the, mass dG to be condensed. Substituting in the expression for dw pive8

amountof

6 s
0 sfi

= -$

(t,
-

&J /-

ds Eq. 16-4

where the integration is to be peiformed from the top of the plate t,o some z value. If the temperature differente (t, - tw) is designated by Ab, this analysis, due to Nusselt gives foi the film thickness the expression:

111

40

120 160 200 60 v, styn elo~lty, tt/sec of steam

downward

240

280
conpipe.

Figure 16.3. Influente densing *team flowing

velocity on h,; inside a vertical

50

June 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

the constant, values that are in many cases 34 to 53%, highcr than 0.943. There cxist. two explano~ t,ions far this diserepancy. The first is the occurence of turbulence in the film condensate. The second is the occurrence of partial dropwise condensation. Ammnt of condensa.te. The weight G of liquid flowing through a imit width of the surface is found, in lbs per hr per ft as: G = v,,Sp = $! Eq. 16.2

Eq. 16-15 Another form Eq. 16.12: of the design coefficient is. from

h, =

829,(

$)

Eq. 16-16

Incli~md surfaces. For an inclined surface OF tube. the term inside the parentheses in Eq. 16-15 must be multiplied by sinq, where 1Ir is the angle between the surface and horizontal. Thus: h, = 161,8 ( @pXsinv p AtL ) % Eq. 16-17

By using the rate flow G, the temperature differente At can be eliminated from Eq. 16-10. The fact that the tota1 heat liberated by condensation, GA, passes through the sheet of condensate to the surface of unit width and lengt,h L, can be presented as a heat balance: GA = h,,,LAt Eq. 16-11

At from Eq. 16-11 in Eq. 16.10 and Substituting reducing the results gives:

Vertimi tubes. For vertica,l tuba with condensation on the outside surface, approximate calculations may be made using the same Eq. 16-15 and 16-16 as for vertical surfaces. Hwrizontd tubes. For condensation outside a single horizontal tube the value of h, may be found by substituting 2.81 D, where D is the outside tube diameter, for L in Eq. 16-10. Thus, the corresponding equation becomes : h,, = ,03.7( pG) Eq. 16.18

Eq. 16.10 and 16-12 are the basic equations for surface coeffieients with film condensation on various condensing surfaces. Reynolds nwmber. The influente of the Reynolds number Nne can be brought out in the following manner. A substitution of G for v,,& from Eq. 16-8 giveu : 4G NE, = T Eq. 16-13

By rearranging Eq. 16.12 and substituting NJ4 for G/p from Eq. 16-13 in the right side of the resulting equation, the following dimensionless equation is obtained: %($) where 1.47 is a pure plotted as : = 1.4S(&)s number. Eq. 16-14 Theoretical dat,a

against log (NRrj give a straight line AB shown in Fig. 16-4 for laminar flow, N,<, from 0 to about 2100. Experimental data correlated by the same procedure pive a straight line AB with values of h,,, about 20% higher than obtained theoretically. Vertimi su~fa~es. Far a vertical reetangular suiface of height L, the film coefficient may be computed directly by Eq. 16-10, if the temperature t,,, of the condensing surface is known or can be estimated. k,,,, can also be caleulated from Eq. 16-12, if the amount of condensate G is known or can be estimated. In either case the value at h, should be multiplied by 1.2. For practical use it is convenient to substitute 4.17 x 10R for g and move it out of the parentheses. Then from Eq. 16-10 the design coefficient becomes :

Eq. 16-18 may be applied with sufficient wcuif~cy to a vertical bank of horiaontal tuben, as shown in Fig. 16-la, by using Di instead of D, where i is the number of tube in a vertical bank. The increase of the film thickness on the consecutive tuba, due to the accumulation of condensate from the upper tuba, is to a gr& extent offset by the agitation produced by the condensate when it drips from one tube to the next tube below it. Vapor ueloeity. When moleeules of vapor come in contact with the film of condensate flowing on the outside of a tube, they are absorbed by the condensate and a vacuum is created into which vapor from the main .body rushes in. The velocity hesd of vapor that fills the vacuurn is very high eompared with the veloeity head of t,he vapor in a condenser. Therefore, the influente of vapor velocity on the beat-transfer coefficient of condensation usually is negligible. For vapor flowing down the inner wall of a vertical tube, Nusselt developed a dimensionless correction factor to be applied to the constant in Eq. 16-10 or Eq. 16-12. Tests eonfirmed this theory

Petro/Chem

Engineer

June 1966

51

if a small fractionl up to one-tenth,of the steam is con,densed.7 Comparison of data from a extended theory with experimental dat,a are shoan in Fig. 16.3. The tests confirm the general trend and also show that the influente of the temperature differente (t.?,>~- t,j is much smaller than eould be expected. 16.4. Twb~den.t film flnw. Oceasionally, for film condensation of vapor on u tal1 vertical pipe, the film of flowing condensate mai become rather thick, giving a high condensation rate and n Reynolds number NRe grenter tha, its critica1 value. These conditions give rise to turbulent, flow. In turbulent flow the beat t,ransfer is influenced by the Prandtl number Np4, = cp/k. A umber of test da& correlated in accordanee with the general Eq. 16.14 for N1+ = 1 and Np, = 5, gave the cur+es BG and BD, respectively, in Fig. 16.4. However, test data obtained with condensation, of diphenyl oxide and Dorotherm A, on vertical tubesO are represented by line EC. Line EC corresponds to the equation :

0.8 0.7 0

I I ,004 .008 ,012 ,016 .02 ,024 026 ,032~036 .04

C, oir concentrotion by weight Constant to be used in Eq. 16-18 and I

Figure 16-5. Eq. 16-19.

$(

sg):

= 0.0077

(NR<,)Vi

Eq,. 16.19

iyhich is recommended for the determination of the mea heat transfer coefficient il.,,, for turbulent flow in film condensation. 16-~i. Su~awlreated vapws. Equations established for condensation of saturated aapor may be used for soperheated vapor by substituting (i - i,) for X, where i denotes the enthalpy. or heat content, of the superheated vapor and i,: denotes the enthalpy of the condensate. Since (i ~ i,) > h and the temperature differente at in the film remai3 unchanged, the heal-transfer coefficient h,,,,. in aceord once with the general Eq. 16-6, will be slightly increased. Physically the process consists of two parts: first. the vapor loses the heat of superheat by convection, aeting as a dry gas with a relatively low beat-transfer coelicient unti1 its temperature drops t,o the saturatio temperature t,. Th,e the process of condensation begins with its characteristically high beat-transfer coefficient. Rased on the over-al1 temperatme differente, superheated steam does not present any appreciable advant,ages~ for process heating.ll 16-6. Dropwise condensation. As stated in Section 16-1, dropwise condensation is obtained only if the surface is not wetted by the condensate. Dropwise condensation of steam occws on meta1 surfaces cont,amiated by organic substances which prevent the condensate from w&ing the surface and thus act as drop yro*mobers. Many substances make the surface nonwettable t,emporarily; however, only those that are adsorbed or otherwise firmly held by the surface have practical significante BS promoters. Some promoters are specific for certai surfaces, such as mercaptans on coppa And its alloys; others can be used with a number of suifaees, such as oleic acid on copper, brass, chromium and nickel. Usually a very thi film of the promoter gives the best results. A heavy film of contaminant

substance may result in the formation of a continuous condensate film. Some promoters seem to be influeneed by the presente of noncondensable a gas. Drop condensatio is more easily maintained o smooth surfaces than on commercially rough surfsces. Carefully conducted tests with steam hnve give average surface conductance oalues for dropwise condensatio of 3,4,000 Gtu,/hr-sq-ftF BS wainst about 2000 with film condensation. In general, test data show that drop condensation cu pive 8 to 15 times, and up to 19 times, higher surfac~e coeffieients t,han film condensation. However. since dropwise condensation can be obtained only under firmly controlled conditions, condensing equipment ordinarily is designed assuming film condensati 16.7. Ejffrxt of Iznn.eo?~densa.ble gases. When a vapor is mixed with a noncondensable gas, the mecha,nism of heat transfer to a surface by condensati is complicated by the phenomenon of diffusion. The condcnsation of vapor on the cold surface removes it from the vapor phase imrnediately in contact with the surface and results in a gas layer between the condensat,e film and main body of the vapor-gas mixture. In the gas layer the partial pressure of t,he vapor is low and the partial pressue of the ga8 is high. The vapor in the main body of the mixture moves toward the cooling surface due to the vacwm formed by condensation and the differente of partial pressrrs. It. must. pass through the gas layer and overcome its resistance. At the same time, the gas from~ the layer starts to diffuse into the main body of the misture where its partial pressure is lower than in the laser in contact with the condensate. The additional resistance of the gas film lovers ~the heat transfer coefficient of condensation considerably. 4 theoretical treatment of this complieated phenomenonli is not suitable for use in design problems. A method for the numerica1 computation of the beat-transfer coefficient for the condensation of vapors in the presente of oncondensable gases has been giva by~ Colbur and

June 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Layne

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Petro/Chem

Engineer

June 1966

Fo, ,nrmlolion hrhar on *d.er,iied Reah bd ProdrlrlaeIMh

53

Hougen. However, this method requires a long and tedious series of gradua1 approximations. Smmll air contmt. For vertieal tubes with condensation on the outside surface, there exists a simpler method based on Nusselts theoretical Eq. 16-10 which is accurate within + 1O%.10 In this method the empirical value of 0.670; iCiO- is substituted for the constant in Eq. 16-10 where C is the part, by weight, of air in the steamair mixture. This results in the equation:

It, should be noted that the constant 0.670 already contains an inerease of 53$X as found from experiments, over the theoretical value. The range of use of Eq. 16-20 is C - 0.001 to 0.04, or 0.1 to 4%. For condensation outside a horizontal tube with an outside diameter D, Eq. 16.20 must be ehanged by substituting 2.810 for L. Thus : h,, = 0.515($3~25 (+) . Eq. 16-21

For a vertical bank of horizont,al tuba, i tubes high, the value of D in Eq. 16-21 must be multiplied ,by i. Instead of computing the value of the constant 0.670;(C)0~11 or 0.F15:C0., respectively, the constant may be taken direetly from Fig. 16.5.1r Larger aiv content. For an air content of 0.2 to 20% of the steam weight the eoeffie&mt ir, in condensation can be obtained with sufficient accuracy by using Fig. 16-6,1R which giva h, as a

function of the air content C, and of the temperaturc diffcrcnce At = t, - t,,. First il,, is calculated for the giva conditions when there is no air present, C1 = 0. This value is multiplied by the ratio h.,/ho taken from Fig, 13-6, where h, is the heattransfer coefficient, corresponding to the air/steam ratio C,, and ho is taken from the curve C, = 0. Both values are taken at the existing temperature differente At. 16-8. Surface emdensem. Surface condensers used in steam power plants to obtain low back pressure in steam engines and turbina eonsist of a bank of horizontal water tuba enelosed by a steel shell containing the steam. Water admitted to the tubes flows through them in a single or double pass arrangement. Steam is admitted at the top side of the shell and flows over and between the tubes. The condensate flows by gravity to the hot well from whieh it iS pumped out to the outside atmosphere. The cooling-water outlet is always mar the top in order to keep al1 the tubes filled with water. The single-pass arrangement is used where the water supply is large and t,he power to deliver it, is small. The double-pass eondenser permits a bet- 0~~ ter utilization of the water and is preferred where the water supply is limited. Fa.ctors affef2in.g eondenser perform.ance. The main factors affecting the performance of a, con~, denser are: differente in temperat,ures of the two fluids, water velocity, cleanliness of tubes, steam distribution, and air removal. Temperatwe diflevence. According to the rules set by the condensa section of the Heat Exchange Institute, no guarantees should be made for (a) operation below 0.7 in. Hg absolute premure, which carresponds to a steam temperature of, 68.4F and (bi a differenee of less than 5F in the temperatures of steam and the outgoing water. Water velocity. In single-psss eondensers with good water, a velocity from 420 to 450 fpm is good practice; however, higher velocities can be used. With corrosive or salt water, it is recommended not to exceed 400 fpm. In two-pass condensers common practice is to use 360 to 420 fpm. Lover wat,er velocities decrease the beat transfer eoeffi- 0, cient too mueh and water velocities below 180 fpm may not give a uniform distribution of water to al1 the tuba. Cleanl%ness of tuba. Even water free from foreign matter gradually forms a deposit on the inner surfaee of the tuba. This deposit increases the thermal resistance of the inner surface which is the eontrolling faetor in the over-al1 heattransfer coefficient. In operation the tubes are cleaned at certain intervals. TO insure proper condenser operation with the desired yacuum it is advisable, in designing a cond&ser or finding its rating, to reduce the correlation constant by about 20%. This results in the equation: )O.(-hTp,+ Lubricating oil contained in the exhaust Eq. 16-22 steam of I

20 40 Temperature differente

/s-fw,

60 deqF

80

Figure 16-6. Influente of air content on the beat transfer coefficient of steam contained air.

