8.4 Water 8.4.

1 Water is distributed on Earth as a solid, liquid and gas y Define the terms solute, solvent and solution Solution a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances Solute a substance that is dissolved in another substance or the component of a solution present in a lower amount. Solvent a substance which can dissolve another substance or the component of a solution present in a greater amount. Identify the importance of water as a solvent Water is essential as a reactant and a solvent in the cycling of C, O, N, P and S in nature. It also allows biological processes to occur in aqueous solutions and serves as a transport system for nutrients and waste products in living organisms. Compare the state, percentage and distribution of water in the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere Biosphere 70% Liquid Lithosphere Variable Liquid Water of crystallisation Solid ice Hydrosphere 96-100% Liquid Solid ice Atmosphere 0-5% gas

Percentage of water State of water

Outline the significance of the different states of water on Earth in terms of water as: A constituent of cells and its role as both a solvent and a raw material in metabolism Water is the predominant constituent of cells, functioning as:  A solvent for biochemical reactions that sustain life C6H12O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g)  Photosynthesis : 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l)  Respiration : C 6H12 O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g) 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l)  A raw material for metabolism (e.g. in plants)  A transport medium for nutrients and wastes  A thermal buffer that resists large temperature fluctuations A habitat in which temperature extremes are less than nearby terrestrial habitats  Water serves as a natural habitat for many organisms  Major advantage: temperatures vary much less in water than on land  Therefore marine animals are protected from experiencing temperature extremes An agent of weathering of rocks  As water freezes and thaws repeatedly, the stress due to expansion and contraction can cause rocks to fragment  Rain, rivers and glaciers erode loose material, carving through mountains and shaping the landscape into its present form.  Weathering is the physical and chemical breakdown and decay of rocks.  Erosion refers to the processes by which rock fragments are transported by rivers, oceans and wind. Both as liquid and solid a natural resource for humans and other organisms  Water is critical to the survival of humans and other organisms.


8. . he wide distribution and importance of water on Earth is a consequence of its molecular structure and hydrogen bonding

Construct Lewis electron dot structures of water, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide to identify the distribution of electrons Water Ammonia Hydrogen sulfide
S

otal number of electron pairs 2

Arrangement Bonding pairs

Lone pairs

Shape of molecule

Examples

Linear rigonal planar etrahedral

2 3 4 3 2 5 6

0 0 0 1 2 0 0

Linear rigonal

3 4

Compare the molecular structure of water, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide, the differences in their molecular shapes and in their melting and boiling points

rigonal bipyramidal octahedral

etrahedral Pyramidal Bent rigonal bipyramidal Octahedral

BeCl2, HCN, BeF2 BCl2, CH2O CH4, SiF 4 NH3, PCl3 H2O, H2S PCl3 SF6

Human use water f r drin in , bat in , washin cl thes, cleanin , agriculture and in industrial processes Water also serves as a source of entertainment and en oyment for many people (eg. fishing, swimming, sailing and other water sports)

Describe hydrogen bonding between molecules Hydrogen bonding is a special type of dipole-dipole bond only occurring between H with N, O, or F of a neighbouring molecule Hydrogen bonding is the strongest out of the intermolecular forces As the electron from the hydrogen is drawn towards and N, O or F atom within the molecule, the positive hydrogen nucleus is left. This enables the slightly positive hydrogen to be attracted to the slightly negative N, O or F of a ne ighbouring molecule. The size of N, O and F is small enough (i.e. has only 2 electron shells) for the bare positive hydrogen nucleus to interact with the lone electron pairs of a neighbouring molecule contain N, O or F. Hydrogen bond is the electrostatic attraction between a hydrogen proton and lone electron pairs. Identify the water molecule as a polar molecule In H2O, there are 2 bonded electron pairs and 2 lone electron pairs There are dipole bonds between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms This is due to oxygen being more electronegative than hydrogen Hence the electrons being shared between the oxygen and hydrogens will be pulled more towards the nucleus of oxygen. This makes the oxygen slightly negative ( -) while the hydrogens are slightly positive ( +) Hence the water molecule is a polar molecule with a net dipole.

Describe the attractive forces between polar molecules as dipole-dipole forces Covalent bonds in which the electrons are unequally shared are called polar covalent bondsand is due to the differing electronegativities of different atoms. A dipole is a polar molecule which have a net dipole (imbalance) As polar molecules have a slightly positive and negative end, they are able to line up so that the positive end of one molecule attracts the negative end of another molecule. This electrostatic attraction of polar molecules is called dipole-dipole forces. Explain the following properties of water in terms of its intermolecular forces: Surface tension  In water, intermolecular forces exert different effects on a molecule at the surface compared to one in the interior.  Interior molecules are attracted equally by other molecules on all sides (isotropic).  Surface molecules are only attracted to others below and to the sides (anisotropic).  As a result, surface molecules experience a net attraction downward  This pulls the molecules inward and closer together, making the liquid surface behave like an elastic skin under tension (with minimised surface area).  To increase surface area, molecules must move to the surface by breaking some interior attraction and this requires energy.  Surface tension is a measure of energy needed to increase the surface area of a liquid by a unit amount (units=j/m 2).  Water has high surface tension due to strong intermolecular forces (hydrogen bonds).

