NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL, ELECRTONIC AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

I, HAMMED AWAD ALANZI , confirm that this report and the work presented in it are my own achievement. I have read and understand the penalties associated with plagiarism.

Singed: .. Date: ..

Abstract
Nowadays, wind energy is attracting wide attention as an environment-friendly renewable energy source for supplying the global electrical energy consumption due to high prices of oil, global warming, fast increasing of energy demand and rapid development of renewable energy source. Among different types of topologies for connecting wind turbine to the grid, variable speed system which connects a permanent magnet synchronous generator to the grid by a back to back voltage source converter has achieved more attention because of power control ability and high efficiency. Due to power control ability impact of this system the improvement of the control strategies become a new challenge in order to satisfy the grid interconnection requirements. The main aim of this project is to focus on the current control of the grid side converter which let the full controllability of the DC-link voltage and the reactive power delivered to the grid. The vector control theory will be the base of the controller which will be modelled. It will be attempted that the controllers will have a rapid response time in the all operation area during normal operation. The controllers will be designed and analyzed using Matlab/Simulink.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To my father.. To my mother.. To my wonderful wife To my daughter Elaf To those who were lamps enlightening my way, supporting and encouraging me, to my dear brothers and sisters. Thanks are also due to those who helped to complete this project; special thanks to Dr. David Atkinson.

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Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................................................................. iii List of Figures ...................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... viii CHAPTER1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background ............................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Project objective .......................................................................................................... 1 1.3 Dissertation outline ...................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 2 Wind Energy ................................................................................................... 2 2.1 Wind Energy Background .......................................................................................... 2 2.2 Constant speed wind turbines ..................................................................................... 3 2.3 Variable Speed Turbine ............................................................................................. 4

2.4 Variable Speed Turbine Generators.............................................................................. 4 2.5 Back-To-Back Voltage Source Converter.................................................................... 7 2.5.1 Machine-Side Converter Control ........................................................................... 7 2.5.2 Line-Side Converter Control.................................................................................. 7 2.6 Control Schemes .......................................................................................................... 8 2.6.1 Current Control (CC) ............................................................................................. 9 2.6.2 Space-Vector (VS) Control .................................................................................... 9 2.6.3 Direct Power Control (DPC) ................................................................................ 11 Chapter 3 Simulation of the system ..................................................................................... 13 3.1 Simulation of sine-wave PWM control....................................................................... 13 3.2 Simulation of third harmonic injection PWM ............................................................ 16 3.3 Simulation of Space Vector Modulation (SVM) ......................................................... 19 3.4 Simulation of Phase Locked loop (PLL)..................................................................... 19 Chapter 4 control of the system ........................................................................................... 23 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 23 4.2 The PI controller ........................................................................................................ 29 4.3 The reference frame transform ................................................................................... 29 4.4 Voltage source converter connected to the resistive load ............................................ 33 4.5 Voltage source converter connected to the resistive load with control loop................. 35 4.6 Voltage source converter connected to the grid with controller .................................. 39 iv

Chapter 5 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 41 References .......................................................................................................................... 42

List of Figures
Figure 1: Simple Wind Turbine Energy Generation System ........................................ 2 Figure 2: Power transmitted to the hub shaft at different wind speeds ........ 3 Figure 3: PMSG Converters topologies ................................... 6 Figure 4: Power flow through line side and machine side converter........... 8 Figure 5: Basic Block Diagram of CC-PWM Converter..................................................9 Figure 6: Three-phase SV control .......... 11 Figure 7: Direct Power control .................................. 12 Figure 8:A three phase voltage source inverter and the controller unit ..................... 13 Figure 9: Simulation model of sine-wave PWM control scheme .............................. 14 Figure 10: Output waveforms of the sine-wave PWM scheme.................................. 15 Figure 11: Simulation of third harmonic PWM schemethe controller unit........ 17 Figure 12: Output waveforms of third harmonic PWM scheme......................................18 Figure 13: Simulation of 3s/2s............................................................ 20 Figure 14: Figure 14. Simulation of 2s/2r........................... 20 Figure 15: Simulation of natural reference frame into rotation reference frame........ 21 Figure 16. The output waveform of the rotation reference frame........................... 21 Figure 17: Voltage source converter which is connected to the grid ......................... 23 Figure 18: The simulation block of the three phase two level of voltage source converter......................................................................................................................... 24 Figure 19: The output voltage of the simulated voltage source converter........................25 Figure 20: single phase equivalent circuit ........... 25 Figure 21: The transfer function model of back to back voltage source connected to the grid.................................................................................................................................... 26 Figure 22: The current of inductor when modulation index is unity.............................27 Figure 23: The current of inductor when the modulation index is 0.5..........................28 Figure 24: transform block from abc reference frame to reference frame...................30 vi

Figure 25: The output signal from abc to transform....................................................31 Figure 26: Block diagram for transforming the reference frame to the dq reference frame.....................................................................................................................................31 Figure 27.: The output of the dq reference frame block...................................................... 32 Figure 28: Block in matlab/simulink for transforming from the dq to abc reference frame................................................................................................................................ 32 Figure 29: An equivalent circuit of the voltage source converter with load.....................33 Figure 30: The transfer function model of the voltage source converter with the load....34 Figure 31: The converter current with unity modulation index .............................. 35 Figure 32: The current of the inverter when modulation index is 0.5...................35 Figure 33: The voltage source converter connected to the load with the controller..............37 Figure 34: The voltage source converter current waveform ........................ 38 Figure 35: The actual value and the demanded value in the q axis .................................. 38 Figure 36: The actual value and the demanded value in the d axis................................ 38 Figure 37: The transfer function model of the grid connected voltage source converter... 39 Figure 38: The currents (iq & i q ) waveform of voltage source converter with the grid..... 40 Figure 39: The currents (id & i d ) waveform of voltage source converter with the grid..........40