54

June 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Petro/Chem

Engineer

June 1966

reciprocating engines gradually forms a film on the outside surface of the tuba that further rcduca the condensa capacity. However, numerica1 data are too nieager to apply a correction faetor to the outside surface coeiiicient. Therefore, it is recommended that the capaeity rating of the condenser as used mith steam turbina be simply reduced 35% mhen it is used with reeiprocating engines. Vapor distdmtion. Because of the large specific volume of km-pressure vapor, its entering velocity is always very high. This is useful in obtaining a high rate of heat transfer but prevents the use of baffles far betta distribution because they would increase the pressure 10~s. Vapor distribution is obtained by arranging the water tuba SO that lanes or passages are formed between bundles of tuba as illust,rated by Fig. 16.7. Fig. 16.73 shows an ariangement with veitical and hoiizontal lz&s for steam distribution; Fig. 16.7b shows radia1 and eylindricsl lanes and Fig. 16.7~ shows tubcs arrangcd in converging rows. The longitudinal distribution of steam is obtained by ex-

I - firrf poss ll- SKOd pss

IO)
Figure 16-7. Tube

ib)
arrangements in steam

cc 1
condensers.

velocity is high and eficiently removes the film of condensate from the tuba, and gradually decreases toward the bottom where it is also affected by the inereasing air concentration. No satisfactory data for 71 under different operating eonditions are available. On the other band. it is not difficult to obtain values for the over-al1 coefficient UU by testing a condensa of similar design. Fog fommtion in cwr&n.sws. When t,here are large temperature gradients bet,ween the surface and the condensing vapor iog may be iormed.lu It is difficult to collect and interferes with the norma1 operation of the condenser. In order for fog to form t,he gas mixture must be cooled below its dew point. Fog formation in corldenseru occuru in the gas film near t,he cold wrface. 26.9. Condenser design. The safest design of a new surfsce condenser would be one based on the value of ho determined from experimental values of Un for tests of a similar condenser. Expressing the value of UO by Eq. 13-17, substituting the values of Un, DO, D, ho IC, and solving the resulting equation for hi will give a more dependable numerica.1 valne 0 for hi than a value obtained from a theoretieal formula with rather indef?nite correction coeiiicients. However, in the absence of experimental values of UO. the design should be ~based on Eq. 16.18. Since the inside thermal resistance, Ri = l/h.i, usually is higher than the outside resistance, Ro = l/ho, a moderate uncertainty in the value of ho twill not affect the design tao much. Design equations. If the beat eontent of steam entering the eondenser is 4, in Btu per hour, then the beat balance far the outside tube surface A, is: q = A,lJqnt, Eq. 16.23

tending the ~steam admission opening over a large part of the condensa length and also by providing a large steam dome. Air remwoaC. Effeetive removal of air entrained with the steam is important since air reduce the heat transfer rate, as brought out in Section 16-7. In order to reduce the work of the vacuum pump, the air must be cooled as much as possible. This is done by bringing it in contact with cold water tuba in the first pass, as shown in Fig. 16.7a and 16-7b or providing separate tube for air cooline, Fig. 16-7~. Strmtwal factoss. Admiralty meta1 tubes are commonly used for fresh water and aluminum brass tuba for salt and brakish water. Standard tube sizes are %, %, Ti8 and l-in. OD; the sua1 wall thickness is 0.049 in. for (18.WBG), although ?/a and %-in. tuba are sometimes used with 20 BWG ~valls, and 17 and 16 BWG are used witb high-corrosive water. Tube lengths vary depending on the condensa size, as shown in Table 16.1. Oakside-swface cor.fi.eient. In a commercial condenser, the outside coeffieient h,o varia considerably. It is highest in the upper rows, where the steam

Substituting for Ao its va,lue expressed by the outside diameter of the tubes Do, their length L, and their total nlunber i an,d solving far i gives:
4

vD,LlJ&t, The beat carried sented as: awvay by the water q = W,,e (tr. ~ t,i

Eq. 16.24 may be pre-

Eq. 16.25

The weight of water W, can be expressed in terms of its velocity v, density p, and inner cross ,area of the tubes, S = (rD1/4jzi,, where i, is the numher of tuba in a pass; for a single-pass condensa i, = % and for double-pass condensa i, = i/Z. The specitic heat c of t,he eooling water can be taken as 1.0. Substituting these values in Eq. 16-25 and solving it for tr - tl, results in: tz-t,=-4-_ /XTD&V~ Eq. 16.26

Design procedwe. The following steps give the quickest solution : 1. Select the tube size, Do and Di, and its length L, based on Table 16-1.

56

June 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

2. Assume the water outlet temperature tz and compute the temperature differenee Ah. 3. Find the number of tubes i by Eq. 16-24. 4. Find the temperature rise tz ~ ti by Eq. 16~26. 5. Compare this value of tz with the assumption made in step 2. Assume a new value for ts about halfway between these two ralues and repeat the procedure unti1 At, and tz -- ti agree. If necessary, change the length L. EXAMPLE 16-1. A condenser is to be designed for a turbogenerator with a maximum exhaust of 42,000 Ib/hr. The desired condensa pressure is 1.5.in. Hg. The available cooling water is untreated river water and its maximum temperature is 78F. Find the required: ia) size and number of water tubes, (b:) cooling surface and (e) amount of cooling water. The design must be similar to a double-pass condensa with a surface of 3719 sq ft. Operating data are: steam to condenser, 28,000 lblhr; condenser pressure, 1.25.in. Hg; corresponding steam temperature, 86F; ,tubes %-in. OD with 18 BWG walls (clan surface) ; eooling water, 4100 gpm; velocity, 5.5 fps; and temperature, 67.OF in and 80.OF out,. SOLUTION: First U0 of the tested condenser must be determined. Heat removed by the water: 4100 x (231/1728) x 60 = 32,900 cu ft/hr; at 67F, p = 62.29 Ib/cu ft and: q = 32,900 x 62.29 x 0.999 (80 - 67) = 26,600,OOOBtu/hr A check from the amount of latent beat in t,he uteam, assuming 950 Btujlb, giva: q = 28,000 x 950 = 26,600,OOO Bt,u/hr The mean temperature diffcrence is:

Substituting 634 =

the above values in Eq. 13-17 giva:

1 0.0729 0.0729(0.0729 - 0.06472 1 ~.-0.0647 x 1233 + (0.0729 t 0.0647) 65-+11,

Solving t,his equation giva li. = 1677 Btu/hr-sq ft-F. (a) The tube siae must be selected in order to find Un for the specified operating conditions of the new coudenser. Tht: capacity of lhe new condenser is only 50% lwger than thst of the tested condenser, therefore the same size, %-in. can be used. The water velocity may be taken us the average reeommended in Section 16-8, for two-pass condensers, or 390 fpm = 23,400 fphr. From the steam tables, t,he steam temperature is 91.71F. A preliminary assumption of the water temperat,ure rise, t. - tl, must be made and later, when the required quantity of water is determined, the assumption must be checked. Since tO should not be less than 5F below the steam temperature, assume t2 = 86F. This gives tr - tl = 8F. Thus the average bulk temperature is t = 78 i- 8/2 = 82F and the approximate film temperature tr = (82 + 91.71)/2 = 86.86F. With theue data and those from Table 3.9, the Reynolds number of the water is found as: N,, = 0.0647 x 23,400 x 62.13 _ 4g ooo 1.92

and the inside surfaee coefficient by Eq. 16.22: hi = 0.0195 g = x 49,000~~~x 5.330-d ft-F.

1187 Btu/hr-sq

From Eq. 13-17: u,, = This giva : 26,600,OOO U= 3719 x 11.28 = 1 0.0729 0.0729 (0.0729-0.0647) 1 0.0647 x 1187+ (0.0729 + 0.0647) 65 +i671 ft-F. differente is computed as: 86) = 9.10F. ~ (91.71 In 13.71 5.71

634.0 Btu,hr-sq

ft-F

= 620 Btu/hr-sq nt = (91.71-78)

The mean temperature L

Next the inside coefficient Il1 must be determined. The tube diameters are: Do = 0.875/12 = 0.0729 ft; Di = (0.875 - 0.049 x 2) = 0.0647 ft. For turbulent flow, the film temperature is equa1 tti the mean between the wall temperature and bulk temperature of the fluid. The bulk fluid tempera: ture is (67 -1,~ /2 = 76.5F. The wall temperature 80) is approximately (86 + 73.5112 = 79.8F and the film temperature will be approximately (73.5 + 79.81/2 = 77.7F. At this temperature, from Table 3.9 (P/CE, Feb., 1965, p. 39), c = 0.998 Btu/lb-F; p = 62.19 lb/eu ft; p = 2.15 Ib/ft-hr; k = 0.354 Btu/hr-ft-F; and ?J1+ = 6.06. Now, wit,h v = 0.5 fps: iz.2 = 0.0243 (;;)(0.0647 x 5.6 x 3600 x 2.15 ft-F x1

The tota1 heat removed is 42,000 x 950 = 39,900,OOO Btu,/hr. In accordante with Table 16-1, selecting the number of tubes is found, from Eq. 16-24 as:
39,900,000

m x 0.0729 x 18 x 620 x 9.1

= 1714 tubes. Eq. a

For a double-pass condensa i,, = 171412 = 857, and by Eq. 16.26, t. 4 x ~.~-,.~ 39.900,000 t, = -.,-~., 62.13 x T x 0.0647 x 857 x 23,400 = 9.73F. Before assuming a, new value for .Eq. b ta and re-

x 6.06.4 = 4233 Btu/hr-sq

Petro/Chem

Engineer

June 1966

calculating At, in order not tu make tz too close to t,, it is advisable to slightly reduce the length of the tubes from 18 to 1G ft. This ,will give, Eq. (a), i = 1714 x 18/16 = 1928 and Eq. (b), tV.- tl = 9.73 x 857/964 = S.64F. Now assuming tl ~ tl = 8,40F, or tY = 86.4, gives : nt = (91.71 78) - (91.71 zn 13.71 5.31 86.4) = 8,8GF,

or, with the aeight of ~1 gallon st 78F equa1 to 62.19 x 231/1728 = 8.31 Ib/gal, tbe required water uupply is:
w 16-10. w = 4,750,000 = 9520 gpm 8.31 x GO vnlues

A~prozkxte

of conductmce.

In

with this At, Eq. (a) gives i = 1928 x 9.10/8.86 = 1980 tuba and Eq. (b) gives tl - tl = 8.64 x 964/990 = 8.4ZF. This is close enough to the assumed 8.40F. Thus the condenser must have 19X0 tubes, 7/s-in. OD, and 16 ft long. (b) The required cooling surface is:
A

39,~00,000 = 7650 sq ft. 620 x 8.42

(c) The amount of water required Eq. 16-25, with c = 0.997 Btu/lb-F, wu> =

is found by as:

practice, the operating conditions of condensing equipment often are not known with sufficient accuracy to emnpute the surface coefficient. Rather than using an average over-a11 coefficient V given in technical references, it is betta to calculate LT from approximate, oi representztive, values of t,he film conductance h,,. Representative values of film conductance IL, may be taken from Table 16-2. Other representative values of heat transfer coefficients for various situations are giken in Table 15-2 (P/CE, Apr. 196G, p.). Transfer unit mnethod. The~temperature differente varies from point to point in the condenser as the coolant is heated. B heat balance en the coolant over on increment of heat exchatige area is: 0 dq = WC,dt, Eq. 16-27 In f:erms of an overwll
dq = U(t,,-t<)dA.

39,900,000 = 4,750,OOOlb/hr 8.42 x 0.997

hent trunsfer

caeffieient: Eq. 16.28

Combining Eq. 16-27 and Eq. 16-28 and integrating: TABLE 16-1. Maximum Recommended Lengths, Feet Tube

1,500 2,400
2,400 3,800

500 1,500

10

10
:i

14
:i

i-4
20 22

3.800 6,000 6.000.10.000 over10,000

:4 -~

20

:i

:8

:B

For a condensation of a pure substance, the condensation temperature, th, does not change throughout the exehanger and Eq. 16-29 becomes:

TABLE 16-2. Representative Values Of Film Conductance

The dimensionless
number of transfer

group
units,

UA/WC, is called the NTU. Eq. 16-30 may be

rearranned

to the form: e-NTU . Eq. 16-31 m

t,, out - t,, im. = 1th - t,, in.

Benme 20-80 Butanal 22.50 Isobutanol 26-56 Carbon Tetracbloride 8.2: Diohenvl Dibhen$I 23-130 35-72 D&+hrm A Ethanol 11-39 20.98 Ethanol Methanol 14-28 Naphtol, 58~ API 22-85 Oil. 42 API 55-60 PrOpanOI 23-47 Isopropanol 17-45 steam IO-60 Steam 10-40 Tetrochloroethylene 54-135 T0lllWle 20-100 Turpentine 24-84

li

where: NTU The left-hand

efectiveness,

= UA/WC,.

side of Eq. ,lG-31 is the temperature E, since it represents the ratio of the actual temperature ehange in the coolant to the maximum possiblc ehange. The value of NTU is a measure of the dimensionless size of the heat exchanger and sei-BS as a measure of the esse oi difficulty with which a unit may be fitted to speeifications. References M. Jakob, He& Transfer in Evaporation and Condensation, ~echam~cal Engineering 68, 643-60, 729-36 (19363. Reprint No. 10, Univ. of Illinois Engineerina Experiment Station (1937) p. 24. 21bid, pp. 50-54 and E. R. G. Eckert, Introduction tu Heat and Mass Tmnsfor, op. cit., pp. 172-75.

June 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

whichvG*

features

are important

t6 you?

PetrojChem

Engineer

June 1966

R. C. L. Bosworth, Heat Tmnsfe? Ph~enomena. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1952) p. 147. lBosworth, op. cit., p. 147; and MeAdams, op. cit., p. 260. Eckert, op. cit., p. 175, giva for NRe, computed on the basi6 of Eq. (13.5), 1,200 to 1,600; Jakob, Heat Transfer in Evaporation and Con.densatim. op. cit,, p. 71, gives for NI<,,,, from 1,500 to 2,300; U. Grigull, Warmenbergang bei Kondensation mit turbulenter Wasserhsut, Forsch.ung a..d. Gebiete d. Inge?~.ieurzuesen, B. vol. 13 /1942), p. 53, gives a tabulation of NRe,c determined by various authors with values ranging from 2,100 down to 1,000 and States that the discrepancies are due to experimental diffieulties and indicate the necessity of additional research work. X Jakob, S. Erk, and H. Eck, Der Warmeubergang beim Kondensieren Stromenden Dampfes in einem Verticalen Rohr, Forschung, ad. Gebiete In~e~v~ewwesen 3 (1932) pp. 161-170; M. Jakob, Heat Transfer in Evaporation and Condensation, loc. cit. pp. 61-66. GTinker, loe. cit. p. 5. rJakob, Erk, and Eck, loe. cit. RM. Jakob, S. Erk, and H. Eck, Verbesserte Messungen und Bereehnungen des Warmeuberganges beim Kondensieren Stromenden Dampfes in 36, einen vertikalen Rohr, P1l~zikalisch.e Zeitschrift 73-84 (1935). A. P. Colburn, Relation between Mass Transfer (Absorption) and Fluid Frietion, Ind. Eng. Chem. 22, 967-70 (19301 ; and A. P. Colburn, Calculation of Condensation with a Portion of Condensate Layer in Turbulent Motion, Ind. Eny. Chem. 26, 432.34 (1934j. lC. G. Kirkhride, Heat Transfer by Condensing Vapor on Vertical Tuba, Trans. A.I.Ch.E. 30, 170-186 (1933.34) ; Ibid <condensed), see Ind. Eng. Chem.. 26, 425-28 (1934) ; W. L. Badger, He& Transfer Coefficients for Condensing Dorotherm Fibra, Tram. A.I.Ch,.E. 33, 441.46 (19381, Znd. En,g. Ch.em.. 29, 910-12 (1937). 0. Lyle, The E,.(i?eient Use of Steam. London : H. M. Stationery Office (1947). lzT. B. Drew, W. M. Nagle, and W. Q. Smit,h, The Conditions for Dropwise ,Condensation of Steam. Tram A.1.Ch.E. 81, 605-21 (1935). laW. M. Nagle, et al, op. cit. pp. 593-604. IP. Grassmann, Gegenstrom Koudensation bei Gleichzeitigem Stoffaustausch bei Zweistdffgemischa, A>an.alen der Physik 7, 54.62 (1950). 15A. P. Colburn and 0. A. Hougen, Design of Cooler Condensers for Xixtures of Vaporu with Noncondensing Ga,ses, Ind. Eng. Ch.em. 26, 117% 82 (1934). %. J. Meisenburg. R. M. Boarts and W. L. Badger, The Influente of Small Concentrntions of Air in Steam on the Film Coefficient of Heat Transfer, Tmns. A.1.Ch.E. 31, 622 (19343. lrTEllfA Standwds, op. cit. p, 85. lRM. Jakob. Heat Transfer. OD. cit. u. 692. T. K. Sh&nood and R. i. Pigford Abswptiow and Estioction. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. (19523 p. 111. %OH. Sehenek, Jr. Heat Transfe? Engineering. New York: Prentice Hall, Inc., 211 (1959).