In general, the stronger the intermolecular forces, the greater the liquids surface tension. Viscosity  It is the resistance to flow  A liquids viscosity depends on the size/shape of the molecules and strength of its intermolecular forces.  As water has small and compact molecules that flow readily over each other, it has low viscosity as compared to highly viscous liquids like motor oil.  The stronger the intermolecular forces between molecules the more resistance there is to flow.  Water with its strong hydrogen bonding has a much higher resistance to flow than its small molecular size might suggest. Boiling and melting points Due to the strong hydrogen bonds in between water molecules, greater energy input is required to break these bonds, hence accounting for its relatively higher melting and boiling points as compared to other liquids and solvents. 8.4.3 Water is an important solvent y Explain changes, if any, to particles and account for those changes when the following t ypes of chemicals interact with water: o A soluble ionic compound such as sodium chloride If the attractive forces between water and the ions are stronger than the attractive forces between the positive and negative ions, then the ionic solid dissolves in water. o A soluble molecular compound such as sucrose Most molecular substances such as hexane, kerosene, paraffin wax and chloroform are insoluble in water. However, some molecular substances like sucrose are soluble. When soluble molecular compounds are dissolved in water, the crystals of the solid break up and disperse throughout the solvent, breaking right down to the molecular level. So a solution of sucrose in water consists of individual sucrose molecules dispersed throughout the solvent. A molecular substance only dissolves in water if water can form stronger attachments to the molecules than the intermolecular forces in the molecular substance. Generally the only molecular substances which dissolve in water are ones that have very polar molecules or ones that can form hydrogen bonds with water. o A soluble or partially soluble molecular element or compound such as iodine, oxygen or hydrogen chloride Some non-polar molecular substance such as oxygen and nitrogen gases and iodine are slightly soluble in water. The solvent-solute interactions are weak dispersion forces. As these interactions are weak, the solubilities of such substances are quite low. o A covalent network structure substance such as silicon dioxide Covalent latticesare insoluble in water as the hydrogen bonds in water are not strong enough to breakstrong covalent bonds between the atoms in these covalent lattices. o A substance with large molecules, such as cellulose or polyethylene Some molecules of substances are so large and held to one another in such orderly fashions by hydrogen bonds that water is unable to separate them from one another. (e.g. cellulose, polyethylene) However, there are many proteins (including enzymes) and some carbohydrates (amylase,

glycogen) are soluble in water despite having large molecular weights. These molecules are very complex structures and do not pack together neatly into crystals, so water is able to separate molecules and form solutions. Analyse the relationship between the solubility of substances in water and the polar nature of the water molecule The most important factors for causing solubility in water are the highly polar nature of the water molecule and the ability of water to form hydrogen bonds with other molecules. Polar substances dissolve in polar solvents and not in non-polar solvents while non-polar substances dissolve in non-polar solvents and dont dissolve polar ones. As water is a polar solvent, it will dissolve substances which have polar molecules.

8.4.4 The concentration of salts in water will vary according to their solubility, and precipitation can occur when the ions of an insoluble salt are in solution together y Identify some combinations of solutions which will produce precipitates, using solubility data Ba(NO3)2 (aq) + ZnSO 4 (aq) ZN(NO3)2 (aq) +BaSO 4 (S) Ba2+ (aq) + SO4 2- (aq) BaSO4 (s) (BaSO4 (s) is a white precipitate) AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) NaNO3 (aq) + AgCl(s) Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) AgCl (S) (AgCl (S) is a white precipitate) CuSO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + Cu(OH)2 (s) Cu2+ (aq) + (OH) -(aq) Cu(OH)2 (s) (Cu(OH)2 (s) is a blue precipitate) Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) 2KNO3 (aq) + PbI2 (s) Pb 2+ (aq) + 2I- (aq) PBI2 (s) (PBI2 (s) is a yellow precipitate) Na2So4 (aq) + Ba(NO3)2 (aq) 2NaNO3 (aq) + BaSO4 (s) Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)) BaSO4 (s) (BaSO4 (s) is a white precipitate)

Describe a model that traces the movement of ions when solution and precipitation occur

Before the two solutions are mixed, they remain as free moving electrons where the electrostatic attraction between the water molecules and the ions is greater than the electrostatic attraction between the ions. When mixed, a precipitate may form. A precipitation reaction only occurs when the force of attraction between two ions is stronger than the electrostatic attraction between the water molecules and the ions. In the above diagram, the electrostatic attraction between Ag+ (aq) and Cl- (aq) ions is stronger than the electrostatic pull of the polar water molecules. Hence the precipitate AgCl is formed. y Identify the dynamic nature of ion movement in a saturated dissolution

