R05

General Aspects Regarding Finite Element Analyses On Tubular Joints
CHAPTER FOUR
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSES

ON TUBULAR JOINTS
4.1 Introduction
For many years, a large number of experiments have been conducted on simple
tubular joints, usually in plane and uni-planar. The numbers of experiments are
limited by the cost, manpower and competing resources in carrying out such tests.
Regression analyses have been conducted based on these limited sets of experiments
through which recommendations for the design of tubular joints are made available.
During this period, advances have been made progressively in the area of finite
element method, and it has become acceptable to use finite element method. This
helps to extend the understanding of the behaviour of tubular joints, especially for
out-of-plane and multi-planar joints where resources for and complexities involved in
such tests become prohibitive. In the last 30 years, computational capability has also
advanced tremendously, both in the speed and accuracy. Harnessing these strengths in
advances in finite element method as well as reduction cost of computations have
been the standard practice in the industry to increase the quantity and reliability of the
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results. This has inevitably help to made possible the extension of current design
codes and recommendations beyond the small sets of results from tests. Thus more
complex geometries in tubular design has been made possible through the use of finite
element analyses.
Vegte et al (1991) and Cofer et al (1992) have reported several non-linear analyses of
the ultimate strength of tubular joints and they provide an important affirmation that
the finite element method can accurately predict the behaviour of tubular joints. An
extensive investigation on the uni-planar and multi-planar X- and T- joints was
conducted by Vegte (1995). The numerical analyses utilized primarily eight-noded
thick shell elements.
Earlier research has included weld elements in the numerical analysis by adding one
layer of shell element at the brace chord intersection. The application of weld
simplification here was proven sufficient as calibrated from the experimental data.
Davies (1986) also further improved the weld formulation from recommendations by
Davies et al (1996) through the use of six-noded prism elements in combination with
four-noded shell elements to model the fillet weld. To maintain compatibility of solid
and shell elements, the multiple point constraint method were used. Weld geometry
was also investigated by Healy et al (1994) who presented many numerical studies on
the strength of overlapped K- joints under in-plane bending and brace axial loading.
In addition, Lee et al (1995) presented research on the accuracy of studies on mesh
discretisation, boundary conditions and material properties in the numerical study of
CHS DK-joints. In all these results, the ultimate strength were determined and used in
the design recommendations, which highlights the great potential in the use of the
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finite element method to extend the scope of work beyond those that experiment
programmes hope to cover.
In this chapter, a concise description will be given of the numerical models that have
been used and the calibration methods used for the experimental models that have
been conducted, in order to extend the knowledge and to consider effects of loading
combination that could not be easily tested in the laboratory. Since the computational
method relies heavily on the input to the method, many factors are critical to ensure
that the right parameters are fedback into the computer to generate the correct results.
In the finite element method, there are many factors that influence the results. They
are the type of elements used, modelling of weld geometry and material post-yield
property, and these are briefly described in this chapter. As they say “garbage in,
garbage out”, relying on computational mechanics means that a thorough
understanding of the solution method and inputting the correct functions is needed to
derive the correct behaviour in the response. The next chapter will highlight the
numerical simulations of the experiments conducted and this will pave the way for the
parametric simulations in the subsequent chapters.
4.2 Finite element programs and hardware used
All finite element models have been generated using the pre-processor PATRAN
software package. PATRAN is a powerful software that enables a good geometric
representation of the modelling of the specimen. The PATRAN model of the
specimen was subsequently converted into an ABAQUS (2000) input file format by
the software. The numerical analyses were then performed using the general-purpose
non-linear finite element programme post-processor ABAQUS.
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4.3 Main characteristics of finite element work on tubular joints
Brief descriptions of the finite element characteristics of all the tubular joints that are
modelled and analysed numerically in this section are explained in the various
sections. As numerical analysis are determined chiefly by the characteristics that are
defined for the numerical analysis, this section forms the basis or foundation for
which all computational works are done here. Characteristics like the type of elements
used, the material post yield characteristics and weld geometry are all critical in
obtaining the right solutions in the calibration and subsequently the parametric
solutions to the finite element computations.