PROGRESSHPITECHNOLOGY IN Petrochemicals l
q DangerS of dependence on tests of finished plastic parts are pointed out, by appliance engineers at G. E. Major Appliance Laboratories in Louisville, Ky. Such tests, it is emphasized, must be accelerated and are therefore hazardous unless considered along with other tests. Predictions based on specific time and temperature related parameters, as well as effects of geometry, mechanical and chemical environment and processing history must also be eonsidered. As an example, creep measurements of a high impact polystyrene used for a fan biade predicted no ereep at 0 F. Allowing a maximum dimensiona1 change of iO%, a life of well over 20 yr is predicted at 73 F. Field t,ests SO far have confirmed this. Testing procedure8 are directed, therefore, to a tempering of aecelerated, finished parts test results by consideration of directly evaluated monerties of the materia1 itself. of 1,4-dichloro-2.butene are n 18.21% yields achieved bv va~oi Dhase ehlorination of 2-but,ene in work ai M<dwe& Resenrch ,Institute, using a single pass system. Conditions were st,udied to determine the effect on addition and substitution rea~ctions. It was concluded that the only significant variable studied was the ratio of reactants and that between 2.3 and 2.0 ratio of chlorine to butene the maximum wus realized. Yields of neither product nor byproducts were affected by wxiations of preheat temperature or space velocity. Greater yields of HCI, 2-chlorobutane, 3-chloro-1.butene i,3-dichloro2.butenes and dl-2,3-dichlorobutane were measured at higher temperatures but lower yields of meso~Z&dichlorobutane. Oxygen inereased substitution reactions only between 260 C and the optimuml 375 C. Attempts to chlorinate 1-chloro-2.butene gave very low yields of 1,4-dichloro-2-butenel indieating that the 1-chloro compound is not an intermediate step.

Part 17. Design will appear in

of Heat Exchangers, the July issue. l

June 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

oi exeeeds production capacity at which time high prices are established. Any misjudgment of the time necessary to develop markets and any overoptimistic estimata of volumes and prices can have a major effect on the profit return patta-n. In the example, a depressed short term benzene price, a reduced initial volume and higher delivery costs al1 would lower the early profit dollars and create a need for additional profit make-up in later years. As noted, the benzene project shows a reasonably attrattive return which obviously must be related to some corporate tax strutture and cast of capital. But, a margin of error in early profits could offset the expected justification and perhaps break even with a companys cast of capita]. Any of the pitfalls discussed above, could eliminate or reduce profits during the early years of operations. If the first years profits are eliminated, one-fourth of the rate of return would be lost and ou project would show a 19% Discounted Cash Flow before taxes, at best, a borderline venture. The payout increases to 41/4 years. Figure 3 illustra& the cash flow which cumulata only $4,140,. 000 after ten years. If the fina1 year of the earning Ife showed no profit, in other words, a nine-year Y: hfe project, the return would decrease only one percent to 24%. This illustrata the time value of money coneept and the need to concentrate on early profits. There is always the possibility that the full product volume cannot be sold immediately as expeeted and some market development required. If the full product volume were not sold unti1 the third year with one-third of the full volume the first year and two-thirds the second, the reduetion in the profitability of the project would be equivalent to that of the first year at no profit (19% rate of return).

About the Author - Louis R. Bechtel is wakation xupewisos in th.e Atlmtie R%cl&ld Diri. of Atlmtic Co. His darties include preparing capital. jlLstifications, conducting proftability studies and performance analyses. Bechtel received bis bachelors d.egres in chemical engineerg from case institute of Dela:mwe Teclmolog~. He is chairm cm, AICHE, Valley section. Comty Ama of D&mure

AecoveringLost Profits
There are several possibilities to ,be considered for recovering a 105s in early profits. Lets examine a few and note their effectiveness. Earning life of the venture might possibly be extended If we double the life of our hydrodealkyla*. . tlon umt to 20 years, the 19% return would only increase to 21%. We have recovered only one-third of ou 108s by doubling the life. Tripling the life to 30 years would only add 5% to the 21%. The eonclusion is that increased project life is not a practical approach to recovering lost profits. Are reduced operating eosts a reasonable profit recovery meehanism? In oui example, no. A lg/gal produet cast reduction out of l.Z$/gal direct operating eosts would be required to recover the 108s of early earning, as discussed above. Obviously, this is an impraetical requirement. As a general rule, produetion costa are usually accurate and well defined from the available process design, leaving little room for further reduction. There are, however, many instances where the operating costs are a major percentage of the tota1 product cast, and an area of cast reduction is practical.
PETROKHEM ENGINEER July 1966

Imorovements in moduct vields or efforts directed toward by-product upgrading are potentials for profit improvement. These should be reasonably well-known for the authorieation evaluation, but in instances of integrated and eomplex processing some potential in by-product upgrading can be parleyed into profits. Our toluene to benzene example is extremely limited in this regard sine an increase in yield t,o stoichiometric proportions could only reeover about one-fourth of the early earning life profits which were lost as described. In addition, ow process offeru 110significant volume of by-product to upgrade. Additional product revenue from either more volume or higher sales realizations could provide the needed additional income for the remaining years to recover lost expected earnings. For oui profect an additional 250 b/d of benzene, a 25% increase in plant eapacity, must be sold at incrementa1 profit to bring back ow depressed 19% rate-of-return venture to the planned-for 25%. Todays technology in proceus drsign might not allow for this required inerement,al capacity without more capita1 cast. Supply and demand will establish the pl-oduct value which can be commanded in the marketplace and, therefore, any ability to enhance the later years profits above predictions is external to an individua1 company project. Highly speeialized chemicals moving into limited markets may bave some freedom in price strutture to offset unforeseen process or planning difficulties; but commodity values, such as that of benzene, are established by major suppliers.

Summary
In our study, we have ~eeu that one-lourtb of the predicted rate of return of our capital projeet can be lost if either the first years profits are lost or some unexpected market growth pattern is needed. Assuming that the foundation work for the initial evaluation was adequately done, the practical means available for recovering lost profita are not necessarily effettive. TO avoid calling on contingent mechanisms for profit recovery, take time to define more precisely the early income pattern and thoue pitiallu wbich might delay initial earnings. n 95

H. Verkoren and Dr. G. H. Reman

Koninklijki Shelr-Laboratorium,, Amsterdam, Holland

Gas/ Air Turbulence Vaporizer Giues . . .

Quiet, Ground Flare far

m Shell h3s developed a quiet ground flare for refinery waste gasa, based on the Bunsen principle. rhe essential feature is that t,he gas/& mixture passcs through a turbulence vaporizer and is ignited immediately behind this. When the gas to be burned is under pressure, the Bunsen prineiple can be used. With the aid of a jet, the pwssure is eotiverted into velocity. Where the mixing chamber is suitably designed, pressure differences will result from this velocity and will make it possible to draw in the combustion air and mix it with the gas (Fig. 1) Though the flames of Bunsen flares have low luminosity and produce little soot, they can be quite noisy. For the Shell flare, the turbulenee vaporizer consists of a grid with circular or square ducts, the dimensions of which must satisfy eertain requirements. A ratio of 0.25 length to diameter is feasible, but best results ape obtained with an L/D nbove 3.0. The influente of the turbulence vaporizer on the *Rased on paper presented by H. Verknren at the IRtl, Annua1 Conference of the Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Mineralolwissenschaft und Kohlechemie, Cologne, West Germany. noise produeed is shown in Fig. 2. There is considerable improvement in the frequency ranges with the greatest disturbances. A multijet is used to keep the mixing chamber BS short ,as possible. Severa1 burners of this tgpe are fitted intoa combined combustion chamber. The wall of this chamber is lined with beat- resistant. materia1 SO that the flame temperature remains high and th6 outside wall is protected. The inlet of secondary air is possible. When in operation, only a short blue flame emerges from the combustion 0 chamber. There is no vertical beam of light. The wall temperature does not exceed 1OOOC(1832F). The contro1 range of a Bunsen burner is limited, and flame flahback can oecur below 25% of the norma.1 load. However, since for t,he most part, large contro1 ranges must be dealt with, the necessary adjustment can be effected by switching the burners on and off. An automatic system can be used, with gas pressure controlling the necessary number of burners. Gas stream turbulence can be increased by introducing an auxiliary gas under pressure into the waste gas. This gives a more rapid blending of the gas with the ambient air. The auxiliary gas can be

-CERAMIC

LINING

-COMBUSTION CHAMBER

,IGNITION -IGNITION STABILIZER ~TURBULENCE,VAPORIZER -MIXING CHAMEER -WINDBREAKER -AIR INLET -SEVEN-FOLD JET

SUBSIOIARY NOISE 123456789

Figure 2. Noise intensity within a range of 7.5 meters. m?qw.?ncy ranges (cps): 1 = 20 ., 15,000; 2 = 20 75: 3 = 75 150: 4 = 150. 300; 5 = 300. 600; 6 = 600 1200; 7 = 1200 2400; 8 = 2400 4800; 9 = 4800. 15000.

developed

of a Bunsen flare incorporating turbulence vaporizer.

the Shell-

96

PETRO/CHEM

ENGINEER

July 1966

HPITECHNOLOGY/PETROCHEMS continuedfrom Page22 I Polyolefin products are rapidly supplanting.jute and sisal in Britain and Germany. Fibrillated tape of polypropylene. made by IC1 Fibres, is finding use in baler twine. fish nets, packaging twine, hose and electrical usa. 25% cheaper than filament yarn and 21/2 time8 stKmger than sisal, it is soft and has high resistance to torque and stress, giving it excellent knot stability. Because of resistance to stretch and kinking, it is finding preference in slings, mooring lines and net mount,ings. A 3-i. rupe of fibrillated yarn, 4 g/denier, is ~said to be stronger than one of 8 g/denier multifilament. Farbwerke Hoechst in Germany produces a yarn made by twisting strips of stret,ch oriented, 0.04mm high density polyethylene. The stretched strip is about 0.013 mm thick and 3.10 mm wide, twice ns strong as jute and with an elongation of 20.25% eompared to 3% for jute. A sack of this yarn weighs one-fifth as mueh as one of jute and withstands a drop test from twice as high. w New liquid hydroxyl terminated resins offer promise for urethane and ureaurethane products. Developed by Sinelair Petrochemicals, Inc., two all.butadiene polymers, Poly B-D Rl5M and Poly B-D R45M. a butadiene-styrene, Poly B-D CS15 and a butadiene-acrylonitrile, Poly B-D CN15 are said to react with diisocyanates to produce elastomers, foams,, etc. or first with amines and then with diisocyanates to produce urea-urethane polymera. Products are said to show high hydrolytic stability. Retention of 75% of physical properties afta 10 days in boiling water is claimed. The polymers are extendihle with hydrocarbon and synthetic oils, and compatible with many general purpose elastomers. Pot live are short, but the polymers go first intoa pasty state which can be co-milled with other elastomers such as polyisoprene, GR-N rubber, GR-S rubber, etc. and even injection molded. Cured produets resist swelling in lubricating oils and such solvents as benzene, acetone, and dimethyl formamide. w Further information has become available on the electrolytic dimerization of acrylonitrile to adiponitrile. Work at Badische Anilin and Soda-Fabrik has resulted in better understanding of the process. Yields as high as 82.5% are reported. Both current and materia1 yields are said to be independent of current density hetween 2 and 30 amps/dm2. Optimum value of pH was found to be about 9, with higher values producing more ether strutture and lover leading to propionitrile. Cathode potential was found to be independent of pH above 2.5. At concentration of, acrylonitrile lower than 10% (2.0 molar) yields fa11 off. Solution aids such as acetonitrile or dioxaue are used. One electron and one hydrogen ion is required for each moleeule of ucrylonitrlle aceording to the overall reaction: 2CHs = CH-CN + 2Ht + 2e = NC (CH%) &N

Refinery Gases
either compressor air o~steam. An advantage of steam is the water gas reaction (carbon plus water produca carbon monoxide plus hydrogen) which suppresses the formation of soot during combustion. It is important, of course, to keep consumption low. Improved air intake with higher gas speeds for greater turbulence will help reduce steam consumption. Too high a gas speed, however, will proIn a scale mode1 flare in which 200 kg propane were burned off, ,several types of throttle apparatus were tested. The best results were obtainrd with the equipment show in Fig. 3. Afta threephase expansion, the st,eam is led sideways into t,he gas stream. The resulting noise cari be ignored. Even in the case of a distane twice that of the flare diameter between the throttle and the flare tip, a good degree of mixing was achieved. Soot-free combustion of 200 kg propane/hr in the mode1 required 1 kg steam/k,g. This had to be increased to 1.5 kgjkg to reduce the luminosity. In a Ixter full-scale flare, the quantity of steam had to be adjusted aceording to the composition of the gases to be burned. 0

tip with steam throttle.

Figure 3. Madel of flare

STEAM

PETROKHEM

ENGINEER

July 1966

Design of Heat Exchangers- Part 17

Applied Heat Transfer Design for the H PI

by Wayne C. Edmister and Joseph M. Marchello
17-l. Geneml. In the design of industrial heat transfer equipment many factors are encountered which are difficult to an,$.lyze accurately. The more important design faetors are: degree of roughness and.cleanliness of the surfaces; thiekness of possible scale deposita and tendency of solid-liquid surfaces to, beeome wetted. The influente of these factors must be taken into account by means of assumptions, and a thorough understanding of the underlying principles will help in their evaluation. The equipment designer must frequently rely on test data, which~ when properly obtained and interpreted, will show mhere inaeeuracies lie, will indicate how to improve the equipment, and will serve as a basi8 for future more accurat,e designs. Intelligent and appropriate assumptions for first approximation are possible only when based on an understanding of the principles of heat transfer. They will often Salve considerable time and cast in the successful development of new equipment. Another factor that will affect the design of industrial equipment is the use of standard, or stock, materia~ls: standard tube diameters and wall thicknesues, standard tube lengths, and standard ~thicknesses of pkates. The important economie balance between effieieney, first cast and operating expenses will be discussed in a separate chapter. In most industrial heat exchange equipment, the main part of the heat involved is transferred throu,gh the walls of tubes. Accordingly, this chapter will deal vvith the design calculations of various tubular heat-transfer, apparatus-heaters, coolers, heat exchangers, craporators and condensers. Electronic computers are beginning to be used in design of heat exchangers at present and it is expected that their use will be tionsiderably wider in the future. Both digit& and analog2 have been employed in the design of cracking furnaces, condensa and multipass exchangers. 17-2. Quantitative relations. In al1 of the above mentioned apparatus, beat is transferred from one fluid to u meta1 wall and to the second fluid by the combined action of convection and conduction. The effect of radiation is usually negligible. When fluids which move inside or outside tube8 without change of phase are cooled or heated, the coeflicient of heat transfer increases with an inerease in velocity. However, at the same time, the pressure drop increases and the designer must find the most

economica1 velocity. Sometimes a fixed pressure drop is prescribed and the equipment must be designed to meet this condition. In other cases the tube diameter and length may be fixed and velocity and pressure drop must be determined accordingly. Relations between these quantities are giva in the preceding chapters but will be summarized here for conveniente. Heat bahnee. The heat q transferred through the wall of a tube from a hot fluid to a cold one is expended primarily in inereasing the enthalpy of the colder fluid. However, part of the heat energp may also be used in increasing the kinetic energy of the colder fluid and in doing work against gravity. Some of the heat may be lost to the surroundings. Disregarding the secondary beat expenditures the main heat flow p from the hot fluid is: q = m'c'(t~'t,') = SG(tlt2) Eq. 17-1 where S is the cross section norma1 to the slow. For flow inside tuba, Si = ND,/4, where N is the number of tuba with parallel flow. For flow- outside tubes, So = nyoL, where n is the number of rows of tuba, L their length, and 7~~the cl~arance between two tuba. If~n&her fluid changes in phase, the heat balance is: - tr') = mc(t, - tl") Eq. 17-Z q = m'c'(tl'

where m, c, tl', and tz' are the weight-flow rate, specific beat, and temperature of the hot fluid and m, c, tl", and tz", the respective data for the cold fluid. The heat balance is very helpful and fixes the 0~ relation between the temperature changes and weight flow rates. As indicated in Section 14-3, the ratio Y = (ti" - tl")/ftl' - t2') = mc/n$c has an import,ant influenee, on the mean over-al1 temperature differente At,, in multipass and crossAOW beat exchangers. Because of this relation for multipass exchangers it is not posuible to select Value of the four temperatures which merely satisfy the he+t bala,nce of Eq. lw and t2" - t%'. A selection of the four temperatures must be cbecked with the value of F to determine whether the proposed heat exchange can occur in an apparatus with the selected type of fluid flows. -Heat-flow Me. The hourly heat flow from a bundle of i tubes can be expressed as:
q = UA At, = Ui(rDiL)F Atl