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List of Tables
Table 1: VSC switching states..........................................................................................10 Table 2: Switching table for direct power........................................................................12 Table 3: The value of different parameters in project without load.................................27 Table 4: Value of parameters when VSC connected to the grid and load...34 Table 5: The value of controller parameters for load .........37 Table 6: The value of controller parameters for grid ....................................................40

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CHAPTER1 Introduction
1.1 Background In terms of percentage of early growth of installed capacity per technology source, the wind energy was the fastest growing energy technology in the 90s [1]. Hence, this growing results in significant proportion of consumers electrical power demands from wind energy [2]. For example, The UK is the windiest country in Europe, with over 40% of the available resources, and improvements in technology have resulted in the cost of wind power falling to close to those of conventional sources of electricity [3]. In recent years, several power converter topologies have been developed to incorporate with the electrical grid, which allow variable speed operation of the wind turbine, and enhanced power extraction as well. For this reason, designing variable speed turbine has the following considerations: a control methods should be designed to extract the maximum power from the turbine and provide a constant grid voltage and frequency [4]. In the sequel, enormous attentions, in terms of cost and complexity, have been moved towards controlling techniques. This project investigates the Back-To-Back voltage source converter (B-T-B VSC). Different topologies of B-T-B VSC generators, their advantages and drawbacks, are studied. In addition, several control methods that have been used for both Line-Side and Machine-Side converters are explained 1.2 Project objective The main purpose of the project is the controlling of the grid current via the use of an appropriate scheme, afterwards the simulation of the voltage source converter between DC link voltage and the grid is given more consideration. 1.3 Dissertation outline The dissertation is divided into five chapters. First chapter covers the basic information about importance wind energy. The second chapter reviews the wind turbine energy system along with constant and variable speed turbines along with constant and variable speed turbines. Chapter three outlines simulate of sine-wave PWM control, third harmonic injection PWM, Space Vector Modulation (SVM) and Phase Locked loop (PLL). By the Proportional-

Integral (PI) controller, the DC link capacitor and the grid, is implemented and controlled in chapter four. The fifth chapter conclude the project, the main conclusions is provided.

CHAPTER 2 Wind Energy

2.1 Wind Energy Background The Wind energy can be defined as the use of the wind to generate electricity. In other words, wind energy system transforms moving energy of the wind into electrical energy that can be applied for practical use. Occasionally, it can be more reasonable to obtain new power by building a wind farm than by building a coal, natural gas, or other type of power plant, particularly, in areas where an excellent wind can be founded. That is why recently wind energy is considered to be a clean, safe, and renewable (inexhaustible) power resource [5]. The windmills have been used for hundreds of years in order to harness the winds energy. On the contrary, nowadays wind turbines are efficient technology much more than windmills, and usually, the horizontal-axis is used for this turbines [6]. Figure 1 shows simple wind energy generation system. The main elements that constitute turbine are a rotor, hub, nacelle and tower. In order to generate the electrical energy, the wind turns the three rotors blades around a central hub. As the nacelle houses the drive-train and power converter, the electrical energy is generated by converting Kinetic energy into electrical energy [5], [7]. To transmit the electrical current to the grid ensuring maximum productivity, in modern system, mechanical drive systems cooperated with advanced generator. This generator responsible to convert energy produced by mechanical parts into an electricity [4]. However, different types of generator require different control methods, which dominate the flow of energy form the wind turbine to the connected grid. Furthermore, in term of turbine speed, two types, fixed and variable turbine speed have been used. Next section explains the energy capturing, advantages and limitations for each turbine type.

Fig.1. Simple Wind Turbine Energy Generation System [8]

2.2 Constant speed wind turbines In the past, the induction generator has been widely used for constant speed wind turbine. However, according to [9], as the rating of the wind turbines are getting higher and more widespread, a couple of problems with the constant speed wind turbine occurs, which make variable speed constant frequency systems more attractive. These problems are briefly described in the following. Selection of wind speed upon which the wind turbine produces its rated power was an important issue concerning the design of a constant speed wind turbine. In general the power transmitted to the hub shaft of the wind turbine is expressed as [6]
3 = 2 1

(1)

where is the turbine power, is the air density, A is the swept turbine area, is the coefficient of performance and is the wind speed. The coefficient performance of the wind turbine is influenced by the ratio of turbine rotational speed to the wind speed or TSR as =

(2)

where is the turbine rotation speed and is turbine radius. To illustrate the captured energy problem in constant speed turbine, figure 2 shows the relationship between the power transmitted to hub and the rotor speed for different wind speeds (1 < 2 < 3 < 4 ). It is apparent that as the wind speed increased the captured energy increased. However, due to high mechanical load at high wind speed, the wind turbine is shut down, as a consequence, the energy captured will fall down [8]. Furthermore, the energy capturing at different speeds does not reach the optimal power value [1, 9].

Fig.2. Power transmitted to the hub shaft at different wind speeds [9]. Another raised issue in constant speed turbine is the mechanical stress. The mechanical stress appeared in fixed speed of the wind turbine, because the variations in the wind power are converted to torque pulsations. Most fixed turbine speeds system require the drive train and 3