4.3.1 Finite element mesh and boundary conditions
In the modelling of the joints, the size and number of elements used are critical to
ensure that the finite element computation captures the overall behaviour of the joints
under loading. This is especially critical at the vicinity of the intersection of the braces
with the chord. In addition, the combination of shear plate and through pipe also made
it very congested at the intersection and proper mesh gradient is important. The
elements used to model close to the intersection are small elements very close to one
and another which gradually increases in size further away from the intersection. This
would indirectly help to enhance the computational time, as the number of elements
used would be more optimised. Since solid elements are used throughout the analyses,
this is even more important as the number of nodal points increased substantially if
Solid elements are used rather than Shell elements. Shell element consists of 8 nodal
points while a solid element used 20 nodes. Since the thickness of the braces and
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chords used are substantially thicker than conventional tubular sections, use of Solid
elements in the finite element computational is important.
Further reduction of the elements used (in order to optimised the computation time)
are possible by modelling only a quarter of the joints arising from the effects of
symmetry in loading and geometry. The plane of symmetry hence created greatly
enhances the analysis using Solid elements. In all the tubular joints that are modelled
and analysed, due to the loading and geometric symmetry, a quarter solid model, with
appropriate boundary conditions, was considered in the analysis. The boundary
conditions are applied to prevent rigid body displacements and rotations of the joint
and ensuring that the degree of freedom is available due to the symmetry. The
specified boundary conditions for the quarter model as shown in Figures 4.1 and 4.2
accounted for the assumed conditions of symmetry for the trunnion. In a plane of
symmetry, the nodal displacements perpendicular to the plane of symmetry are
restricted while the nodal rotations perpendicular to the plane of symmetry are
allowed. At the same time the two remaining translational degrees of freedom are free
while the remaining rotational degrees of freedom are restricted. In technical terms as
used in ABAQUS (2000), the notations are listed below.
The symmetry conditions in ABAQUS can be specified conveniently in terms of the
type specification. For example, the XSYMM specification indicates symmetry about
a plane X=constant, with the associated boundary conditions of ux=0, )y=0 and )z=0.
The specifications for the plate trunnion model are given below.
x ZSYMM, uz=)x=)y=0
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x XSYMM, ux=)y=)z=0
x XSYMM and ZSYMM, ux=uz=)x )y=)z=0
x ENCASTRE, ux=uy=uz=)x )y=)z=0
4.3.2 Finite element types
In the model, smaller elements were used around the region of high stress where the
changes in stress and strain were rapid. The symmetry assumption for the loading and
geometry resulted in a quarter model (as shown in Figures 4.1 and 4.2) with
associated reduction in computational effort.
XSYMM
ENCASTRE ZSYMM
Figure 4.1 Quarter model of small pipe trunnion with boundary conditions shown
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XSYMM
ZSYMM
Figure 4.2 Quarter model of large pipe trunnion with boundary conditions shown
The solid element, C3D20R in ABAQUS (2000) element library, with reduced
integration was used in the analysis. For geometric non-linear analyses, the option
NLGEOM is specified in the ABAQUS (200) input file. The isotropic hardening in
the PLASTIC option was activated, with the conservation of volume monitored
during the analysis, i.e. the thickness of the elements was updated as the shell
elements deform. The input for the isotropic hardening of PLASTIC option required
the conversion of the engineering stress-strain curve for a material into a true stress-
strain curve. In all numerical analyses, the true stress-strain curve is modelled as a
multi linear relationship. These multi linear relationships have been obtained after
converting an engineering stress-strain curve for a material into a true stress-strain
curve. In addition, the von Mises yield criterion and isotropic strain hardening are
used.
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The total load under geometrical and non-linear analyses was applied in small
incremental steps. Under user defined convergence criteria, each incremental step
consisted of iterations to achieve convergence within the step. In ABAQUS, the
Newton-Raphson iteration method was implemented to obtain equilibrium within
each increment. The procedure for monitoring the satisfaction of the convergence
criteria was based on checking the relative residual errors. This implied that if the
ratio of maximum residual forces and moments to the maximum reaction forces and
moments exceeds a certain small tolerance, recycling was continued within an
increment. Different mesh sizes were used to ascertain convergence of the load-
displacement and ultimate load.