Eq. 17-3

where Di is the inside tube diameter, L is the tube

PElRO/CHEM ENGINEER July 1966

90

: temperature ed from Eq. nt for At,. As 1 ;pass and erossun one of the

radiation intu account is given in Section 11-3. For turbulent flow inside tubes without phase change, the values of hi and ho may be conveniently calculated from the dimensionless equations:
2/8

(&)(F) <r.+s with tempera-

+(&)I:h

,,Eq. 17-9

1
1,+

1 D,(Do-Di)
(Do+D<jk+m

Eq. 17-5

and referred to the inside surface of a tube, it is:

Eq. 17.10 0 where, for ordinary purposes, the constants are ai = 0.023 and ad = 0.33, the exponents are 1zi = 0.8 and n,, = 0.6, and F,,is u safety factor. The necessary value of F, depends pori the problem; however, in general it may be taken as 1.25 for gases and water, and 1.5 for viscous liquids. The safety faetor is introduced t,o take care of uncertainties in the determination of Ir. Thus, 1.25 is used if the possible error is within i 20%, and 1.5, if it is within t 3370. Eq. 17.9 can be rearranged a,nd presented a,s: 0
h.i = a,jG;n

($&~=

~(f$-:.

l ui= 1 Di(Do-Di) ; Eq where: Di 17-6

,? (Da + DJ k + D&,

Eq. 17-11

Therm.al resistanca The last two equations may also be presented in the form of resistance equations as:
& ZR+; :

In a similar

manner, from Eq. 17.10: ho = anG,,~,q Eq. 17-13

.Eq.

17-7 Bafles. Eq. 17-10 applies to flow norma1 to tuben that are not baffled. When baffles are used, the fluid will leak from one compartment to the next so that the average velocity and hence ho will be redueed. Furthermore, in baffled exchangers, the fluid flow is not entirely norma1 to the tubes, which reduees ho additionally. Finally, some parts of t,he tuba are not swept by the Aow, which reduees the effectiveness of the corresponding sufaces. It is difficult to state by how much the value of ho found from Eq.~ 17-10 should be reduced. Sometimes the correetion coefficient is taken as 0.6. However, it is better to estimat,e it from consideration of the eonstruction of the exchangers. Spacing baffles closer together has a tendeney to increase both the velocity and ho in spite of leakage. T,ube tw~peiabzcre. The properties of the effective films of the fluida pa,ssing through heat exchangers depend to a great extent pon the temperatura of the meta1 tobes that separate them. The temperatures tY and tr, Fig. 17-1, of the inside and outside surfaces of a tube can be calculated fram beat balance equations if the heat surface CO&cients hi and ho, thermal conductivity IC of the tube metal, its thickness z, the corresponding diameters, and mean fluid temperatures tl and ta, are known. Thus, far steady Row and a unit length of tube:
q = ?rDihi (t, tzl = s-Dm (3 (t2 83) =

and 1 = ZR +; <, Eq. 17-8 ut where ZR represents the sum of al1 resistances except the resistanee l& or l& of the outside or inside film, respectively, under consideration. Obviously, all resistances must be based on the same surface area. Fouling. As discussed in Section 13-6, the beat transfer performance of exchangers in operation is often lowered by fouling. In order to provide a surface sufficiently large enpugh to maintain the requlred performance with a reasonable servite time between cleaning, TEMA standards for the design of heat exchangers recommend that an allowance should be made for norma1 fouling. The amount of resistance R, to, be added to the resistances in ealculating the over-al1 coeficient by Eq. 13-7 or Eq. 13-8, us the case may be, can be taken from d&iled TEMA tables. A few representative values from these tables are reprodueed in Tables 13-l and 13-2 (P/CE, Feb. 1966). Another procedure, would be to first calculate a theoretical over-al1 coefficient assuming clean tube surfaces and then to find the reduced design value Ud by means of Eq. 13-12, using an appropriate fouling resistanee RI. Surface eoeJj%ients. Equations for computing the surface co&eients h,i and h,, to be used in determining the value of the over-al1 coefficient U, were giva earlier. A simple procedure for taking
PETROKHEM ENGIN,EER July 1966

,rD,&(ta

-- ta)

, Eq. 17-15 99

In most cases, for liquida and relatively thin walls, the temperature ~difference, t2 - tB, is negligible, tr = fa. Ina this case, Eq. 17.15 yields the relation :
t 2 = Dihitl D& D&& + Doho

Eq. 17.16

Eq. 17-16 is very convenient both for estimating the surface temperature and for subsequent checking of these assumptions. Pressure drop inside tubes. For beat-exchanger calculations, it is usually convenient to modify the premure-drop equations by expressing the velocity v in terms of the mass velocity G from the relation G = pv. For flow inside straight tuba:
AP, = fiB,LG?

2cq~iDi

Eq. 17-17

The influente of the additional friction losses due to contractions is taken into aeeount in Eq. 17.17 by using an equivalent length L, far the length L. This equivalent length L, is obtained by multiplying the actual lensth L by a factor B,, where: B. = API + API + AP, + AP5 Eq. 17-18 AP, The value of the basic friction loss, AP,, is obtained from Eq. 6-7; the values of AP,, AP,, and AP, are computed hy Eq. 6-25, 6-27, and 6.28, respectively (P/CE, May 1965) The general form of the expression for ealculating the coefficient of frietion fi in Eq. 17-17 follows from Eq. 6-22 with the substitution of DG:p for NRe: fi = ai (Gr. Eq. 17-19

where the exponent mi is 1.0~ for streamline flow and 0.2 for turbulent flow. For DG/p in the range of 2100 to 200,000, the dimensionlcss constant ai is equal to 0.184 for smooth tuba, and .22$ for steel tuba. The value of 9 is 1.0 for isothermal flow; for nonisothermal turbulent flow, J, is equal to (plp.>OJ4, where JL is the viseosity of the fluid at the mean bulk temperature t and /Li is its viscosity at the surface temperature. Flow aws8 tlbes. The pressure drop AP, outside tubi% may be calculated from Eq. 6-24 which may also be presented as:

The mass velocity Ga must ,be referred to the minimum free area. The friction coefficient f. is computed from Eq. 6-30 or Eq. 6-31, whiehever fits the case. Generally, fa is lager than fi and depends on the Reynolds nurnber DoGo/fio and on the arrangement and spacing of the tuba. The effect of leakage of fluid through the clearances between the tubes and holes in the haffles is uncertain. Unless exact dimensions are available, it is advisable to neglect the effect of leakage on 100

and Shell walls atid of from considerations o allowable values are glven m Tube diameter. The tuba used in exchan specified by their outside diameters. The com used diameters of carbon-steel, admiralty-metal, and coppa tuba are s, %, 1 and 1Q in: , and , l?& in. far steel tubes. The sizes reconnnended by TEMA are shown in Table 17-l. The lager diameters are used far viscous fluids that have a tendency to foul the tubexrapidly. In some casa, even for viscous fluida, it is possible to use tubes of modeiate diameter by increasing considerably the flow velocity and thus reducing the tendency e to foul. In a plant where a number of exchangers are installed for different duities, it is desirable to use one or as few as possible tube diameters in order to reduce .serv~e and replacement costs appreciably. Using a smaller tube diameter usually increases the heat transfer coefficient and the cast per square foot of the cooling area. However, as may, he seen from Eq. 6-18 or Eq. 17-17, for a smaller diameter t,he pressure drop increases and with it the power cast. As a result, for giva heat transfer operation, there is an optimum diameter at which the sum of fixed charges and power eost reaehes a minimum. Also, the difficulty of eleaning the inside of the tuhes increases with a deerease in diameter. Tubes of admiralty meta1 and copper are made in smaller siaes of 1% 96 and ;&in. diameters as well as the above listed sizes. Pipa of from $& to l%-in. in diameter, made of manv snecial ferrous ,_ and nonferrous alloys such as stainless steel and monel metal, are also available. Wall thiekness. The thiekness of tube walls is select,ed to withstand working presaures and temperatura. An allowance~ must also be made for corrosion. Tuba are specified by the outside diameter and nomina1 thickness of the wall, from 1.8 to 10 B.W. gages. For average-wall tuba, the variation in wall thickness from the nomina1 size may be i 5%; for thin-wall tubes the variation usually is positive. These variations affect the inside diameter and must be kept in mind, especially far smalldiameter tuba and turbulent flow since pressure drop varia inv&ely as the diameter raised to the 5.2 power, in accordante wit,h Eq. 17-17 and Eq. 17.19. Tube Zengths. Standard over-al1 tube lengths are 8, 12, and 16 ft. The cast of the expensive head

PETRO/CHEM

ENGINEER

July 1966

cast,ings and of machining the tube sheets, expanding the tube ends in the tube sheets, and assembling the whole exchanger is practieally the same for both short and,~long exchangers. An increase of the heet exchanger surface and capacitp can be obtained by using longer tube and Shell. Therefore, it, is advisable to use longer tubes, whenever possible. Thus, the use of 12-ft tuba instead of 8.ft tuba lowers the cast of a beat exchanger for a ,given capacity by about 16% and the use of 16.ft tuba lowers the cast by 24cc.s If necessary, tube lengths from 4 to 22 ft can readily be obtained. The shorter lengths are used: (a) when the exchanger is loeated high above the floor, to reduce the cast of supporting platforms and hoisting xquipment for removing the tube bundles for cleaning; (bj where the length is limited by available space; or (c) where very large shell diameters must be used. Location on or near the ground should be, preferred, especially when exehangers require frequent servicing. Tube arrangemmt. The recommended pattern is the square pitch, as show in Fig. 6.4a and 6.4b; and tube lanes should form continuous lines throughout the bundle. (P/CE, May 1965.) Tuba on a triangular pitch, Fig. 6.4~ and d, may be used when the Shell-side fluid is non-fnuling. Tube pitch, or center to center distante, usually should not be less than 1.25 D,. When tubes are on

a square piteh, a minimum eleaning lane of ?/G in. should be provided. bz~Y$J6 Ba.fies. Baffles are used I to obtain better mixing on 0000 the Shell side either by 0000 1 changing the direction of Figure 17-3. Single pass the flow or by loca1 in. tube arrangement. creases of the velocity of the fluid. The three most commonly used types of transverse baffles are show in Fig. 17-Z. The segmentai baffles, Fig. 17.2a, serve mainly to provide good mixing by a complete reversal of the flow. The disk-and dmghnut ba.ffle combination, Fig. 17.2b, also provides reversal of the flow but does not affeet the centra1 part of the shell space as well. The wifice baffles, Fig. 17-2c, cause mixing through an increase of velocity in the ring-shaped openings, or orifices, where t,he tuba pass through the baffles. Orifice baffles give the most effettive, uniform mixing, however, at the expense of a greater pressure drop than the other baffle types. The holes in t,he segmenta1 and disk-and-doughnut baMes are drilled %Y in. larga than the outside diameter of the tuba. TO avoid vibration of the baffles and scoring of the tuba, the holes must be slightly countersunk from both sides to remove burs. The baffle piate thickness should be at least $6 in. for a Shell diameter not over 13 in., hut in any case not less than twiee the tube-Wall thickness, if t,he support plate spacing is not over 24 in. For an increase of the Shell diameter and support spacing the plate thickness should be increased to 5/~ in. More explicit details are ,given in TEMA

c3

statiwas.

Fi.wre 17.2. Types of tranwerse PETROKHEM ENGINEER

baffles. July 1966

When longitudinal baffles are used, they may be welded to the shell or may be of the removable type, with provisions to prevent excessive leakage. 17-4. Fixed desQn In addition tu the main data, the amount of heat to be transferred for gioen initial temperatures of the two fluids, the beat exchanger design may have to meet eertain other requirements, such BS terminal, or initial and fmal temperature? of the fluids, mass-flow rates, velocities, pressure drop or t,ube length dictated by space limitations. Naturally, the same equations apply in al1 cases, but the approach in each case may be slightly different and the equations can be rearranged to fit the speeific conditions. 17-5. Fixed tem~peratures. If, in addition to the main data, the terminal temperatures are slso determined by proeess requirements, the beat balance and hence the values of the beat flow rate Q and Atl are fixed and can easily be computed. The massvelocities G, and G,, can be determined at first from the pi-ocess requirements and later corrected when the flow areas are established. The outside tube diameter Do and the wall thicknesn that determines the inside diameter Di are selected in accord once with data given in Section 17.3. For given mass flows, m and nl, and giva or selected mass velocity G,i and diameler Di, the tota.1 number N of the tuba is found. Sinee the temperatures are

data.