gear-box ,in necessity, be able to endure the absolute peak loading conditions, however this suggestion need further safety factors to be taken in consideration [9]. 2.3 Variable Speed Turbine Although it possible for the wind turbine produces the rated power at a specific speed, at high wind speeds the generated energy is small. Accordingly, the trends in modern wind energy conversion are certainly towards variable speed constant frequency (VSCF) generating systems. Adapting the rotational speed of wind turbine will continuously allow the possible maximum power to be achieved. However, the electrical system must be controlled to manage power overload, in addition to that, in designing variable speed turbine, suitable inverter-generator topology should be selected [8]. 2.4 Variable Speed Turbine Generators The converter in wind turbine has three main components. They are the generator, the rectifier and the inverter. Mainly, the generator can be either synchronous or induction generator. Examples on synchronous generator are permanent magnet and filed winding. As claimed by [8], the common way is to use a filed winding, due to its advantageous of controlling the three-phase voltage level. However, the cost of high performance permanent magnet has dropped recently, making it an alternative solution for such kind of generator. In the literature, three main topologies for Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG) have been considered: thyristor supply-side inverter, Hard-switching supply-side inverter and DC-DC Voltage Source Inverter (VSC), as shown in figure 3 a, b and c respectively. If the thyristor converter can control the speed and power by adjusting the firing angle, that means the whole system can be controlled. An AC/DC/AC system consisting of the diode rectifier (in generator side) and thyristor converter (in supply side) can provide optimal real power conversion and speed control [10]. In order to achieve optimal power, the converter should control each of the maximum energy capturing and the shaft speed, if so, as the wind speed increases, the tip speed ratio which is the blade tip speed/wind speed, reach it is optimum value. Subsequently, as the wind speed below the cut-out speed, the turbine operates at the rated power and rotational speed [10]. On another hand, the system speed can be controlled by the firing angle obtained by the thyristor. This parameter is determined by the torque reaction in the generator. Figure 3b 4

plots the controlling scheme corresponding to the simple thyristor inverter shown in figure 3c [10]. As mentioned in [10], for the thyristor converter, it is preferable to use the digital controller as shown in figure 3b. The inputs to this controller are machine speed, DC-link voltage, current and AC network voltage, while the output is only the firing angle (). The controller compares the ideal DC-link voltage and current with the measured ones, stores the results and then adjusts the firing angle as discussed before. Although thyristor-based scheme include lower device cost and higher available power rating than other inverters, it suffers from the need for an active compensator for the reactive power demand and harmonic distortion [2]. Another PMSG topology is the hard-switching inverter, shown in figure 3b, for which some mapping techniques is used in order to maximise the systems power output. Alternatively, using voltage source inverter (VSI) with DC/DC converter offers set of advantages over the previous mentioned topologies; first, it helps to manipulate the generator-side through diversity of the switching ratio, and preserves a good DC-voltage on the inverter-side. Second, it permits selective harmonic elimination (SHE) switching which in turn gives minimal losses. Third,. It is not important for the inverter to control DC-voltage, and it has pliable control [2]. This project will not investigate the control techniques in thyrsitor or hard switching inverters, whereas the Voltage Source Converter (VSC) controlling schemes will be given in detail.

Fig.3. PMSG Converters topologies [2], a) Thyristor inverter system [10], b) controlling scheme [10], c) simple thyristor inverter, d)Hard-switching inverter and e). Voltage source inverter

2.5 Back-To-Back Voltage Source Converter As mentioned before, most of the converter configurations, like thyristor and hard-switching converters, are limited in use due to the harmonic distortion, weak power factor, as well as the system control complexity. Hence, for variable speed generator, back-to-back PWM converter with a DC-link is an suitable solution, by which we can recognize advanced control, and therefore achieving overall active and reactive power control [2]. However, new control issues for both sides arise and the most important addition to control is the coordination between the two PWM converters. For convenience, in this study, the two converters are termed machine-side converter and line side-converter, respectively. The VSC is not sued as a rectifier connected to generator solely, moreover, it can be used for the inverter itself as well. However, in such scenario, VSC requires a minimum DC-link voltage and sometimes need to DC/DC converter in order to increase the voltage level [11]. Likewise, to carry-out the optimum use of the VSC, it is important to select the proper controlling and modulation schemes. In term of Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM), either the current control or voltage control are commonly used [12]. 2.5 .1 Machine-Side Converter Control In Variable Speed Constant Frequency (VSCF) generating system, the control schemes in the machine-side are expected to perform the following objectives [13]: for maximum power capturing, it is required to track a prescribed torque-speed curve, the voltage frequency of the stator output must be constant, and then achieve flexible reactive power control. It is emphasised by [11] that, in the machine-side converter, it is essential to keep the DClink voltage constant regardless of the magnitude and direction of the rotor power. To achieve this objective, Current-Vector control approach has been developed. 2.5 .2 Line-Side Converter Control In the same way as in the machine-side converter, for which the optimal torque-speed profile can be tracked, in line-side converter, the stator output reactive power control is the main line-side converter objective. In addition, the DC link capacitor provides DC voltage to the machine side converter, and store the active power in the capacitor, as a result the capacitors voltage level will increases. One to ensure the consistent DC level of the DC-link, the power flow of the converters should attempt to convene the following control objective [13]: = (3)

where and are the power and power loss of the line-side inverter, and and are the power and power loss of the rotor-side inverter. The power flow through machine-side and line-side converter is shown in Figure 4. The derivative equation of the DC-link can be written as

= 1 2

(4)

Where 1 and 2 are DC-link current, is the DC-link voltage and is capacitance value. The DC-link current 1 and 2 can be derived as 1 =

, 2 =

(5)

Equation (3) through (5) emphasise the stability of the DC-link voltage with possible small variation due to the instant inequality of 1 and 2 .

Fig.4. Power flow through line side and machine side converter [13]. 2.6 Control Schemes In general, the performance of the converter is largely depends on the quality of the used current control technique, as a consequence, it becomes one of the most important subjects of modern renewable energy. In literature, different control strategies for the PWM converters have been proposed. A well-known suggestion of indirect active and reactive power control is based on current vector orientation with respect to the line voltage vector.

2.6 .1 Current Control (CC) In contrast to conventional open-loop voltage PWM converters, the current-controlled PWM (CC-PWM) have the following advantages [14]: Control of instantaneous current wave form, high accuracy, peak current projection, overload rejection, compensation of semiconductor voltage drop of the inverter and compensation of the DC-link and AC-side voltage changes. The main task of the control scheme for CC-PWM converter is shown in figure 4. Threephase AC load can be supplied by the CC-PWM. Based on the switching states (SA , SB , SC ) for the converter power devices, and by comparing the three loads iA , iB , iC , current control can determine the current errors (A , B , C ), and obviously, can decrease these errors.