4.3.3 Loading of the joints
Generally, load and displacement controls were the two methods available for
applying loads during the process of analysis. Load was applied at the nodes in
several steps by load-controlled method, while under the displacement-controlled
method; displacement was applied at the nodes. Though the displacement controlled
method of applying was preferred, load controlled method was used because of the
nature of the problem in trunnions. The grommet that transferred the load to the side
braces was not rigid. There was no fixed displacement direction over the width of the
side braces in contact with the sling. As an approximation, uniform pressure loading
was applied over the width of the side braces in contact with the grommet to simulate
the effect of applied load.
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4.3.4 Modelling of the post-yield material property
For geometric non-linear analyses, the option NLGEOM is specified in the ABAQUS
input file. When this option is used, isotropic hardening in the PLASTIC option was
activated, resulting in the strains obtained from the computation which include non-
linear displacements. The input for the isotropic hardening of PLASTIC option
required the conversion of the engineering stress-strain curve for a material into a true
stress-strain curve. The engineering stress-strain curves have been determined
experimentally by tensile coupon tests. Integration of the deformation rate in a uni-
axial tensile specimen gives the logarithmic strains.
In all the numerical analyses, the true stress – true strain curve is modelled as a
multilinear relationship. The following relationships define the conversion required
from the engineering to true stress-strain.
H ln(1 e)
V S (1 e)
where H : true strain
V : true stress
e : engineering strain
S : engineering stress
In all numerical analyses, the true stress-strain curve is modelled as a multi-linear
relationship. These multi-linear relationships have been obtained after converting an
engineering stress-strain curve for a material into a true stress-strain curve. In
addition, the von Mises yield criterion and isotropic strain hardening are used.
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4.3.5 Iteration procedure and convergence criteria
The total load under geometrical and non-linear analyses was applied in small
incremental steps. Under user defined convergence criteria, each incremental step
consisted of iterations to achieve convergence within the step. In ABAQUS, the
Newton-Raphson iteration method was implemented to obtain equilibrium within
each increment. The procedure for monitoring the satisfaction of the convergence
criteria was based on checking the relative residual errors. This implied that if the
ratio of maximum residual forces and moments to the maximum reaction forces and
moments exceeds a certain small tolerance, recycling was continued within an
increment.
Different mesh sizes were used to ascertain the convergence of load-displacement and
ultimate load. A typical convergence study was carried out for a plate trunnion in
which four different meshes were used for the analysis. The predicted load deflection
curves corresponding to the different meshes were compared with the experimental
curves in Figure 4.3. It can be observed that the computed and experimental
deflection results converge when the mesh is sufficiently fine and they are found to be
closer to the experimental values. The mesh corresponding to Numerical 1, which was
closest to the experimental result, was selected for use in the analysis of the other
specimens.
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6000
5000
Total Load, P (kN)
4000
3000
2000
CT3 Test
Numerical 1
1000
Numerical 2
Numerical 3
Numerical 4
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Displacement, ' (mm)
Figure 4.3 Effect of mesh on the finite element results
4.3.6 Numerical modelling of weld geometry
It has been observed that numerical models of the pipe trunnions that does not model
the welds gives rise to a load-deformation curve which is much lower than the one in
which welding has been modelled. Since the loading arm in the trunnion is very short,
the weld profile is important to benchmark with the experimental results and produce
similar behaviour in the numerical analysis. Numerical modelling of all pipe trunnions
was modelled using welds based on the measured weld sizes by Vegte (1995).
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4.4 Numerical analysis for the experimental tests

As the cost of finite element computation has gone down, it has become possible to
model the specimen using solid elements. These solid elements would allow for the
full-scale comparison between the calibrated finite element models with the tested
specimen. As the solid model does not give some unique problems associated with
thick shell elements, this type of solid elements have been used throughout the
computational study. Some typical solutions are discussed here which are applied for
all the specimens modelled.