101

specified, the physical properties of the fluids are fixed and can be caleulated. After this, the designer can calculate the coefficients, ih; and ho, and find the over-al1 eoefficient U. With these data the tota1 required length L of tubes is found from Eq. 17.3, and dividing L by the number of tubes N, the tube length is found. This will determine the number of passes and the tube, arrangement, and in case of cross-flow on the Shell side, the number R of tuba in a horizontal row and number i of tuba in the vertical banks. With these data, the inside diameter of the Shell is found. Finally the friction coefficients fi and fu and t,he pressure drops L$< and Avo are ealculated. 17-6. Fixed piessure drop inside the tuba The pressure drop inside tuba usually is higher thsn that outside tuba and eontrols the design. Combining Eq. 17-1, 17-4, 17.9, 17-15 and 17-17 and eliminating L giva :

5. The number of tubes in a bundle is found from the flow rate m.<as: 7% = 0,7854D& Eq. 17-25

6. The length of each tube L,, is found by dividing Lh by i from Eq. 17-25. If Lh is not tao long, a single pass is used, n, = 1 in Eq. 17-24, otherwise a multipass arrangement must he used. An alternate procedure for the 4t,h step is to find fi from Eq. 17-19 and then to find Lh from Eq. 15-17 as:
LI, =

2gc b&i

fiBiG;2nl,

Eq. 17-26

where the symbol ei stands for :

2,s

+,i = (t,titj

(T)

Eq. 17-22

and Abi is the temperature drop acrosa the inside fluid film, or the mean temperature differente between the fluid and the inside tube surface. The dimensionless factor Bi is giva by Eq. 17-18 but more eonveniently may be eomputed from the equation:

EXAMPLE 17-1. Determine the dimensions and the number of steel tuba for an air preheater to heat 80,000 lb/hr of air at 125 psig from 65 to 195 F by condensing steam at 2 psig outside the tubes. The permissible pressure drop in the tubes is 5 psi. Readily availahle tuba have 1 in. O.D. with 12 BWG walls; however, both smaller and larger tubes may be obtained, if necessary. SOLUTION: The steam temperature, from st,eam tables, is 218.5F. The tube surfaee temperature will not differ appreciably from the steam tempera- @ ture and the mean temperature differente is found by Eq. 14-4:

Lli=l+*

/ 5

Eq. 17-23

where ntn is t,he number of tube passes and the numerica1 factor k, is 0.55 for single-pass and about 1.0 for multipass fl,ow if the flow in the tube is turbulent and its average velocity is about twice as high as in the headers, which usually is the case. Thus far a giva rrtD, Bi can be computed by means of Eq. 17-22 and 17-23 without determining the heated tube length L,,. The procedure of finding Lh depends upon the inside thermal resistame. Zmide resistance eontds. If the beat resistance on the inside is the controlling factor, as in an oil cooler or a steam-heated gas ha&&, the procedure is as follows: 1. The faetor 4~~ calculated from Eq. 17-22 and is
Bi is found from Eq. 17-23.

- (218.5-i95i= 69,2F 218.5 - 65 In ( 218.5 - 195 1 This gives for the mean air temperature t = 218.5 - 69.2 = 149.3F and the air film temperature, with~ turbulent flow will be tf = (218.5 + 149.3)/2 = 183.9F. At this temperature and atmospheric pressure the air properties are, from Table 4-l (P/CE, Mar. 1965, p. 47), e = 0.241 Btu/lb-F; p = 0.0617 lbcu ft; JL = 0.051 Ib/ft-hr; k = 0.0178 Btu/hrft-F. The higher premure will affect only the density p, increasing it to p = 0.0617(125 + 14.7) /14.7 = 0.587 lb/cu ft. The mass velocity G, may be found from Eq. 17-21, in which a3 = 0.023, as stated in conneetion with Eq. 17-10. In connection with Eq. 17-19, ai is equal to 0.22 $ and $ = QLL/~~)~.~~ where 0 p must be taken at the bulk temperature of the air, t = (65 + 195j,/2 = 130F, or ,p = 0.048 lb/ft-hr, and ps at the surface temperature, t, = 218.5F, or ps = 0.053. Thus: 0.14 1 a/, = (E) = 0.9854

nt

= (218.5-65)

2. Gi is computed from Eq. 17-21 as for a turbulent flow. 3. Di is selected and the Reynolds number DiGi/pi is found; when pi is giva, DiGJpci usually exceeds 2100 and Eq. 17-27 applies. 4. hi/cGi is eomputed from Eq. 17-9 and the heated length Lh of tuba in one pass is found by combining Eq. 17-1 with Eq. 17-3 and noticing that S = r Di2/4 and L = Lhn,. This gives:
Lh, = 102 D;G$i(tg,t,) 41~s At,n,

and hence ai = 0.22 x 0.9854 = 0.217. For air a safety factor F, = 1.25 is used. The factor & is found from Eq. 17-22 as: ei = ;, (0.69)W = 1.467

and Bi must be found by Eq. 17-23, where in this case, 1~~ = 1 and ki = 0.55. Thus:
Bi = 1 +

Eq. 17~24

0.55 x 0.023 = 1.032 1.467 x 1.26 x 0.217

July 1966

PETROJCHEM ENGINEER

with these values and Api = 5 x 144 = 720 psf, by Eq. 17-21: Gi = 2 x 0.023 x 4.17 x lo8 x 0.587 x 720 0.217 x 1.25 x 1.467 x 1.032 = 140, 300 lh/hr-sq ft

If l-in. tuhes are used with 12 BWG walls, from Table 17-1, D; = 0.0652 ft and the Reynolds nuinber is found in order to check whether Eq. 17-21 applies: NR, = New (tL/cG)i 0.0652 x 140,300 = 179,500 0.051

is computed from Eq. 17-9:

h 0.023 -= CG) i 1.26 x 179,5000.2x 0.69 218 ( 0.023 = 0.002096 = 1.25 x 11.29 x 0.781

2. The value of Gi is eomputed from Eq. 17-21 as in the first case. 3. Di is selected and h; is found from Eq. 17-9 and U, is found from Eq. 17-8. 4. The ohtained ratio U/hi is compared with the assumption in Step 1. If the differente is considerable, the procedure is repeated, using the obtained ratio lJ/h,,, unti1 satisfaetory results are obtained. 5. The length Lh is computed from Eq. 17-24. 17.7. Fiaed ;oressure drop outside of th,e tubes. Taking Eq. 17-l in which SO = vo%, where y0 is the clearance between the tuba in a bundle that corresponda to the minimum free area, and combining it with Eq. 17-4, 17-10, and 17-20 and eliminating the number of rows n, the result is:

By Eq. 17-24, noticing that in this case At, = At,, the length of each tube is, assuming ntP = 1, L = 0.0652 x (195 - 65) = 14,6 ft h 4 x 0.00209 x 69.2 a In order to check this value by Eq. 17-26, the fnetlon coefficient fi is found from Eq. 17-19: 0.217 fi = 179.5000-2 = 0.0193 and from Eq. 11-26: L, =720 x 2 x 4.17 x 108 x 0.587 x 0.0652 2 14.6 ft h 0.0193 x 1.032 x 140, 300a Thus, 14.6-ft long tube8 are sufficient, howeoer, prohably 16.ft standard lengths will be used. The number of tuba is found from Eq. 17-25: 80,000 = 171 tubes = 0.7854 x 0.06522 x 140,300 The tubes will be spaced with a 1.25-L pitch, so that each tube will require 1.25% = 1.6625 sq in. and 171 tube requiie about 267 sq in. The inside shell diameter must be about D = d267/0.7854 = 18.5 in. or slightly under 20 in. Inside resistance does not control. If the inside heat resistance is appreciable hut is not controlling, the following procedure may be used: 1. A preliminary value of lJ/h< is aasumed and At, is evaluated as At, = At,,,,U/h,.
-TABLE 17-l. TEMA Standard Dimensions Far Heat Exchanger Tube9

where the dimensionless

factor

+0 stands for: Eq. 17-28

Again two eases must be considered. Shell-side vxistance eontrols. If the heat resistance on t,he Shell side is eontrolling, U0 = ho and A t. = At,,. The factor & is computed from Eq. 17-28, G. is found from Eq. 17-27, ho is found from Eq. 17.10, and SO and ~0 are found from, Eq. 17-l. Naturally, n must be a whole number; Shell-side resistame does not control. If the beat reaistance on the outside of the tubes is appieciable but not controlling, G. may be found for & fixed Ap, from Eq. 15-27 using u trial and error proeedure similar to that outlined for the fixed pressure drop inside the tuba. 17-8. Fised tube Zength. If the tota1 length L = nsLh is fixed, and the desired fina1 temperatures are specified, the corresponding value of Gi may be found by combining Eq. 17-1, 17-4 and 17-9. This giva the weight rate of flow: Gi= ($($$) Eq. 17-29

If the inside beat resistana is eantrolling, di is found directly from Eq. 17-22 and Gi is found from Eq. 17.29. Howevei, the term with the exponent 5 must be known precisely. Thus, ehanging the safety factor F, from 1..25 to 1.35 lowers Gi by 32%. If the inside heat resistanee is considerable but not controlling, Eq. 17-29 may be used by a trial and en-or procedure but & must be approximated very closely. If the outside beat resistance controls, G. may he found by combining Eq. 17-1, 17.4, and 17-10. The result is: Eq. 17-30 where y, is the clearance in feet between the outer surfaces of tube8 in a bundle that corresponds to the minimum free area, and:

PETROKHEM

ENGINEER

July 1966

103

It should be remembered that Eq. 17-29 and 17-30 apply only to turbulent flow. EXAMPLE 17-2. A vertical closed-type feed-water heater must be designed to heat 50,000 lb/hr of water from 56 to 18OF, using saturated steam having a temperature of 228F. Maximum length of tuba cannot exceed 10 ft. SOLUTION: With sufficient accuracy, the temperature of the inside tube surface can be taken BS~228F and At, = 228- (56 + HO)/2 = 1lOF. The prop.erties of water at the average temperature of 118F are c = 0.997 Btu/lb-F, /L = 1.39 Ib/ft-hr, k = 0.371 Btu/hr-ft-F, and Np? = 3.73. By Eq. 17.22: ?+Jr = 180 - 56 x 3.7321 = 2.71 110

Select Da = V-in., admiralty metal, 16 BWG tuba, or from Table 17-1, Di = 0.0517 ft, and BS stated in connection with Eq. 17-9, for water F, = 1.25. Therefore, (& = by Eq. 17-29:

4 x 0.023 x 10 l.xJ 0.0617 0.0517 x 2.71 x 1.25 i + = 90,500 Ib/hr-sq ft

far the inside and outside flows and go through al1 eomputations required to operate it us outlined above, then find the size and estimate the cast of the exchanger and of the power. After this is done, another velocity is chosen and the whole procedure is repeated, resulting in a new size and cast of the exehanger and cast of the power to operate it. The second solution will indicate the trend and facilitate the selection of optimum velocities. In general, higher velocities are desirable in order to imure turbulent flow and higher surface coefficients. The limits for velocity are set by pressure drop and power consumption. For air and other gases optimum linear velocities are in the region of 20 to 100 fps. For liquids reasonable velocities are 3 to 6 fps. Ir-10. DetermGuztion~ of outlet tempemtures. Far fixed inlet temperatures tf and tl, weight-flow rates m and m,, and giva physical properties of the fluids, the procedure for finding the outlet temperatures ts and tz, henee the heat capaeity q which would be obtained in a given heat exchanger is as follows: The over-al1 coefficient must be evaluated in the usual way and the temperature ty found from an equation obtained by combining Eq. 17-2, 17-3 and 14.4. The result is: tu = tl(.l - Y) + (ai - 1) b aj - Y where : a5 = e AP Cl-Y,,lnC Eq. 17-33 The other terminal temperature tz is found from the beat balance, Eq. 17-2. If the value of Y given by Eq. 14-7 is unity, At is constant throughout the counterflow exchanger and the over-al1 terminal temperature differences are equal. In this case: tZr = tl + a&
l+as UAF me

Eq. 17-32

Before going any further, it is necessary to check whether the Aow is turbulent. By Eq. 6-10: Nnr = 80,500 x 0.0517 = 2ggo 1.39

The neeessary tota1 flow area S = 50,000/80,500 = 0.621 sq ft and the number of tuba: 0.621 i = 0.7854 x (0.0516)2 = 297 tube

with a square pitch p = 1.00 in., the cross seetion of the, Shell must be: s = 297 x 1.0 = 297 sq in. and the, inside diameter of the Shell is:
D=

Eq. 17-34

G=-

= 19.45 in.

A shell diameter of 20 in. can be used. 17-9. Fized velocities. The tube dimensions Di and Do must be selected and the corresponding values of 9, II.<, h,O, and Ll calculated. Then the product FL is found from Eq. 17-3. If L is such that~ a single pass can be used, F is 1; otherwise the type of tube arrangement and fluid flow outside of tuba must be selected and F evaluated from Fig. 14-5 or 14-7, as the case may be. The corresponding pressure drops ase found from Eq. 17-17 with the corresponding auxiliary equations and from Eq. 17-20 or Eq. G-29 with Eq. 6.30 or Eq. G-31 (P/CE, May 1965). If the velocities are not fixed definitely and the designer has a. choice, he may first select velocities
104

EXAMPLE 17-3. A horieontal Shell-and-tube exehanger in an oil refinery has the following dimensions: 320 3/4-in. 14 BWG steel tube 20.ft long are arranged on a triangular pitch of 15116 in.; the Shell has an I.D. of 22 in. and 22 baffles in the shape of disks mith alternate 5.in. segments cut off from bottom and top. The petroleum fraction that must be cooled flows in t.he Shell side, in a single pass, at 91,000 Ib/hr and has an average specific gravity y = 0.74 and a viscosity of 0.30 cp, and enters with a temperature of 285F; the colder fraction flows in a quadruple pass at 140,000 Ib/hr, enters the tubes at 190F, and has an average viscosity of 0.38 cp and & gravity y = 0.69. The thermal cpnductivities of both hydroearbons are 0.0765 Btu/hr-ft-F, at 86F, and 0.0745 Btu/hrsq ft-F, at 212F. Determine the termina1 temPETRO/CHEM ENGINEER July 1966

WASTE HEATBOILERS, incorporatingthe combinedskills of oor boiler and heat exchangerdivisions, offer a wide range of designs for the recovery of heat from gases. They give efficient, low maintenance service in ammonia plants. methanolplants, petroleumrefineries,petrochemi.

HIGH PAESSURE EXCHANGERS. Vogt heat exchanger desiens. far sawicas which involve- orassores oo @O&~til& &lf:sealing gaskets as doublecone such and delta types as well as the moreconventionaltypes.