Fig.5. Basic Block Diagram of CC-PWM Converter [14].

Recently, numerous methods have been developed for the CC. Paper in [15] have discussed the basic CC techniques for the voltage source inverter. Examples for this are Hysteresis Controller for three dependant and independent controllers. For independent one, three controllers each for one phase are constructed [14]. While in the dependant hysteresis, three controllers are incorporated together to reduce the switching frequency when, at certain time, zero-voltage vector is applied, and to limit the maximum current error [16]. 2.6 .2 Space-Vector (VS) Control According to [17], Space-Vector modulation techniques based on PWM (SV-PWM) is considered to be the most extended modulation strategies for three-phase converters. In this

strategy, maximum output voltage, better load controlling and low switching frequency can be achieved. In Space-Vector (VS) 8-different switching states can be found. Each state is composed of = , , . These switches corresponding to 8-voltage

vector 0 = 000 , , 7 = 111 . Table 1 shows the corresponding switching states, figure 6a Illustrates the basic block diagram of the three-phase SV control, and figure 6b sketches the space vector sections. Table1. VSC switching States [18]

(a)

10

(b)

Fig.6. Three-phase SV control [18]. a. Basic block diagram, b. Space vector sections. 2.6 .3 Direct Power Control (DPC) DPC is based on the instantaneous active and reactive power control loops. The key point of the DPC implementation is a correct and fast estimation of the active and reactive line power [12]. In DPC there are no internal current control loops and no PWM modulator block, however, the converter switching states are selected by a switching table based on the instantaneous errors between the commanded and estimated values of active and reactive power. In DPC configuration, tow main features appeared. First the dc-bus voltage will be regulated by controlling active power operation, and the second the unity power factor is achieved by controlling the reactive power to be zero [19]. Figure 7a shows the basic configuration of the DPC. The errors between active and reactive power commands and the estimated feedback power are used as input to the hysteresis comparators and then digitized to the signals and . The estimated three-phase signals ( , , ) of the power-source voltage vector is converted to the digitized signal . Figure 7b illustrates the twelve-sector on stationary coordinates and the corresponding switching states are listed in table 2. The previous mentioned controls schemes employ the use of sensors in their operations. These sensors are 11

used for: AC current, DC-link voltage and AC voltage. However, as claimed by [20], it is possible to apply DPC technique without using the AC-voltage sensor, this will improve the total power factor and efficiency of the PWM converter. Table 2. Switching Table for direct Power Control

(a)

(b)

Fig.7. Direct Power control [19] a. Controller Configuration, b. Twelve sectors on stationary coordinates

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Chapter 3 Simulation of the system

As it was stated in the Literature Review, the project mainly focuses on different control schemes for the Back-To-Back Voltage Source Converter (B-B VSC). To make it more precisely, the control schemes for Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) are studied mainly. Among all the control schemes that are applied to the VSI, sine-wave PWM control, space vector modulation (SVM) control and the direct power control will be studied and simulated. The simulation work would be done using Matlab/Simulink. 3.1 Simulation of sine-wave PWM control The first step towards the project is to simulate a three-phase voltage source inverter. As it can be seen in Figure 1, the power stage part is a three-phase voltage source inverter, and the controller part is a sine-wave PWM control generator.

Figure 8. A three phase voltage source inverter and the controller unit

This model can be easily realised in Matlab/Simulink. But the first step, an appropriate parameter setting should be chosen. According to reality, a 800V DC link is chosen and the line side resistance and inductance are chosen to be 0.1 and 0.01H respectively. A quite high value dummy resistance (100000 ) is also chosen to connect the neutral point to the ground. So the whole simulation model is shown in Figure 2. 13

Figure 9. Simulation model of sine-wave PWM control scheme

The right part of Figure 2 shows that the control scheme of the inverter. A repeating sequence block is chosen to generate the PWM signal. In this case the PWM frequency is chosen to be 10K Hz. Of course, higher value of the PWM frequency means better performance of the inverter. But considering the switching losses of the power stage could be higher as well, the 10k Hz seems to be reasonable. The reference signals given to the controller are three-phase sine-waveforms with frequency of 50 Hz and are displaced 120 with each other. The modulation index is chosen to be 1 to give the maximum dc link utilization in this case. The result waveforms of the voltage between to common, the actual voltage over the coil, the neutral voltage and the phase currents are shown in Figure 3. As it can be seen in Figure 3, the peak to peak voltage of the voltage between to common is 800V, which is equal to the DC link voltage. The phase voltage is shown as 400V, the reason for this is because the neutral voltage of the inverter is 400V, so the maxim voltage for each phase is 400V, which is half of the DC link voltage. The current waveform is not balanced as it is shown in Figure 3. This happens because the inductance of the inverter is fairly big, this results in a very long transient time. When the simulation is run for a longer time, the balanced waveform can be seen in the scope. The peak current value can be validated using the equation below: =
2 + 2

(1)

14

Where = 50

Figure 10. Output waveforms of the sine-wave PWM scheme

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It is noted that in the controller part of the simulation, the zero order hold block is used as a sampling device. This is because in reality, the controller units are normally digital devices such as DSP, A/D transformer and so on. Zero order hold samples the signal discretely according to the sampling period given. In this case, the sampling period is the same as the PWM period. It is also noted that the bipolar PWM scheme is chosen in this case, because in Matlab/Simulink the power electronic device is thought of as perfect, which means no dead time delay is applied, so the bipolar scheme actually makes sure that at any given time, when the upper switch of one phase is switched on/off, the lower switch of the same phase is switched off/on at the same time, so no over-shoot happens in the simulation. As it can be seen from the result, the maximum peak voltage of one phase only reaches 400V, which means the line to line voltage is = 3 = 3 400 = 692.82. As it is known, the maximum line to line voltage available should be the same as the DC link voltage, in this case is 800V. The DC link utilization is only 692.8/800=86.6%. In spite of the relatively low DC link utilization compared with other control scheme, it is the easiest method to realize in both simulation and practical work. Besides, other control schemes could be realized by some modification on this initial model. 3.2 Simulation of third harmonic injection PWM In order to obtain more utilization of the DC link voltage, some alternative schemes are introduced. Amongst them the third harmonic injection method could be obtained by modifying the existing sine-wave PWM scheme. The power stage of the inverter stays the same as it is shown in Figure 1, it is only the controller unit part changes. Or put it more precisely, the reference signals that are put into the controller unit changes. The basic idea about the third order harmonic injection PWM is to put the reference signal as =
2 3

sin + 3

1 3

sin 3 , as it can be seen from the reference equation, the

fundamental part is higher compared with the sine-wave PWM, and because the frequency of the third harmonic part is tripled, so theres effective cancellation of the third harmonic component when it comes to the line to line voltage. The modulation index inputs are shown in Figure 4 below:

16

Figure 11. Simulation of third harmonic PWM schemethe controller unit And the result waveforms of the voltage between to common, the actual voltage over the coil, the neutral voltage and the phase currents are shown in Figure 5

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Figure 12. Output waveforms of third harmonic PWM scheme It can be noted that the voltage between and common is not sinusoidal in this case, but the actual phase voltage over the coil is sinusoidal with the peak amplitude of 463.5V, this leads to the line to line voltage to be near 300V, which realizes the full utilization of the DC link voltage. Compared to sine-wave PWM, this third harmonic injection method gives 15% more DC link voltage utilization. One of the interesting features about this scheme, as it can be seen in Figure 5, the neutral point voltage does not stay with 400V; the neutral point voltage actually follows the third harmonic component.

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3.3 Simulation of Space Vector Modulation (SVM) As it was concluded in the Literature Review, the SVM scheme is the most suitable strategy for the project. However, simulation of SVM from scratch is quite difficult. Firstly, theres six parts of the hexagon, each part counts 1/6 of 1 power cycle; secondly, not like the control schemes mentioned before, SVM looks at the invert as a whole; thirdly, how to pick up the 3 vectors each time, how to choose the zero space vector and make the right combination. These three main issues become the obstacles of building SVM model, especially when the time is limited. But substantial literature survey is been done in this area and hopefully the obstacles will be conquered. All these control schemes mentioned above are simple open loop control. But in reality, theres no such system without control loop. A good control loop not only copes with error correction between the given value and the output value, but it gives the fast response as well. Either current control or direct power control, a block called PLL is needed. Phase Locked Loop (PLL) PLL is widely used in three-phase closed loop system. The basic idea behind it is to make 3 to 2, 2S to 2r transformation, so that the ABC reference frame could be transformed into d-qo rotation reference frame. Because in natural reference frame, all the quantities weve got are AC quantities. Both the voltage and current quantities vary all the time, not to mention the power. Actually the real power is pulsating forward and reactive power is pulsating backward and forward all the time. So it is quite useful to use controller like PI controller to track these error signals. Thats why the phase locked loop plays an important role in reference frame transformation. By changing the natural reference frame to rotational reference frame, all the AC quantities become DC quantities. If its current control, then , , are changed into , in the d-q-0 co-ordinate. If its direct power control, then , , and , , are changed into , . These signals will be compared with the given signals, and then the error signals will be fed into the PI controller so that the PI controller could do a good job. 3.4 Simulation of Phase Locked loop (PLL) As mentioned above, the core of PLL is reference frame transformation. While 3s to 2s could be easily realized using equation below:

19

2 3 0

1 1 3 3 1 1 3 3

(2)

In Matlab/Simulink, this 3s to 2s can be easily built using simple mathematical model as it is shown below

Figure 13. Simulation of 3s/2s From 2s to 2r, an angle between the two reference frames is needed. This angle theta, is the intergral of the supply frequency of the system. In this project, the supply frequency is 50 Hz. The supply frequency is known, the rotating electrical velocity is obtained as = 2 50; and the theta is easily obtained. Once theta is obtained, the 2s to 2r can be concluded by the equation below: cos = sin sin cos (3)

Again in Matlab/Simulink, 2s to 2r is shown below:

Figure 14. Simulation of 2s/2r 20

Connecting 3s/2s and 2s/2r together gives us the natural reference frame to rotating reference frame transformation. Figure 8 shows the whole 3/2 system.

Figure 15. Simulation of natural reference frame into rotation reference frame The result shows that the 3 phase AC input are transferred into 2 DC quantities as it is shown below:

Figure 16. The output waveform of the rotation reference frame

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As it can be seen the currents and tend to be DC quantities after transient. When it comes to the controller, in current controller normally is set to zero while in direct power control it is the that is set to zero so as to obtain the maximum power factor. So far, a lot of simulation work has been done. Different control schemes are simulated and compared and the PLL has been simulated using simple 3/2 transformation.

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Chapter 4 control of the system

4.1 Introduction A model of the back to back converter, which is used between the DC link capacitor and the grid, is implemented and controlled in this section. Using Matlab/Simulink the simulation model is designed. The main purpose of the project is the controlling of the grid current via the use of an appropriate scheme, afterwards the simulation of the voltage source converter between DC link voltage and the grid is given more consideration. Because, as stated above, the central function in this project is the control the grid current, the constancy of the DC link capacitor voltage must to be considered. Also, the simulation should be only of the voltage source converter that is connected to the grid. The circuit that will be both implemented and simulated via Matlab/Simulink is shown in Figure (17).

Figure 17: Voltage source converter which is connected to the grid

The first step, according to the project description, in the modelling process of the voltage source converter that is connected to the grid, is the implementation, using Matlab/Simulink, of a model of the PWM voltage source converter. In this project a phase two level voltage source converter is used as the PWM voltage source converter, this is a widespread topology. Figure (18) shows the design of the circuit, a three phase converter consisting of six switches. It is apparent that by controlling the switches, for example by controlling the sine wave PWM, and filtering the output, a quasi-sinusoidal waveform is attained. It is noteworthy however, that without the use of the filter the voltage at the output would be a square wave.