Figures 4.4 and 4.5 show the solid model of small pipe trunnion compared with
specimens C1 and C5 at failure respectively. It is clear from the figure that the solid
model provides a very good representation of the specimen being tested. The
magnitude of the deformation (using finite element) of the brace as well as the lateral
buckling of the shear plate (inside the chord) also corresponds very closely to the
specimen tested. These figures highlight the close agreement achieved and hence the
validity in using the finite element for the parametric study on the effect these
parameters have on the trunnions and tubular X-joints.
Figure 4.4 Solid model of trunnion compared with test specimen C1 at failure
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Figure 4.5 Solid model of trunnion compared with test specimen C5 at failure
The trunnion and tubular X-joint were modelled using the PATRAN software and
non-linear analyses were carried out using the ABAQUS (2000) software. The
following hold true for these models:
(i) The modelling was based on solid models.
(ii) The modelling of weld details was based on the actual measured profile and
weld thickness.
(iii) Test coupon results for the plates and pipes were used to convert the
engineering stress-strain curves to the true stress-strain curves. The latter
have been used to model the post-yield material properties of the specimens.
(iv) The von Mises yield criterion and isotropic strain hardening were used.
(v) One quarter-model was analysed with appropriate and suitable boundary
conditions to prevent rigid body movement.
(vi) Full Newton-Raphson iterations have been applied.
(vii) Twenty-nodes solid elements including reduced integration (C3D20R) is
used in the modelling.
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Each of the specimens was modelled accordingly and the numerical load-deformation
plots were compared with the corresponding experimental results. They are plotted on
the same load-deformation charts.
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Numerical Simulations of the Experiments
CHAPTER FIVE
NUMERICAL SIMULATION
OF THE EXPERIMENTS
5.1 Research programme and general finite element aspects
This chapter describes the numerical simulations of the experiments that were
discussed in Chapter 2 and 3. The characteristics of the general aspects of the finite
element method have been described in detail in the previous chapter. All finite
element models analysed here have been generated using the PATRAN software
package. The PATRAN model was converted to an ABAQUS (2000) input file
format by the PATRAN software package. The numerical analyses were then
performed using the non-linear finite element programme ABAQUS postprocessor.
The following hold true for these models:
(i) The modelling was based on solid models.
(ii) The modelling of weld details was based on the actual measured profile and
weld thickness.
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(iii) Test coupon results for the plates and pipes were used to convert the
engineering stress-strain curves to the true stress-strain curves. The latter
have been used to model the post-yield material properties of the specimen.
(iv) The von Mises yield criterion and isotropic strain hardening were used.
(v) One quarter-or half model was analysed with appropriate boundary
conditions and suitable boundary conditions to prevent rigid body movement.
(vi) Full Newton-Raphson iterations have been applied.
(vii) Twenty-nodes solid element including reduced integration (C3D20R) is used
in the modelling.
Each of the specimens was modelled accordingly and the numerical load-deformation
plots were compared with the corresponding experimental results. They are plotted on
the same load-deformation charts. The numerical research programme is identical to
the experimental one, which is summarised in Table 5.1.
5.2 Numerical analyses
The general finite element characteristics of the numerical analyses for shear and
bending loading on trunnions and tubular X-joints have been described in chapter 4.
In addition, it is highlighted here that a half joint model has been modelled to take
advantage of the effect of symmetry in loading and geometry, while taking care to
ensure that the boundary conditions are modelled accordingly. The elements used are
20 node solid elements with higher mesh spacing at the intersection and lower mesh
spacing further away from the joints. The loads applied on the brace to effect the
shear and bending loads used displacement control mechanism.