PETROKHEM ENGINEER

July 1966

Fo,hrthar ,"lomolion Idvsrtissd 0" Prodwtr bodarsarvirs sse canrsr

105

peratures of both fractions and the heat capaeity of the exchanger at the giva eonditions. SOLUTION: First, the physieal properties must be established. The hotter fraction has p = 0.30 x 2.42 = 0.726 Ib/ft-hr. Its conductivity k is, found by extrapolation, assuming an average bulk temperature of 260F, as k = 0.0737 Btu/hr-ft-OF. Its specific heat of 260F is found by Eq. 7-12, estimating yeo = 0.808, as c = 0.625 Btu/lb-OF. The colder fraction has p = 0.32 x 2.42 = 0.775 lb/ft-hr; its conductivity, assuming an average temperature of 200F, is found by interpolation as k = 0.0747 Btu/hr-ft-OF and the speeific beat, by Eq. 7-12, with yso = 0.737, as c = 0.648 Btu/lb-OF. The tube diameters are: D, = 0.75/12 = 0.0625 ft and Di ,= (0.75 - 0.083 x 2)/12 = 0.0486 ft, and the shell diameter is D, = 22112 - 1.833 ft. The cross area of one tube is 0.7854 x 0.0486z = 0.001855 sq ft and the flow area through the tuba, with four passa IS found as S = 0.001855 x 320/4 = 0.1484 sq ft. Thus the weight velocity Gi = 140,000/0.1484 = 944,000 lb/h+?sq ft,. The Reynolds number, in each tube. with Gi = 944,000/80 = 11,800 lb/hr-sq ft, is by Eq. 6-14:
N Re =

1 = 30.0 Btulhr-sq 0.0288 + 0.0002 + 0.0043 By Eq. 14-3, remembering to the fluid in the tube:

ft-F

that m and c refer

y = 140,000 x 0.606 = 1.575 91,000 x 0.592 The inside area Ai = r x 0.0486 x 20 x 320 = 977 sq ft. The faetor F should, be taken from Fig. 14-5a. However, since the temperature efficiency X is not known, as a first approximation F may be taken a8 equa1 to 1.0; later F may be determined and the results corrected. With these data, the exponent in Eq. 17-33 beeomes : ?7= 30.0 x 977 (1 - 1.575) = o,19g 140,000 x 0.606

and, by Eq. 17-33:

0.0486 x 11,800 = 740 0.775 and Eq. 7-33 must be applied.

Now, by Eq. 17-32: tz, = 190 (l-1.575) + (0.82-l) 0.82 - 1.575 , 285= 213p

The flow is laminar It giva:

From the ,middle and right parts of Eq. 17-2: tz = 1.575(190-213) + 285 = 248.8F

= 34.75 Btu/hr-sq

ft-F

New, by the right side of Eq. 17-2, the beat capacity is found a8: q = 91,000 x 0.592 (286-248.8) Btu/hr = 1,950,OOO

For the Shell side the smallest cross area will be the cut;off seynent in the baffle plates, for which k/D - 5122 = 0.227; S/D = 0.134; and S = 0.134 x 1.8332 = 0.45 sq ft. Therefore in the cut-off sement, there are 320 x 0.45/2.64 = 54 tubes and the clear area, is: S = 0.45 - 0.7854 x 0.0~?25~ 54 = 0.285 sq ft x This gives GO = 91,000/0.285 = 319,000 Ib/hr-sq ft. The equivalent diameter must be computed by Eq. 6-11. The length of the art is7 0.9693 x 22112 = 1.775 ft; the length of the chord is 0.8377 x 22/12 = 1.535 ft and: D, = 4 x 0.285 = 0.079 ft 1.775 + 1.535 + T x 0.625 x 54
0.079 x 319,000

TO check the assumption of F = 1, X is determined by Eq. 14-6: x = 213-190 285-190 = o242

From Fig. 14-5a, with Y = 1.575, F is read as 0.98. The differente is negligible. In fsct, introducing this value in the expression for the exponent gives 1~ = -0.19, as ,= 0.822. and finally, ti = 212.4F instead of 213.OF.
References

and, by Eq. 6-14:

NE, =

0.726

= 34,700

The flow is turbulent It giva:

ho = 0.0625 (E)

and Eq. 6.17 must be applied.

34,700,(

o~5g;,;~)

= 179.0 Btu/hr-sq

ft-F

D. L. Katz and D. E. Briggs, Chemical Engineering Progress, 61, 91 (1965). 21. Lichtenstein, Chemieal Engineering Progress, 60, 66 (1964). 3Standards of TEMA, op. cit., pp. 85-87. Standards of TEMA, op. cit., pp. 7-77. %Wmiar& of TEMA, op. cit. pp. 8, 25, 49. BE. N. Sieder, Cost Relations of Heat Exchingers, Chemical and Metallurgica1 Engineering, 46, 322-25 (1939). ?Marks Handbook, loe. cit.

The conductivity of steel for these tubes may be taken from Table 3-8 (P/CE, Feb. 1966, p. 38) as 25.9 Btu/hr-ft-F. New, the over-all beat transfer coefficient is found by Eq. 13-18: 106

Part

18.

the

concludine

oart.

PEIROKHEM

ENGINEER

July 1966

needs rather than on just achieving a degree. How did this group keep up-to-date on new technological advances? Fig. 1 represents graphically the use that was made of each medium. It also illustrates quite pointedly the number of engineers wh responded that they do not use any other soui-ces. Note the large area of Do Not Use, which indicata the number of engineers who do not utilize ~uices of information that could be used far t,heir professional updat,ing. Training Needs - Each engineer indicated his degree of need for further training and education in 172 job-oriented subject arem by marking Should Have, Could IJse, Dont Rally Need for each. Fig. 2 tabulata t,he professional training needs of the engineers that rated 5O:a or better. Not too surprisingly, the highest percentages were chalked up by subjeets in the communication skills category, such as rapid reading, public speaking and technical report writing. Perin Sta,tes Dubin and Marlow offer a number of recommendat.ions for the company, professional society and the engineer to improve this area of contiming professional study in the refining industry: For the Company
l Management, to be creative, should initiate and foster the updating of its employees. This process requires a three-pronged attack (a) personal motivation of t,he individua1 employee, (b) the strong, support and encouragement of supervisory persome1 and (e) company policy that insists on updating personnel as a part of the daily work. l More released time should be granted to engineers to take advaneed degree and noncredit work. A sabbatica1 leave should be provided BS o regular practice. l Long-range educational programs should be initiated and financed to parallel long-range company programs and polieies. l Top management should review periodically the updating needs of its practicing engineers and initiate correttive action where necessary.

E. Management Understanding Individua1 & Group Behavior in Wark Situati0

For

the

Professional

Society

l In conjunction with universities, societies should seek t motivate engineers t pursue eontinuing professional education. l Engineers should be encouraged to beeome attive in the professional societies in order to help keep abreast of current technieal developments. l Professional societies should expand their offerings of short curses, utilizing feasible varied media of instruction to fulfill the needs of practicing engineers.

For the Engineer.

; Combined rerponses percentage* of Should Have and COUld Ee
l The engineer has a responsibility to himself and to his company to undertake contiming professional education to keep abreast of current developments in his field. n

1 5gure 2. tngineers i Iiave or

Job-oriented subjects that at least 50% of the in the Pennsylvania study thought they Should Coold se.

Petro/Chem

Engineer

August, 1966

35

Economie Factors in Heat Transfer ~~Part 18 (Conclusion)

Applied, Heat Transfer Design for the H~PI

by Wayne C. Edmister and Joseph M. Marche110
18-i. Intnxhetion. The general definition Of economy in any industrial installation is: g$tins the most for the money spent paying the least to obtain eertain results. In order to achieve the best economy in heat transfer, it is necessary to analyze the factors that enter into the fina1 cast of any commodity eonnected with heat transfer. The costs ~of owning and operating heat transfer eqnipment mny be grouped under two main hendings: Ca) fixed eharges and ib! operating charges. Fized cl~wges. Fixed eharges are the eosts resulting from ownership of equipment and include: il) interest on the investment, (2) amortization, (3) insuranee and (4) taxes. If the equipment is nly rented, rental charges take the piace of interest and amortization. From t,he above considerations, it is evident that if equipment can he rented at a cast nmaller t,han the interest on the capita1 required for its purchase plus the c~ost of its amortization in a reasonable time commensurate with its wear and expected life, it will be a mistake to purchase the equipment.

Operati~ng dmges. These charges include cast of: (lj power, (2:) fuel, (3j cooling water, (4) labor to opera,te the equipment, (5) maintenanee cast, which in turn includa such items it8 lubricating oil, replacement of worn and broken parts, and the lahor required far making repairs, cleaning, painting, etc.
Final cast. The final cast of operating industrial equipment is arrived st 8s the sum of fixed and operating charges. Fixed charges can he lowered by purchasing a simpler, less expensive equipment. H6wever, such equipment usually is less efficient and its operating charges may overbalance its smaller fixed eharges. Thus, before deciding on the purchase or rental of equipment to obtain cert,ain cooling or heating results, it is best t compute the final cast for severa1 types of equipment: elaborate and efieient, but expensive; and, less efficient but also less expensive. The questipn of amortization is also very important. If an efficient but relatively expensive piece of equipment can be expected to be useful over a long period of years, its amortization may be lower than that of a piece which is less expensive. Being built

of eheaper material, the less expensive equipment may deteriorate or become obsolete considerably sner and therefore must be amortized in a fewer number of years, resulting in a higher amortization cast. The main faetors that affect heat transfa efficiency are: (a), type of heat exchangers, Cb) beat exchanger area, (cj fluid velocities, (d) temperature differente and (e) kind and thiekness of the heat insulation. 18-Z. Types and, sizes of ezchangws. Al1 beat exbange equipment may be classified into three main groups: (5) tube exchangers, (b) double pipe exhangers, and (cj shell-and-tube exehangers. Examples of tube exehangers aie water coli,ng coils in cooling towers and al1 tubular steam generators. Fintube automobile radiators and air-cooled condensers in househpld refrigerators also belong tu this class. The use of such heat exchangers is ususlly predetermined by the service wjuirements. Double pipe exchsngers are used BS ammonis condensers, brine eoolers, air dehydrators, lubricating oil eoolers and in various industrial processes. Double pipe exchangers are quite efficient and ere used successfully far smaller installations. For large amounts of beat transfer, their cast usually become prohibitive. Shell-and-tube exchangers eomprise the largest group or type of exchanger in industrial usage (I, today. They are used for heat exchange between two liquids; between a liquid (usually water) and a gas; between steam and water in surface steam condensers; and, between two gases, as in air preheaters. The type of shell-and-tube apparatus used for beat exchange between two liquids may influente not only the first cast, but also the maintenarice cast as well. One of the most important factors is fnuling of the tube surfaces. Since it is easier to clan t,he inside of,tubes, that liquid whieh gives more depdsit, should be put, through the inside of the tuba. The arrangement of the flow, counter flow, parallel tlow or mixed flow, and the number of tube and Shell passes infuenees the fixed charges and the maintenance charges in opposite direetions: the simpler the arrangement, the lower the first cast, but the higher the operating cast. The optimum condition can be determined only by making severa1 Please turn to page 38

36

August 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Petro/Chem

Engineer

August 1966

FN InhwtionbdW,id sas h-4<r i,liw on hdur,r bodsr h,s,

37

different selections and ealcolating the combined or fina1 cast per year far each selection. 18-5. Heat erehmnge arm. A greater heat transfer area per unit of heat load in general gives a higher efficiency. However, it also inereases the size of the exchanger and hence the fixed charges. The tota1 cast, C, in dollars, of .a beat exchanger depends: (a) on its size or heat exchange area; (b) on the basie cast, Gli, dollars per sq ft of area, which in turn depends upon the type, construction and metals used for the tuba, tube sheets and Shell; (c) on the working pressure as expressed by a factor kp; and (d) on the size, or area factor, IL. The tota1 cast can be presented as a product of these values:
C = AC, . k, * K.4 .~

c,i G; =

(Ce;, RI)

2.5 -t 2.76 At,/At, cai/(c, Ir) 3.76 + 3.39 AtgAt,

,I
1

wls

Eq. 18-Z

Il.:lil

Eq. 18-3

In these equations C, is the hourly fixed charges on the exchanger, in dollarsjsq ft-hr, based on Ai. Tf C is the tota1 cast of the exchanger, then:
Cd =

C(1 + mEi &nT

Eq. 18-4

Eq. 18-1

With the present rising costs of materials and labor, cach manuf&urer must determine the value of CII in accord with his operating conditions and the prevailing market prices. The value of the factor kg may be taken from the curva of Fig. 18-1, depending upon which of the pressures, in the tuba OI in the Shell, is higher. The size factor Ka may be taken from ,Fig. 18-Z.

where E is the yearly amount of fixed charges exelusive of the first cast, meaning interest, insumme, and taxes, n is the number of years of useful life of the exchanger, and T is the numbw of hours per year of exchangei operation. Ce is the eost of mechanical energy supplied to the fluid, dollars per foot-pound, Cei, for fluid inside tube, Ce, for fluid outside the tuba Ki is a dimensionterm defined by the equation:
K, = Bi% (/dDi) i

2g&

Eq. 18-5

where Bi is a dimensionless correction factor given by Eq. 17-18 and Eq. 17-23 and the values of ai and m are the same SS in Eq. 17-19; pi is the mean density of the fluid inside the tuba. Similarly :
K,, = 2Boao (po/Du)u(~o/DJ

mp%

Eq. 18-6

Figure 18-Z. fnfluence tube exchangers.

of tota,

area on coWof

shell-and-

18-h. Fluid velocities. Determination of the optimum flow velocities in exchangers for the general case, in which the surfaee coefficients /z; and hu on each side of the tube vary with ,velocity, is rather involved because within certain limits the velocities and eorresponding power~costs can be varied independently. Sine the derivation of these equations does not contribute to a clearer understanding of the heat transfer problems, only the fina1 results will be giva bere. The two symmetrical equations for the optimum i.elocities inside of the tubes and on the shell side are:

where B,, is a correction factor discussed in connection with Eq. 17-20 u0 is a dimensionless factor which must be caliulated from Eq. 6-30 o Eq. G-31, depending on the tube arrangement; % is the minimum elearance between the tubes ; the exponent ntO = 0.15; and pLois the~mean density of the fluid outside the tuba. The terms Gti and Ath in Eq. 18-2 and 18-3 are temperature differences: At, - between the mean temperature of the tube surface and mean fluid temperature inside the tubes; and At,, - between the mean temperatura of the tube surface and fluid outside the tuba. Eq. 18-2 applies when the Reynolds number (DG/+L)~ exceeds,lO,OOOand Eq. 18-3 when @G;@o exceeds 1000, which is almost always the case. 18-5. Practical application. The procedure far finding the optimum mass velocities Gi and G. is as follows. The unit eosts Ca,, Cei, and Ceo must be eomputed from available cast, ,data. The terms Ki and K,, are evaluated by Eq. 18-5 and 18-6 from the physical properties of the fluids and diameters and spacing of the tuba. The values At, and Ata must be measured or estimated. Trial values of G; and G. are calculated from Eq. 18-2 and 18.3. The eorresponding values of h; and II. are ealculated from Eq. 17-9 and 17.10 respectively. The surfaee temperature is calculated from Eq. 17.16 and the corrected values of At, and At, are found. With these new values revised values of Gi and GO are found~from Eq. 18-2 and 18-3. Since con-

38

August 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Weve answered a lot of questions about pressure vessel steels

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Petro/Chem

Engineer

August 1966

Tor Info,Olim Furlher on Idvar,ired lae scni<a PmdCll Radar cantsr

siderable variations in the values of the terms in parentheses in the denominators of Eq. 18-2 and 18-3 bave only a small effect on the values of Gi and Go, the equations will converge rapidly. EXAMPLE 18.1. Design an air preheater for the conditions given in Example 17-1, however, using flue gasa to be eooled from 750 to 390F for the heating medium outside the tuba and taking into account the following cast faetors: Annua1 fixed charges are estimated to be $1.05 per sq ft of ,inside surface and the equipment will be in opeiw tion al1 the time, allowing four days per year for cleaning and servicing; cast of power delivered to the air and flue gasa is $0.006 per kw-hr. Assume that the gas properties are the same as those of air. SOLUTION: Det,ermine the properties of the air and flue gasa and the rate of flow of t,he flue gases. The mean temperature differente is found by Eq. 1,4-3 : t, = ~(700 195) ~ (390 ~ 7Fdl - 1% In --390 ~ 65 65) _ .QJOF

be made using Eq. 17.16 and assuming that sinee the rate of flow in the tuba is severa1 times greater than outside, that 11,~ 211,0.Then: = t, _ 0.0652 x 2h,, x 130 + 0.0833 x Ir x 560 0.0652 x 2h,, + 0.0833 x h,"

= 298F With this t,emperature, fiS = 0.057 lb/ft-hr and:

This gives Eq. 17-22: +== By Eq. Bi = 1 i

ai =

0.22 x 0.9739

0.214. New

by

(1195 - 65) x 16.70) K (248 - IdO) 17-23:

=. o,61

1 x 0.55 x 0.023 = 1,078 O.Gl x 1.25 x 0.214 pI = 0.640 Ibleu ft: _ 6.34 x lO.o 298 = 262F. in Eq. 18-2

and, by Eq. 18-5, with

The air temperature ehanges less, therefore its mean temperature may be assumed as t, = (195 + F5i/2 = 130F and the mean flue gas temperature is then t, = 130 + 430 = 560F. This t, differs appreciably from the average temperature t = (760 + 39012 = 57OF. Thus, from Table 4-l (PICE, Mar. 1966, p. 471, the properties of air will he: c = 0.240 Btu/lb-F; p = 0.048 lb/ft-hr; k = 0.0165 Btu/hr-ft-F; and e,& = 0.70. ,The densit,y is found from the characteristic equation, since p = 16 Ib/cu ft, for p = (125 + 14.7) = 139.7 psia and the gas constant R = 53.34 ft/F: 139.7 x 144 x 1 - 58.34 (130 + 460) = 0.G40 lb/cu ft.