23

For the sake of simulating the three phase voltage source converter operation, a carrier waveform and three reference waveforms are chosen. The voltage source converter operation is switched in Matlab/Simulink using sine wave PWM. A 120 degree phase angle is between the three reference waveforms in order to achieve symmetry between the waveforms. This model is shown implemented in figure (18). The PWM carrier frequency in this project is set to 10KHZ.

Repeating Sequence

1 m1

<= Zero -Order Hold Relational Operator

s1 Switch

1 v1

2 m2

<= Zero -Order Hold 1 Relational Operator 1

s2 Switch 1

2 v2

3 m3

<= Zero -Order Hold 2 Relational Operator 2

s3 Switch 2

3 v3

4 vdc 1 5 vdc 2

Figure18: The simulation block of the three phase two level of voltage source converter

The converter output voltage has two levels, these are 2modulation index and holding it constant over the entire following PWM cycle is done by the zero order hold blocks. The zero order hold block should have the time setting as the PWM cycle. In figure (19) the output voltage of the simulated voltage source converter is shown. The output voltage changes between 360 and -360, this is clearly because of the voltage of the DC link capacitor is set to 720 volts.

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Figure (19): The output voltage of the simulated voltage source converter Figure (20) shows a single equivalent circuit of the back to back voltage source converter that is connected to the grid.

Back to Back Voltage Source converter

resistance and inductance of distribution line

grid voltage

Figure 20: single phase equivalent circuit As a result, an equivalent circuit can be written according to Kirchhoffs voltage law. = + Or 1 = Hence, developing a suitable transfer function model in Matlab/Simulink for the back to back voltage source converter which is connected to the grid can now be done. A transfer function model of the circuit is shown in Figure (21). +

25

Ldi /dt
m1

1/L
v1

sin(x)
m2

-K 1/La Add -K Ra

1 s dia /dt

sin(x)
m3 v2

-K sin(x)1 1/Lb Add 1 360 vdc

v3 vdc 1

1 s dib /dt -K Rb 1 s dic /dt

-360 -Vdc

vdc 2

-K Inverter 1 Add 2 Vga phase 1 grid Rc Vgb phase 2 grid Vgc phase 3 grid -K -K 1/Lc

Figure 21: The transfer function model of back to back voltage source connected to the grid It is assumed, in the project, that 6000w can be transmitted as active power by the system to the grid, while the rms value of the phase to phase grid voltage is equal 415 V and when the voltage of the DC link capacitor is equal to 720V. The equations for the phase variable of the system can be calculated, considering that the reactive impedance of the distribution line has been 5% or 0.05 pu and a 1% loss accounted for form the loss in the resistance. = = 20000 = = 83 () 240 240 = = 2.89 () 83

= 0.05 = 0.144 () = 0.144 = = 0.45 () 2 100

From the above stated 1% resistance loss in distribution line, this means that per phase there is a 200w loss. This can be written as: 2 = 200 = 200 = 0.03 () 832

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Table (3) shows a summary of the values which are used in the project. variable value Three phase Power 60000 (W) Frequency 50 (Hz) The phase to phase voltage of grid 415 (V) Carrier frequency 10000 (Hz) Inductance of the line 0.45 (mH) Resistance of the line 0.03 (ohm) DC link voltage 720 (V) Table (3): value of parameters when voltage source converter supply the load The modulation signal is an important parameter in attaining the needed value of current. This is made clear in the model above, where changing the modulation index, results in a change in the amount of current. The figure below (figure (22)) shows the current when the modulation index is 1.

Figure 22: The current of inductor when modulation index is unity When changing the amplitude of modulation signal to 0.5 the amount of the rms voltage of the inverter becomes equal to
0.5360 2

or 127.27 V. Figure (23) demonstrates the phase current

of the system and it is clear that the amplitude of current increases.

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Figure 23: The current of inductor when the modulation index is 0.5 All the above analysis clearly shows that controlling the modulation index enables reaching the desired power for transfer. This is based on the fact that the modulation index is needed to control the transfer power between back to back voltage source converter and the grid. A fundamental issue in the performance of the connected back to back voltage source converter is the control system. Maximizing the extracted power from the back to back voltage source converter can be achieved with a great controller; confirmation that the power that is transferred to the grid is satisfactory according the grid requirement can also be achieved with a great controller. The full controllability of the system is allowed, due to the fact that a voltage source converter is used to connect the DC link voltage to the grid. The control of grid connected voltage source converter is performed by different control schemes; these schemes are subject-concentrated. Examples of subject-concentrated schemes: controlling the active and reactive power that is delivered to the grid, the DC link voltage and the reduction in the harmonics that are injected to the network. Most control schemes have of two cascaded control loops; these are named inner loop and outer loop. The handling of error corrections between given value and the output value is an important characteristic of control loops, this and the ability to give fast response. The determination and transmission of the signal that is desired to be controlled is required in each loop. This is done by different methods; these include the Proportional-Integral (PI) controller and Proportional-Rotational (PR) controller.

28

4.2 The PI controller The wanted signal is determined and transmitted in the PI controller. The PI controllers determined output signal is dependent upon on the proportional gain , the integral gain and error . One of the above factors, which is the proportional gain , changes the error value proportional output and can make the system unstable if its value too high. In addition, the controller is made less sensitive when a small value with a small output response has a large input error. A signal cannot be driven at the demanded value if the proportional controller is not suitable. A steady state error, named the offset, stays with the proportional controller, thus the integral term is added to the controller, for the cancellation of the offset effect [21]. The error signals magnitude and the length are both affected by the integral term. The integral gain is used to calculate the magnitude of the effect to the integral term of the whole control action. In actual fact, the speed of the response of the controller is increased and the residual steady state error is eliminated by the integral gain. The residual steady state error occurs because of a pure proportional controller. Nonetheless, an overshoot can happen in the output due to the integral control term. This happens because the response in the integral term to the accumulated errors of the past [21]. The PI controller is good in the control of DC values; this is an important feature and needs to be considered. And because of the above and because all the current and voltage variables are AC, the transformation of the grid voltages and currents from the abc to the dq reference frame, is needed for the use of the PI controller in this project. Thus, the variables are converted to DC values, and can be more easily controlled by the PI controller [21]. 4.3 The reference frame transform As was previously mentioned for the use of the PI controller, the stationery frame (abc) needs to be transformed to the synchronous frame (dq). An important concept of reference frame theory has to be introduced for the sake of achieving this aim. First of all, the three phase quantity needs to be transformed, as an example , , , into two vector, positive and negative phase sequence vector. This, in a complex reference frame, is called the frame. The Clarke transform which is used, uses three time varying variables, which can be demonstrated by a space vector, in the process of determining their two components in the orthogonal axis. The space vector is defined as: =
2 3