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Table 5.1 Research programme for the numerical analysis
Specimen d0 t0 d1 t1 ds ts E J W
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
CT1 508.0 20.5 324.0 17.6 - - 0.64 25 0.86

CT2 508.0 12.5 324.0 12.4 - - 0.64 41 0.99
CT3 508.0 20.5 406.4 12.5 - - 0.80 25 0.61
CT4 508.0 12.5 406.4 12.5 - - 0.80 41 1.00
CT5 508.0 15.2 406.4 17.0 - - 0.80 33 1.12
CT6 508.0 12.4 324.0 12.4 - - 0.64 41 1.00
CT7 508.0 12.5 406.4 12.5 - - 0.80 41 1.00
CT8 508.0 20.5 324.0 17.5 364 16.4 0.64 25 0.85
CT9 508.0 12.5 324.0 12.4 364 16.4 0.64 41 0.99
CT10 508.0 20.7 406.4 12.5 446 16.4 0.80 25 0.60
CT11 508.0 12.5 406.4 12.5 446 12.4 0.80 41 1.00
CT12 508.0 20.7 324.0 17.5 - - 0.64 25 0.85
CT13 508.0 20.7 324.0 17.6 - - 0.64 25 0.85
CT14 508.0 20.7 324.0 17.6 - - 0.64 25 0.85
CT15 508.0 20.7 406.4 12.5 - - 0.80 25 0.60
CT16 508.0 20.7 406.4 12.5 - - 0.80 25 0.60
CT17 508.0 20.7 406.4 12.5 - - 0.80 25 0.60
C1 219.1 23.0 168.3 11.0 - - 0.77 10 0.48

C2 219.1 23.0 114.3 8.6 - - 0.52 10 0.37
C3 219.1 12.7 168.3 11.0 - - 0.77 17 0.86
C4 219.1 23.0 168.3 11.0 210 25 0.77 10 0.48
C5 219.1 23.0 168.3 11.0 210 16 0.77 10 0.48
C6 219.1 23.0 168.3 11.0 210 25 0.77 10 0.48
C7 219.1 23.0 168.3 11.0 210 16 0.77 10 0.48
C8 219.1 12.7 168.3 11.0 210 25.0 0.77 17 0.86
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5.2.1 Pure pipe trunnions
For each of the pipe trunnion joint, the brace are loaded by shear and bending loads
through the surface area as defined by a grommet and the loads remain perpendicular
to the surface of contact even as the brace bend under load. This is similar to the
actual behaviour of the brace specimen, which bends under the load applied through
the grommet. Higher mesh spacing is used to model the intersection between the
brace and chord. Further away, the mesh spacing is reduced. The weld geometry is
modelled to reflect closely the plastification of the chord wall as the bending loads
which caused the chord to yield.
The numerical and experiment results of the ultimate behaviour of the small pipe
trunnions are shown in Figure 5.1 and 5.2. They are both loaded with the same load
steps. These two diagrams highlight the efficacy of the solid model in simulating the
actual behaviour up to yielding of the trunnions in the two different modes. Figure 5.1
shows shear failure of the brace. Good match in the yielding pattern of the brace
section is noted between the numerical and experiment results. The high level of
yielding on the top section of the brace can be clearly seen in the diagram.
Figure 5.1 Comparison of experimental and numerical results of the ultimate failure
mode of small pipe trunnion C1
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Figure 5.2 on the other hand shows the chord tension pull out of the chord wall. The
chord undergoes plastification and begins to yield as the in-plane bending moment on
the chord increases resulting in the eventual failure of the trunnion through chord
plastification. The bearing area where the load is applied through the grommet is
subjected to a high load resulting in indentation at that section.
mode of small pipe trunnion C3
Further observations on the comparison between the numerical and experimental
results is shown through a view of the cut section of the trunnion after tests. After the
trunnion has been tested to its ultimate failure load, a cross-section through the
trunnion is made to observe the failure mode and for comparisons with the numerical
analyses. Figure 5.3 and 5.4 both shows the effect of different failure modes.
Specimen CT3 fails by shear through the brace while specimen CT5 fails by chord
tension pull out. A different mode of failure is clearly observed from the different
yielding pattern formed on the surfaces of the brace and chord. The former registers
higher yielding of the brace while the latter’s chord wall are more highly yield. The
deformation is clearly in good agreement as well.
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mode of small pipe trunnion CT3
mode of small pipe trunnion CT5
The set of results for the brace trunnions suggests that the numerical analysis
approach is suitable for use as a basis for further investigating the effect of shear and
bending loads applied on the trunnion stubs so that more rational design guidelines
can be recommended. The modelling of weld geometry, use of solid elements as well
as strain hardening effect produces numerical results that are in good agreement with
the experimental tests.