At, 298=
Ci =

K,, = 1.078 x 0.214 (0.048/0.065Z)a~2 2 x 4.17 x 10 x 0.640 130 = 168F; At,, = 560 entering

Now, when al1 the values are found, the latter giva:

0.357 1.212 x 101 [ 2.2G x lo-! x 6.34 x lO~(2.j tu 2.76 x 2621168) 1 = 47,500 lbhr-sq ft.

P=

Far the fue gases the c = 0.249 Btujlb-F; 0.070 Ib/ft-hr; k = cpL/k = 0.66. The rate of flow ?n from the heat balance

corresponding values are: ,, = 0.0390 lb/cu ft; /L = 0.0262 Btu,/hr-ft-F; and of the flw Eq. 17-2: gases is found

In order to find Go by Eq. 183, K,, must be computed by Eq. 18.6. As stated in eonnection with Eq. 17-20, if baffles are used, as is necessary~ in this problem, the value of Bu should be known from practical experience. An average value Bo = 1.25 may be assumed. The value of ao depends upon the tube arrangement. If a squaw pitch is assumed, a0 is giva by Eq. 6-30, and the pitch p, = p, = II0 + vo = 11,. in.; z,, = 1.25 and zt = 1.25; m = 0.43 i (1.13/1.25) = 1.334: ao = 0.044 + 0.08 x 1.25 (1,25 _ li 1,9R4 = 0.68 0

1,~,= SO.000 x 0.240 (195 - 65) 0.249 (750 - 390)

= 27,900 lb/hr.

The various terms to he nsed in Eq. 18-2 and 18-3 aie found as follows. The numher of hours of operation ia 7 = (365 -- 4) x 24 = 8664 hr/yr. Therefore C, = 1.05,8664 = 1.212 x lo4 $/sq ft-hr; C,!, = C, 0.006 x 0.746/33,000 x FO = 2.25 x 1O-9 $jft-lb. The value of K,i must be computed by Eq. 18-5. The faetor Bi must be found by Eq. 17-23. As stated in eonnection with Eq. 17-23, if nt, = 1, 8s in this problem, K; = 0.55, also, us stated in connection with Eq. 17-9, a3 = 0.023, and in connection with Eq. 17-19, ai = 0.22 $ and $ = (CL/&) OS where p is taken at the bulk temperat~ure of the air, t, = 13OF, and /.L# at the surface temperature t, which at first must be estimated. The estimate can

The clearance was already assumed as the minimtim recommended, vo 7: 0.25 in. = 0.0208 ft, and TQ = 0.15. Therefore, by Eq. 18-G: K = 2 x 125 x 0.68(0.068;0.0833j~~(0.0208/0.0652) 77 x 4.17 x 108 x 0.0394 = 2.65 x IO- New, by Eq. 18-3:

GO = 1.212 x 10-1 2.26 x 10~ x 2.62 x 10-r(~3.75 A 3.39 x 168/262 = 4910 lb/hr-sq ft.

.,~

li.%il 1

40

August 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

The mass velocity Gn is rather of AR~,o should be made: N RB.0 = 0.0833 x 4,910 = 5840 0.070

low aria

a check

The new Reynolds numbers are X,,r,; = 61.800 and surface coefficient,s Nmo = 6010. The corrected become : hL = 0.023 x 0.24 x 45,500 1.25 x 61,8OO.?x 0.70s ft-F

Since NP,,, > 1000, Eq. 18-3 applies. side the tuba: NR%i = 0.0652 x 47,500 = G4 5oo 2 0.048

For flow in= 28.05 Btuhr-sq, li From = 0.33 x 0.249 x 5,050 1.25 x 6,010. x 0.66h ft-F t,emperature becomes:

Now the surface coefficients can be found. Eq. 17.9: 0.023 x 0.240 x 47,500 !l.i = 1.25 x 64,500x 0.70 = 29.05 Btu/hr-sq Also, from h,, = Eq. 17-10: ft-F

= 13.33 Btu;hr-sq and the nem mean t, =

surface

O.OG52 x 28.05 x 130 i- 0.0833 x 13.33 x 560 0.0652 x 2X.05 t 0.0833 x 13.33 L 292.2F. A third repetition of these calculations would give a value for t, between 288.0 and 292.2F. In viem of the converging tendency, the valu$ will be approximately 291.OF. The next step is to check t,he assumption made in the derivation of Eq. 17-16, nemely that the differenee in temperatura ht on the inside and outside tube surfaees is small. The heat conduetivity of steel at 291F, k = 24.80 Btu/hr-ft-F ; thickness of the tube wall, L = (0.0833 - 0.0652)/2 = 0.00905 ft; and taking into account that the heat conductivity in the tube is referred to the mean tube diameter, in this case to (OF0832 + 0.0652) /Z = 0.0742 ft, the beat balance equation for the heat flow through a squaw foot of the inner surfaee may be written as: (291 130) 28.05 = At x 24.80 x 0.0742 o,oogo5 x C0652

0.33 x 0.244 x 4,910 1.25 x 5,8400-x 0.66 ft-F

= 13.18 Btulhr-sq

The eorreeted mean surface temperature b, can be found by Eq. li-16 and al1 other values that, depend upon it should be recalculated. By Eq. 17-16: t, = 0.0652 x 29.05 x 190 + 0.0833 x 13.18 x 560 0.0652 x 29.05 + 0.0833 x 13.18 = 288F This giva ps = 0.057 lb/ft-hr
0.14

and:

$ =

0.048 ~ 0.057

= 0.0762

Then ai = 0.22 x 0.9762 = 0.215 and, by Eq. 17-22: & (195 - 65) x 0.70 288 - 130 ~_ o.65 From this equation, At = 1.44F. Then to establi,sh the fina1 values for G<, GO, hi and h.o. the surface temperatura should be taken as t,i = 291 - 1.44/2 = 296.3F and t,o = 291 + 1.442 = 291.7F. The fina1 values of the temperature differences will be: At,j = 290.3 ~ 130 = 160.3F; Ata = 560 ~ 291.7 = 268.3F With these temperature of G; and Go become: differences, the fina1 values

By Eq. 17-23: Bi = 1 + 1 x 0.55 x 0.023 0.65 x 1.25 x 0.215 = 1.073

l
.,~:,

By Eq. 18-5: k~ _ ,1.073 x 0.215 (0.048i0.0652j~ 2 x 4.17 x lOa x 0.640 = 6.35 x lo-lo The corr&ted temperature differences are At, = 288 -- 130 = 158F and At,, = 560 = 272F. With the new values, Eq. 18-2 gives: Gi = 1.212 x 10-d 2.26 x IO- x 6.3 x lo- (2.5 + 2.76 x 272/158! [ = 45,500 lb/hr-sq The numerical Eq. 18-3: G,, = 1.212 x 10-4 2.26 ~~10.~ x 2.65 x 1O-i (3.75 + 3.39 x 1581272) [ = 4050 lb/hr-sq ft. ft of Ro is not changed and, by 1 now 288

2.26 x lo-x

1.212 x 10-i 2.65 x 10~? (3.75 ~1m 3.39 x 160.31268.3) ft 1.212 x 10-J

U.857

= 46,500 lbhr-sq Ga =

1 0.95

2.26 x 1O-9x 6.35 x lo- = 6,000 lb/hr-sq ft.

(2.5 + 2.76 x 268.3;1160.3:)

value

0.351 1

The fina1 values for the surface coefficients are found us hi = 28.5~Btuihr-sq ft-F and h.. = 13.4 Btu/hr-sq ft-F. Main Dimensions. The cross area of une tube S; = 0.7854 x 0.0672 = 0.00333 sq ft. This giva the number of tubes required for a single Pass arrangement, by Eq. 17-25:

Petro/Chem

Engineer

August 1966

41

would helieve you 1,120 nounds?

Or aboul how delivery by DOS! parcel

orsix cars? Ilal
With AMF Beaird, you can believe ah three. We makethe largest pressure vessels which can be shipped in one piece (165,000-maybe even ZOO,,OOO-gallon capacity). Or we can make containers SOsmall they go parcel Post. We design and fabricate a wide range of pressure vessels,fractionator towers, LP-Gas storage and cryogenic tanks or will build them to your own specifications. However, in many cases, we will be able to supply the type vessel you need from our stock or from stock materials. Far details, cali your experienced AMF Beaird representative or write direct: AMF Beaird, Inc., a subsidiary of American Machine & Foundry Company, Shreveport, Louisiana 71102.

EEAIRD

z =

80,000 46,500 x 0.00333

= 516 tuba oecurs resultlength surface

as against 297 tubes in Example 17-2. This because of the much smaller rate of gas flow ing from the economie factors. The necessary of the tubes is found from the tota1 heating Ai required for the heat flow Q: 4 = 80,000 x 0.240 (195 and the required balance as : Ai = surface

EXAMPLE 18-2. Find the optimum Example 18-l. SOLUTION: The Uver-al1 coefficient Eq. 13-15, using the arithmetic-mean

tota1 cast for Ui iu found wea: by

ut=

1 0.0652 (0.0833 - 0.0652) 0.0652 1 28.5 +24.85 (0.0833 + 0.0652) T 0.0833 x 13.0 = 10.96 Bt,u/hr-sq ft-F

65) = 2,500,OOO Btu/hr is found from the beat

and by Eq. 18-8: (& -k Xnij = 1 1 = 2.88 x~O-~ $;Btu or the sum of the fixed charges and cast is 2.88$ per l,OOO,OOO Btu transfewed. EXAMPLE 18.3. Check the answer of 18-2 hy means of Eq. 18-B. SOLUTION: Al1 values entering in Eq. 18-10 can be taken from Examples 18-1 Henee: X,< = 1.212 x 10; 10.96 x 430 = 2.57 x D8 $/Btu of power Example 18-9 and and 18-2. (160.3/4303 0.8/(3 -0.2)

2,500,000 (290.3 - 130) x 28.5

= 547 sq ft

The inside surface of 1 ft of the tubes & = r x 0.0652 = 0.2048 8q ft and therefore, the length L of one t,ube must be: L= 547 516 x 0.2048 = 5.2 ft

Either a G-ft or the smallest standard 8-ft length will probahly be used. 18-6. Optimm velo&/ in tzcbes. In many cases t,he power to be applied to the second Ruid on the Shell side is small compared to the power required far the Auid flowing through the tubes. In these cases, Iro is small compared to ki; Ato becomes very small eompared to At, and for DiGlIpi 2 10,000, Eq. 18-2 simplifies to:

x,,i

2.26 x lo- x 6.35 x 10-l x 46,500.* 10.96 x 430 = 0.35 x lo4 $jBtu =

The procedure for finding finding Gi by Eq. 18-2 and 18-1. The minimum tota1 cast, cluding the cast of the heat equation:,4

G; is the same as for illustrated by Example in dollars per Btu, exitself, is giva by the

Eq-
In Eq. 18-8, X,, is the fixed trnnsferred : cast, dollars per Btu

and X,,,, + X,wi = 2.57 + 0.35 = 2.92 x lo- $/Btu. The discrepnncy of about 17& is due to errors in slide rule calculations. These computations show that, in this example, power constitutes only 12% of the heat transfw cast and 88% of the costs aie Iixad charges. 18-7. O@imum doeitl, outside tcbes. If the cast of power to push the fluid through the tubes is negligible, the outside thermal resistance is eontrolling and DoGo/po lies between 1000 and 40,000; the optimum mass velocity Gor can be computed from the equation:

GO" =-

G,
1) Ro = KiDJDi .

CmKu (4.75 At ,,/, /Ah

0.381 1
Eq. 18-12 Eq. 18-13

x,; = CdAi
r!

Ca
Lio Atm

Eq. 18-9

where:

and X,< is the cast of power delivered to the fluid inuide the tubes, allowing far over-al1 efficiencies of motors, pumps, ete, also expressed in dalla-s per ,Btu transferred: Eq. 18.10 Combining Eq. 18-8 and 18-9 giveu:

and the minimum, or optimum heat, in~dollars per Btu, is:

cast of transferring

Eq. 18.14
where X,,, the eost of power delivered to the floid on the Shell side, in dollars per Btu, is:

x, f x,; &

1
= 1 flow, (At,/At,,,,)n/(3 (GD/p) mi) Eq. 18.11 > 10,000, m. = 0.2 and

x,,=

C,,,A; C,oKG<, 3-m q Ui Atm Eq. 18-11, Eq. 18-14 can

Eq. 18-15 be pre-

For turbulent n = 0.8.