( + + 2 ) 29

Where =

2 3

1 2

3 2

The three time varying variables van be established in a stationary reference frame , via the use of Clark transformation, where the real axis is and the imaginary axis is . The expressions for the axis variables in the terms of the three phase variables can be found by the substitution of the rectangular form of the operator in the equation above and following this it is separated into real and imaginary parts. A transform matrix is defined as: 2 3 0 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3

The implementation of a block that transforms from the abc frame to the frame can be easily be done with the Simulink component in Matlab/Simulink. The following figure (figure (24)) shows the block, this block is built using a simple mathematical model.

Figure 24: transform block from abc reference frame to reference frame So that the implemented block performance is investigated a three phase sinusoidal signal with 120 degree phase shift between each phase, with a frequency of 50Hz and an amplitude of 100 applied to the block. The 90 degree phase shift is apparent between the signals in Figure (25). The two output signals from the block are shown in the figure below:

30

Figure 25: The output signal from abc to transform An angle, generally called Theta, between the two reference frames, reference frame and the dq reference frame, is needed for the transformation between the two. This angle can be concluded with the integration of the frequency supply of the grid. The calculation process for Theta is easy, this being due to the fact that the grid frequency is known (50 Hz). The clark transform is the transform which is used for the transformation of the variable the reference frame to the dq reference frame shown in figure (26). This transform can be written by cos = sin sin cos

Figure 26: Block diagram for transforming the reference frame to the dq reference frame Figure (27) show an illustration of the output of the dq reference block when the previous blocks output is applied to this new block.

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Figure (27): The output of the dq reference frame block

Additionally, the transforms output variable is clearly a DC value, the variable in the q axis is 100 and the d axis variable is zero. Thus, when these two transforms are in a cascaded format, the variable can be changed from an AC to DC signal, and this will enable the use of the PI controller. However, the output of PI controller, which is a DC value, has to be transformed to an AC value. And to do so, opposite measures to the one above are applied. The inverse transform is presented by: cos sin de = sin cos And 1 1 = 2 1 2 0 3 2 [ ] 3 2

A Matlab/Simulink implemented block diagram for the dq to to abc reference frame transformation is shown in figure (28). And it is noteworthy, that the Theta angle has not changed.

Figure (28): Block in matlab/simulink for transforming from the dq to abc reference frame 32

4.4 Voltage source converter connected to the resistive load For the sake of the voltage source converter and control scheme investigation, the condition has to be first considered, the voltage source converter also has to be connected to the resistive load, and there has to be an LC filter between them. The filters job is to isolate the system from the grid. A single phase equivalent circuit of the voltage source converter which is connected to the resistive load with a LC filter is shown in figure (29).

Figure (29): An equivalent circuit of the voltage source converter with load Thus, using Kirchhoff voltage law, the equivalent circuit can be written as: = + And And So = And =
1 1

= = +

A suitable transfer function for the system can be designed using the above equations in Matlab/Simulink. A voltage source converter connected to the resistive load with an LC filter transfer block is shown in figure (30). In order to determined the value of filter capacitor, it is needed to chosen a cut off frequency and then according to the value of inductor filter which is calculated before, it can be written 33

In determining the filter capacitors value, a cut off frequency has to be chosen and henceforth after using the inductor previously calculated the filter capacitors value can then be calculated. = 1 4 2 2

Figure (30): The transfer function model of the voltage source converter with the load Thus, the value of filter capacitor is calculated to be 56.290 F. Table (4) shows a summary of the used values in the project. Variable value Three phase Power 60000 (W) Frequency 50 (Hz) The phase to phase voltage of grid 415 (V) Carrier frequency 10000 (Hz) Inductance of the filter 0.45 (mH) Resistance of the filter 0.03 (ohm) Capacitance of the filter 56.290 (F) DC link voltage 720 (V) Resistance of the load 3.239 () Table (4): Value of parameters when voltage source converter connected to the grid and load

After the application of unity modulation index to the voltage source converter mazimum current flows in the load. Of course, the above means that 254.55V is the amount of rms voltage applied. Figure(31) shows the converter current with unity modulation index. The current peak to peak amplitude is the same as previously calculated which is 111.11. 34

Figure (31): The converter current with unity modulation index The load current and convert decrease when the modulation index is changed to 0.5. this effectively halves the rms value of the applied voltage by the voltage source converter, and is now equal to 127.27 V. Consequently, 39.05 is now the value of the rms, while 55.23 is the value for the peak to peak to peak current for the modulation index. The current wave when the modulation index is equal to 0.5 is shown in figure (32).