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5.2.2 Shear plate pipe trunnions
For each of the shear plated pipe trunnion joint, the brace is loaded by shear and
bending loads through the surface area as defined by a grommet and the loads remain
perpendicular to the surface of contact even as the brace bends. It is observed here
that the brace only provides the surface where the loads from the grommet are
transmitted to the loaded arms, as the brace are not welded onto the chord. Only the
shear plate is slotted through the chord wall. This is similar to actual brace specimen,
which bends under the load acting applied through the grommet used.
The numerical and experiment results of the ultimate behaviour of the pipe trunnion
with shear plate only, specimen C5, is shown in Figure 5.5. They both follow the
same loading steps. These two diagrams highlight the efficacy of the solid model in
simulating the actual yielding behaviour of the shear plate before fracture. The
yielding pattern of the numerical and experimental results of the shear plate matches
well. The high level of yielding on the top section of the brace can also be clearly seen
in the diagram.
mode of shear plate small pipe trunnion C5
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The set of results for the pipe trunnion with shear plates only suggests that the
numerical analysis approach is suitable for use as a basis for further investigating the
effect of shear and bending loads applied on the trunnion stubs so that a more rational
way can be recommended for use in the design of trunnions. The modelling of well
geometry makes use of solid elements as well as the strain hardening effect which
provides numerical results that are in good agreement with the experimental tests.
5.2.3 Through pipe trunnions
This set of pipe trunnion is similar to the pipe trunnions with attached pipes except
that the pipe is slotted through the chord wall. This enhances the shear carrying
capacity of the brace and reduces the tendency for the chord wall to yield first before
the brace achieve its full shear capacity. For each of these trunnion joint, the brace are
loaded by shear and bending loads applied through the surface area as defined by a
grommet and the loads remain perpendicular to the surface of contact even as the
brace bends.
In order to have a better comparison between the numerical and experimental results,
cut section views of the trunnions are made after ultimate tests of the trunnions. After
the trunnion has been tested to its ultimate failure load, a cross-section of the trunnion
is made to observe the failure mode and for comparisons with the numerical analyses.
Both CT2 and CT6 are identical except that the latter has its pipe slotted through the
chord wall. The ultimate load achieved for these two specimens cannot be more
different as CT6 achieved an ultimate load much higher than that of CT2.
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mode of shear plate small pipe trunnion CT6
This failure mode of specimen CT7 is in sharp contrast with the failure mode for CT4,
shown in Figure 5.7 below. Both specimens, CT4 and CT7, are identical except that
the latter has the pipe slotted through the chord wall. The ultimate load achieved for
these two specimens cannot be more different as CT4 achieved an ultimate load of
2,950kN while CT7 managed a sizeable ultimate load of 5,160kN. This is almost
double the load level and shows the good potential in the use of through pipe
trunnions.
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From the observations, it is concluded that the set of results for the pipe trunnions
with through pipe only suggests that the numerical analysis approach is suitable for
use as the basis for further investigating the effect of shear and bending loads applied
on the trunnion stubs so that a more rational way can be recommended for use in
design. The modelling of well geometry, use of solid elements as well as strain
hardening effect produces numerical results that are in good agreement with the
experimental tests.
5.2.4 Combined shear plate and pipe trunnions
Here the combined effect of the shear plate in combination with the attached pipe
static strength when subjected to shear and bending loads are examined. It is common
to design a trunnion considering only the shear plate strength, ignoring the
contribution of the attached pipe. However, this is too conservative as the amount of
shear strength that the attached pipe contributes is very significant as can be seen from
the experimental and numerical results.
For this trunnion joint, the brace are loaded by shear and bending loads applied
through the surface area as defined by a grommet and the loads remain perpendicular
to the surface of contact even as the brace bends. It is observed here that the brace
only provides the surface through which the loads from the grommet are transmitted
to the loaded arms, as the braces are not welded onto the chords. Figure 5.8 shows a
comparison of the experimental and numerical results of the ultimate failure mode of
the combined pipe & shear plate pipe trunnions, CT10. As a small displacement is
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imposed at the middle of the shear plate within the chord wall, buckling of the shear
plate results after a certain moment capacity is developed within the system. Hence
the buckled shear plate can be seen to be the governing failure mode for this
configuration of trunnion.