Similarly to sented as:

Petro/Chem

Engineer

August 1966

43

-L + x,,,
X,0 = 1~ (At,/At,)

1 (no/ (3 - vaa Eq. 18.16

EXAMPLE 18.4. Find the optimum tota.1 cast for the heat exchanger of Example 18-1, if it i8 used to preheat water instead of air, al1 other data being the same. SOLUTION: By Eq. 18.13, KO = 2.62 x lo- x 0.0652/0.0833 = 2.05 x 10-r. Also. bv definition. c00 = C,iDJD,, oi C,a = 1.212 x lo-4 x 0.0652; 0.0833 = 0.950 x lo-. Thus, by Eq. 18-12:

2.26 x ,;x;O:I"I

j:,,(&)-

l]r

= 4780 Ih/hr-sq The corresponding

Nm =

ft

Reynolds number is:

0.0833 x 4780 =7210 0.068

and the surface coefficient, from Eq. 17-10:

h 0 = 0.33 x 0.248 x 4780 ~ 14.5 Btu/hr-sq 1.25 x 7,210".* x 0.66%

ft-F a combination of severa.1 factors. If the gas Flora either inside or outside the tuba of a certain type of exchanger, in which the hourly fixed charge per foot of tube is the same, the C,o/G = WDo. If the gas at atmospheric pressure is heated with steam condensing under pressure, the steam should be inside the tubes and the Shell can be made of light sheet iron well insultited on the outside. On the other hand, if gas under pressure must~ be cooled with water, a consid+rably less expensive type of construction - a trickle, or drip cooler along the lines of Fig. 14-6, can be used. In a trickle cooler the gas will flow inside the tubes instead of water and the Shell must be designed to withstand the gas pressure. 18-9. Water far eoolers a,nd ccndensers. It frequently happens that the pressure in the water mains of a plant is sufficient to give the necessary rate of flow through the beat exchange apparatus and the cast of cooling water is directly propor- ei tional to the amount used. The optimum water rate will correspond to the lowest annua1 sum of the water costs and of the fixed charges on the beat exchange apparatus. Suppose that W lb per hr of warn~ fluid enters the heat exehanger at ti and leaves at t2 losing the beat Q = Wc(tl ~ t?). This beat is absnrbnd by W Ib per hr of cooling water which enters at t, and leaves at t; for the specific beat of water c = 1 may be used. The temperature t* is determined by the heat balance: q = Wc(tl -

The over-al1 heat transfer coeffieient lJu could be taken equa1 to ho. However, it is better to determine it from Eq. 13-14 using an average value for hi of 1200 Btu/hr-sq ft-F, as giva in Table 15-2. Thus: 1

u. =

0.0833 + 0.0833 (0.0X33-0.0652)+ 0.0652 x 1200 (0.0833 + 0.0652) 24.85

1
14.5

= 14.2 Btu/hr-sq and, by Eq. 18-14:

ft-F 0.950 x 104 0.752> 14.2 i 430

= 1.787 x 1O-8$/Btu

or the sum ,of fixed charges and costi of power is 1.79$ pei 1.000,000 Btu transferred, or almo& 40% less than the cast of Example 18-2. 18.8. Heating or couling of gas. If a gas is heated by condensing vapor (usually steam) or cooled by water, the thermal resistance on the gas side is the controlling factor and it is necessary to decide whether the @,s should flow inside or outside the tubes. The factors and exponents in the foregoing equations may be assumed to have the following values: ?L = 0.8, m = 0.2, no = 0.6, and mo = 0.16. Then the ratio of the optimum sums of power and fixed charges becomes:
(X.0 + -GO)0 = o,go5 &uio~Atm),

(Xd + Xp,l

GiUoo (Atm! ,I

Eq. 18-17

where (At,,,)i is the mean temperature differente if the controlling thermal resistance is inside t,he tuba and the outside resistance is negligible, and (At,), is the mean temperature differente if the ~controlling resiutance is outuide the tube and the inside resistance is negligible. Eq. 18-17 shows that the choice is determined by

ti)

= w(tr

-- tl)

Let U represent the over-al1 coefficient evaluated at the optimum velocity of the fluid that must be co&d in order to maintain a proper balance between fixed charges and pumping costs for the warm fluid as expla.ined in Section 18-5. The cooling water costs Cw dollars per lb and is available in

44

August 1966

Petro/Chem Engineer

How ow Corning control.. . foaming,

coke buiidw, ash content, and fire hazards
DELAYED COKERS-Tnjectim, nf5.10 ppm nfanrifoam compound or fluid, based on unit charge, con*rols foaming in delayed coker units, plugged overhead lines, and fractionator following the delayed coker. Silicone treatment increases coke capacity, cu*s maintenance cos*s and downtime. GAS-OIL SEPARATORS-Oil carryover and inaccurate metering of crude volume is avoided by,injecting 12,500 CS. viscosity silicone tluid, dispersed in kerosine or diesel oil, ahead of the separators.
LUBE OILS-.4ny of a variety of silicone fluids, added to the lube oil, prevents foaming tendencies, improves lubricating properties. ASPHALTS-Addition of 1 ppm of silicone fluid to asphalt, preuents foaming problems, in the loadihg, transportation, and laying operations.

silicones

compnondsand rm&ons eliminate loss of apacity from foam often found in the stripper and extrwtor of Udex units using dirthylene and dipropylene glycol to extract BTX materials. In a typical unit with a 30,000 BPD glycol circulation rate, and drsignrd rapacity of 3800 RPD of ~RTX chargn, silicone defoamers raised BTX throughput to 5200 BPD, a 35% increase.
UDEX U~NlTS-Silicone GLYCOL DEHYDRATORS-High
glycol losses and red,uced capacity caused by foam in, gas dehydration units are preyented with.anti-foam compounds and emulsions.

MEB or other amines cause severe foaming and loss of gashandling capacity that can be controlled by daily injections of 5 ppm of silicone emulsions.

AMINE SCRUBBING UNITS-Contaminated

LIGHT HYDROCARBONS-Antifoam
vents foaming in fuel oil handling of other light hydrocarbons.

PT fluid preand in ,the proc,essing

VACUUM. UNITSpSilicone

fluids and compounds, in concentrations.of $6 to % ppm of feed, eliminate foaming and reduce the carbon content of side streams from the unit.

-*

HOT RESIDUUM STORAGE-,Silicone fluids; even in cancentrations less than 1 ppm, prevent h&ardous tank frothovers caused by steam line rupture,~ water: bottom turnover, or inadvertent water injection. Silicone fluids prevent persistent foaming in the overflow far containment within the dike, and also eliminate liquid capacity loss caused by foaming. UNIT STARTUP-An effettive aid to startup, silicone fluids in concentrations of 20 ppm of the dehydration charge stock prerent loss of pump suction during heatup.

PROPANE DEASPHALTING-The addition of M ppm of silicone ,compound stops foam in the flash drum and preuents carryover into the overhead, eliminating the need for frequent cleaning of overhead lines. FURNACE ANTIFOULANT-SI 1 xone Huids, in concen*ra*ions of 5-1.0 ppm, extend iur~~ace life hy controlliug the coke buildup in tuba, wbicb drcreascs capacity and rull-time. Wherever you have foam problems, Tretolite can supply a Dow Corning silicone that will improve your processing. For complete data or help in selecting the best silicones for your specific needs, see your Tretolite engineer, or nnte . . . PE~SB.8

DIVISION 369Marsha,, Avenue. LOUiS. 63119 St. MO.

SOLE U.S. PETROLEUM INDUSTRY DISTRIBUTOR FOR DOW CORNING SILICONES

Petro/Chem

Engineer

August 1966

57, Informario Prod<lr h,iW iurcw on ldYP,tkOd lea lader tmer

45

sufiicient nmnnnt. If the water is under sufficient, ~ressure, the highest practicable water velocity should be used. As before, let C,i designate the hourly fixed charges per square foot of the heat transfer surface Ai and 7 desi,gnate the number of hours per ycar of exchanger operation. Then the yemly fixed charges vii = A& T. The yearly water cast y,, = W &,,j (tt - t,). At the uame time Q = UR,F Ati, where the factor F depends on the arrangemmt uf the shell and tube passes in t,he exchsnger as discussed in Section 14-2, and At, is the man logarithmic over-al1 temperature differente in cuunterflow~ and must be valculnted from Eq. 14-4. By combining these relations, the minimum value of the sum of the yearly fixed charges, and water cast va -Imy., iS found by differentiating the expresSimon for y. + II< with respect to the tempwkure differenee (t, - tlnI at the hotter end and setting the derivative equa1 to zwo. This results in:

Eq. 18-18 where At, = ti ~ tI is the maximum temperature differente at the cold end and Ab,,, = t, - t2 is the optimum over-al1 differente at the hot end. Since At,,, appears in severa1 places in Eq. 18.18, the latter can be salved only by trial and error. Homever, the calculations can be simplified by using charts in which the ratio Y = (t, ~ t%j/ ih - ti) = At,,/At, is plotted against values of X representing the right side of Eq. 18-18. X = UFCJC,i far various values of Z = (tl ~ t2), (ti - h). The caves in Fig. 18-3 serve for values of 2 from 0 to 4 and the alignment chart of Fig. 18-4 can be used far higher values of Z, up to 100.
IE, as in Example 18-5, the line connecting the

X and Z values intersects the Y scale st a sharp

Figure

18-4.

Chart

for solution

of Eq. 18.18

for

higher

values

of 2.

46

August 1966

Petro/Chem

Engineer

Pre-publication Announcement

theWORKHORSE of mechanical seals

FOR THE LONG HAUL on heavy duty sealing fot processing equipment, you can depend on this thoroughbred for dependable performance.. .Type RO Dura Seal. It is engineered for the jo~b.. YOUR job with a built-in toughness and versatility that will meet the requirements of your most severe sealing conditions. It is adaptable for either inside or outside application. The basic Type RO Dura Seal shown ,below can be fabricated of selected alloys, ceramics and appropriate shaft packing to handle a wide range liquids from below atmospheric up to 250 PSI

Applied Heat Transfer Design For the HPI

will be auailable shortly in Handbook form
On the basis m quests received ofto numerous date, we planning a special reprint the entire 18 installments APPLIED HEAT TRANSFER DESIGN FOR THE HPI series which is cuucluded on these pages. Copies are priced at $3.50 each, and will be available in approximately 30 days. q TO order your personal cpy of the complete APPLIED HEAT TRANSFER DESIGN FOR THE HPI reprint Handbook (approximately 120 854 x simply circle 11 lmge$, item $340 ori the postpaid Reader Service C,enter reofYt;;di;;;;;d in the back reaie of of

a:-

Yaur tiopy will be mailed immediately following publieation and you will not be billed unti1 shipment has ben made. Mail your order t,oda,y to insure prompt, postpaid delivery.

PeWChem Engineer
BOOK DEPT.. BOX 1589 DALLAS. TEXAS 75221

i= l

Petro/Chem

Engineer

August 1966

ror IhrnBli. rdler on Adrarfirsd sce serviw hd<,$ Reodar cen,u

47

anrle and which makes it dificult to read the corresponding value of Y, it is advisable tti check the value of to with Eq. 18-18. If the left side turns out to be smoller than the right side, the value of tz must be slightly increased; this will decrease the value of Ati, and increase the left side of the equation. An accnrate value for ts is necessary in order to obtain a correet value of At,,, and thereby 3 correct cooling area Ao, When t,he temperature of the warm fluid is constant, as in a condenser, Eq. 18-18 reduce to: 62 - h Ah ~ In ($) Azz Eq. l*.lg

(cj The mean over-al1 temperature by Eq. 11.19: &, _ (210 141.4:1 (80 210 -- 141.4 h 80 ~ 75 ara is:

differente

is,

75) = 24.3F

The necessary

cooling

250,000

18-10. Optinmm tmperature differerm in steam Ireatws. When waste heat is recovered from exhaust
steam by an exchanger, an increase of the heat trsnsfer surface will increase the amount of beat recovered but will also increase the fixed charges. Wence there is an optimum mean temperature differente for any particular case. If the temperature of a fluid must be raised from t, to t2, and ti is higher than the saturation temperature t of lom-pressure exhaust steam, part of the heating, up to an intermediate temperature t, can be done by the exha& steam, and the rest of the heat must be furnished by more expensive high-pressure steam condensing at t, where t > t2, The problem is to find the optimum over-al1 a temperature differenee At in the first, low-pressure steam heater. Designate the value of low-pressure steam in dollars per Btu of latent heat by CH; the value of the high-pressure steam by CH; assume that (C,, + C,]),, is the optimum sum of fixed charges Ca and cast of power C, required to force the heated fluid through the heaters expressed as dollars per hoor per square foot. The tota1 hourly cast t,hat depends on the intermediate temperature t can be presented as:

EXAMPLE 18.5. A counterflow exehanger must cool 8000 lb per hour of air from 210 to 80F; the water has a temperature of 75F and eosts $0.07 per 100 CU ft. The tota1 fixed charges aie $0.60 per sq ft per year; t,he cooler is used continuously every day of the year; allow 10 days for holidays, cleaning and repairs. Assume the optimum value of Uu as 11.6 Btu/hr-sq ft-F, ineluding a safety factor F, = 1.25. Determine: (a) the optimum water outlet temperature, ib! the corresponding water consumption per hour, and (c) the rrquired conling surface of the, exchanger. SOLUTION: (a) the specific weight of water at 68F is 62.3 lb/cu ft, therefore: 0.07 ~= 1.124 x 1O-5 $/lb cw = 100 x 62.3 The number of hours of service per year:

7 = (52 x 7 Similarly

10) x 24 = 8496 hr.

to Eq. 18.4:

0.60 C,i = m = 7.06 x 10-j $/hr~-sq ft and by definition, -7 = % Cd tl z = ~---ti with

y+=A(Ct

n +

tl)CH C,jo

+ wc (tz -t)CH Eq. 18-20

F = 1 for counterflow:
= 1,845

= 11.6 x 1.124 x lo- 7.06 x 10-j

ti 210 t, - 80 -

80 = 26 75

and from Fig. 15-4 Y = 14 = (210 - tzi/(80 75). This giva tz = 14OF. A check of Eq. 18-18 gives : 210 [, 80 + (80 - 75) - (210 (210 - 140) - (80 - 75) 75 140 140) 1 2

where the area A = Ai + A2, is equal to qLJAt,; At,,% is the logarithmie mean over-all temperature differente sine II can be cwsidered eonstant and F in Eq. 14-5 is unity for any arrangement of surfaces because the steam condensa in both heaters at constant temperature. Combining there relations, differentiating, and setting d Ey/dt equala to zero gioes the following equation for minimum totd cast:

rt,-t>

(t-t)

(C,, -l- C,) (t -t = *~(Cl,,pCw,j

Eq. 18-21

80 210 l This is slightly

210 - 140 ~~..,= 1.712 l + In 80 - 75 1

Eq. 18-21 can be solved as a quadratie equation or can be used directlp far finding (t t) and t - t). References Hrat Inmsmisuion. op. cit., W. H. MeAdams, p. 432. w. H. McAdams, Heat Tm?wmission, op. cit., p. 435 Ibid., p. 436 The suhscript O? as outside the parentheses (X.; + X,;,) o or in lljO QlcAdams, op. cit., p. 440. R. D. Dougleass and D. P. Adams, In. Eng. Chem. 35, 1082-83 (19411.

tz to 141.4F giva

less than X = 1.845., Increasing for the left side, 1.841, which

is satisfnctory. ib) With e = 0.24 Btullb for the air, t,he heat that must be absorbed by the water is: q = 8,000 x 0.24 (210 and the amount m = of water 80) = 250,000 Btuhr

used is:

250,000 = 60.4 CU ft/hr (141.4 ~ 75) x 62.3

48

August 1966

Petro/Chein

Engineer