Figure (32): The current of the inverter when modulation index is 0.5 To summarize, the modulation index has clearly a considerable effect on the output voltage and current of the voltage source converter. And that a demanded value of the current can be achieved with changing the modulation index. 4.5 Voltage source converter connected to the resistive load with control loop The controllers most frequent arrangement is the current control. It is used in many industrial drives, small and large. The main reason is its simplicity and low cost, it consists of a feedback loop for controlling the current. What is done in the manual controlling, needs to be considered in order to appreciate the overall operation of the control scheme. In the investigation it was made apparent that for the

35

sake of producing more current to supply the load, the input voltage needs to be raised. This can be done by increasing the modulation index. In order to understand the systems operation, consider the voltage source converter which supplies the load and the current of the load to reach the steady state value. After this, if the output current is needed to increase, a current error signal is created which is a difference between the actual output current and desired output current. The required current error signal is specified by the error signal. Therefore, to compensate the error between the actual current and the desired current, the quantity of the output voltage of converter needs to be increased. The main aim is to achieve a zero error signal in the steady state mode by creating a relation between the error signal and the modulation index of the voltage source converter. A good current loop should be the first thing aimed for when designing the controller. This means that the steady state current has to closely correspond with the current reference and there should be fast and well damped transient response to step changes in the current reference. The PI controller is needed to attain these objectives, the integral term in the PI controller satisfies the first requirement, and the second is satisfied by an appropriate choice of the proportional gain. Because a three phase voltage source converter is connected to three phase load and because the voltage and current signals are sinusoidal, it is appropriate to use of abc to dq transform to obtain a DC value for the current in dq reference frame. In addition, it is more suitable to use the PI controller to compare the actual and desired values of the current. In another part of the system the PIs controller output as a voltage signal is abc reference frame transformed, in order to be applied to the voltage source converter. In the figure (33) the voltage source converter connected to load with current controller block diagram is shown.

36

Figure (33): The voltage source converter connected to the load with the controller

Because there are only two components, d and q, in the dq reference frame, two PI controllers are needed by the system. After this Kp and Ki need to be adjusted. The trial and error method is used for regulating the digital PI controller and the value of controller parameters is listed in table (5). Controller Parameter Kp of the PI controller in the d axis Ki of the PI controller in the d axis Kp of the PI controller in the q axis Ki of the PI controller in the q axis Value 0.0205 0.003 5*10-6 6.12*10-5

Table 5: The value of controller parameters for load

To regulate the digital PI controller the trial and error method is used. In Table(2) the value of controller parameters are found. For the sake of investigating the controllers performance, the demanded current is set is put to 110A as shown in figure (34). This is the maximum current that can be applied by the voltage source to the load. This means in actual fact that Iq=110 and Id=0. The following

37

figure shows the current waveform converter for one phase, it is apparent that the demanded value is reached after two cycles.

Figure (34): The voltage source converter current waveform. The demanded and actual value of the voltage source converter current in the q axis and d axis of the dq reference frame is shown in figures (35) and (36) respectively. Furthermore, it is apparent that the demanded value is being followed as quickly as possible by the currents actual value in the q axis, however a minute fluctuation appears in the current signals actual value around the demanded value in the d axis.

Figure (35): The actual value and the demanded value in the q axis

Figure (36): The actual value and the demanded value in the d axis

38

Voltage source converter that is connected to a grid is analysed and modelled in this part. As in the previous section, a transfer function of the system is implemented in Matlab/Simulink first. A model of the transfer function without the control scheme is shown in figure (37). Additionally, to investigate the transfer function model the modulation has to be set to unity and the simulation has to run for a long time. The converter current is shown in figure (37) when the modulation index is equal to 1, and the waveform of the current can be seen as a perfect sinusoid after a transient time. 4.6 Voltage source converter connected to the grid with controller The PWM previously described performs as an open loop or feed forward control of the voltage source converters output voltages. The systems aim is the control of the output currents demanded value, for this current sensor feedback must be present. A control system compares between the actual currents with the reference currents and then produces the appropriate modulation index for each phase. This results in the waveforms output current following the reference waveforms. The control scheme consists of a current loop and a feedback from the grid voltage. This control scheme is used for the grid connected voltage source converter. This control scheme is proposed in order to follow the three phase voltage of the grid, thus adding the grid voltages feedback with a proportional gain to the current loop. Figure (37) shows the proposed control scheme, which is used in this project.

Figure (37): transfer function model of the grid connected voltage source converter It is obvious that the entire variable is first transformed to the dq reference frame, and after this the output waveform of the PI controllers is used as a reference value for the voltage loop. 39

It is noteworthy to mention that one digital PI controller is used for each axis. The table 6 below shows values of the PI controller. Controller Parameter Kp of the PI controller in the d axis Ki of the PI controller in the d axis Kp of the PI controller in the q axis Ki of the PI controller in the q axis Value 0.0207 0 5*10-4 0

Table 6: The value of controller parameters for grid The simulations result, when the demand current is set 110, is shown in figure (38). The steady state mode, after a transient, it is clear that the actual current (iq) is very near to the demand value.

Figure (38): The currents (iq & i q ) waveform of voltage source converter with the grid However, the steady state mode, after a transient , as figure 39 shows that it is clear, there is some deference between actual current and demand current (id).

Figure (39): The currents (id & i d ) waveform of voltage source converter with the grid

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Chapter 5 Conclusion
This project deals with an investigation on the back to back voltage source converter which is so much popular in the wind power industry these days. Firstly, various topologies of the back to back voltage source converter have been presented and their advantages and limitations are described. Moreover, different control strategies for the generator side and the grid side of converter are explained. It is obvious that the performance of the converter is largely depends on the quality of the control scheme which is employed. The space vector control scheme is the most suitable strategy among other schemes, due to converter can achieve maximum output voltage, better load controlling and low switching frequency. Furthermore, due to the computational complexity of space vector control scheme, numerous improvements have been done to achieve an excellent performance. This project attempts to develop and model a control scheme to improve the performance and efficiency of the converter based on the space vector control scheme. In the simulation and modelling part, different control schemes have been simulated and compared for the converter. A simple and excellent kind of direct power control scheme is chosen as the main control scheme and the transient and steady state performance of a voltage source converter have been investigated in different conditions. In every case, the proposed control schemes have been shown to provide fast and satisfactory responses for the voltage source converter. From the simulation we can deduce that the voltage source converter can accomplish fast power transfers.

41

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