Saturated solution: solution in which no more of a particular solute will dissolve in a particular solvent In a saturated solution, a dynamic equilibrium exists between dissolution and precipitation. As 2 ions break off the ionic crystal and dissolve in the solution, another 2 ions will precipitate out. These processes occur at the same rate such that there is no net change in concentration. y Describe the molarity of a solution as the moles of solute per litre of solution using Molarity is one type of measurement for concentration. The molarity of a solution is equal to the number of moles of solute per litre of solution. y Explain why different measurements of concentration are important A variety of ways of expressing concentration is used because each method has advantages for particular situations. In commerce and industry and in shopping where the main concern is with how much solute is present, then mass per unit volume is very convenient. In environmental contexts concentrations are usually very low. Masses per unit volume or percent compositions generally lead to very small numbers so parts per million (ppm)gives more manageable numbers.

8.4.5 Water has a higher heat capacity than many other liquids y Explain what is meant by the specific heat capacity of a substance The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of the substance by 1C (or 1K). Compare the specific heat capacity of water with a range of other solvents

Liquid Specific heat capacity (J/C/g) Water 4.18 Ethanol 2.44 Ethylene glycol 2.39 Glycerol 2.38 Acetone 2.17 Chloroform 0.96 Hexane 2.26 Mercury 0.14

Explain and use the equation This equation is used to measure heat energy changes. H: change in heat energy, in joules (J) m: mass of substance, in grams (g) C: specific heat capacity, in J/C/g T: temperature change, in digress Celsius (C) o If the temperature goes up (+T), the energy change is considered negative (-H) o If the temperature drops (-T), the energy change is considered positive (+H)

Explain how waters ability to absorb heat is used to measure energy changes in chemical reactions Calorimeter: equipment used to measure heat energy. Since many chemical processes occur in water and due to waters high specific heat capacity, it is often used in calorimeters as the working fluid or the medium used to absorb the heat energy. Limitations of calorimeter: o It is assumed that the calorimeter itself does not absorb a significant amount of heat energy of the reaction o It is assumed that there is no heat lost or gained between the calorimeter and its surroundings. o It is assumed that the specific heat capacity of the solution reacting in the calorimeter is the same as water (i.e. 4.18 J/C/g) Heat of solution: energy change that occurs when 1 mole of solute dissolves in water. Hsol is negative if energy is released. (exothermic: the calorimeter temperature rises) e.g. soluble hydroxides like NaOH, KOH H sol is positive if energy is absorbed. (endothermic: the calorimeter temperature falls) e.g. ammonium nitrate NH 4NO3 (aq) , ammonium chloride NH 4Cl (aq) Describe dissolutions which release heat as exothermic and give examples Exothermic reactions are reactions that produce and release energy When chemicals lose energy, the temperature in the calorimeter rises because the energy release

heats up the water in the calorimeter. When the temperature rises, the energy quantity is considered negative. e.g. freezing water, precipitation Describe dissolutions which absorb heat as endothermic and give examples Endothermic reactions are reactions that absorb energy where energy must be supplied in order to make the reaction occur. When chemicals absorb energy, the temperature in the calorimeter drops because the energy absorbed from its surroundings cools down the water in the calorimeter. When the temperature drops, the energy quantity is considered positive. e.g. melting ice cubes, evaporating liquid water Explain why waters ability to absorb heat is important to aquatic organisms and to life on earth generally Water plays a significant role to weather, climate and life on Earth due to its high specific heat capacity. Water is able to absorb a large amount of energy from the Sun without much temperature change, keeping water habitats at a very stable temperature. This means that aquatic organisms do not require complex temperature control mechanisms because their habitat remains quite stable. More importantly, the oceans absorb and transport huge quantities of heat from the tropics towards the poles via ocean currents. Explain what is meant by thermal pollution and discuss the implications for life if a body of water is affected by thermal pollution o Many aquatic organisms rely on a fairly constant water temperature to aid proper metabolism, survival and reproduction. o Thermal pollution is the discharge of large quantities of hot water into a river or lake sufficient to cause a significant increase in the waters temperature (2-5C). o River or lake water is used in the industry for cooling and when generating electricity. o When the cooling water is discharged back into a body of water it has absorbed substantial amounts of heat energy. o Thermal pollution has adverse consequences for aquatic life. o In particular, the solubility of oxygen decreases as water temperature increases. Less dissolved oxygen causes stress to aquatic organisms. o Other detrimental effects of rising water temperature:  Increased metabolic rates further demand of oxygen  Fish eggs do to develop properly or hatch with a sudden change in temperature  False temperature cues given to aquatic life