From the observations, it can concluded that the set of results for the combined pipe &
shear plate pipe trunnions suggests that the numerical analysis approach is suitable for
use as a basis for further investigating the effect of shear and bending loads applied on
the trunnion stubs so that a more rational way can be recommended for use in design.
The modelling of well geometry, use of solid elements as well as strain hardening
effect produces numerical results that are in good agreement with the experimental
tests.
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5.2.5 Shear and bending loads on tubular X-joints
This set of pipe trunnion is similar to the pipe trunnions with attached pipes except
that the pipe is further extended beyond the standard stub length used in the trunnions.
This series of tubular X-joints test provide an opportunity to reflect on the
contributions to the shear and bending moment capacity of trunnions discussed so far.
For a trunnion, the bulk of the failure mechanism is controlled by shear effect,
however, as the length of the brace becomes longer, bending moment effect takes
over. The validity range for the transition between shear and bending moment can be
assessed through this study. For each of these joints, the brace are loaded by shear and
bending loads applied through the surface area as defined by a grommet and the loads
remain perpendicular to the surface of contact even as the brace bends.
mode of tubular X-joints CT12, CT13 and CT14
Figure 5.9 shows a comparison of the experimental and numerical results of the
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ultimate failure mode of tubular X-joints CT12, CT13 and CT14. As the moment arm
of the trunnion is increased, the chord wall becomes weaker as its capacity becomes
governed by the in plane moment capacity through chord wall plastification as well as
the increase in potential for punching shear failure as discussed earlier. This
behaviour is captured in this study and will be useful in assessing the validity of the in
plane moment formulation in current use.
In the above five different types of specimen with different configuration studied by
numerical analysis, it can be concluded that the numerical analysis approach is
suitable for use as a basis for further investigating the effect of shear and bending
loads applied on the trunnion stubs so that a more rational way can be recommended
for use in the design of trunnions.
5.3 Comparison between the experimental and numerical results
These numerical results have been compared with the experimental results to
benchmark and calibrate the computational models and gauge the level of accuracy in
determining its use in the parametric studies. The general behaviour of the response of
the brace subjected to shear and bending loads are compared using the load
displacement curves obtained experimentally and numerically. The plastification and
yielding pattern of the braces and chords have also been compared through the failure
patterns at the ultimate load achieved during the experiments. The results and
observations for the different type of trunnions and X-joints are compared in the
following sections.
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5.3.1 Pure pipe trunnions
The ultimate failure mode of the trunnions from the experimental tests is placed side
by side with the results of the solid element models analysed as described in the
earlier sections show close resemblance with respect to the failure behaviour. The
comparison made is for specimens C1 to C3 for the small pipe trunnions and CT1 to
CT5 for the large pipe trunnions. It is observed that the failure mechanism of the
specimens analysed using the finite element method match closely with those of the
test specimens. The bending profile, high stress concentration regions, loaded areas at
the brace as well as the likely region that shows fracture are closely reflected in the
numerical results. The plastification of the numerical models can also be clearly seen
from the diagram. This is important as it shows that the behaviour of the numerical
models under shear and bending loads are in close agreement with the corresponding
test specimens. The overall process of its behaviour under load is also investigated
through the load-displacement diagrams. The elastic behaviour, point of deviation
from the linear zone, strain hardening portions, ultimate loads reached and the final
fracture of the trunnion are compared.
The load-displacement diagrams for C1 to C3 and CT1 to CT5 are shown in Figures
5.10 and 5.11 respectively. These two diagrams show very convincingly that the load
deformation results derived from the numerical analyses compared very well with the
experimental load deformation plots. This good agreement is highlighted throughout
the loading stages from the elastic range, onset of non-linearity, ultimate loads and
finally failure either through fracture of the shear wall of the brace or chord tension
pull out at the chord wall with well defined chord plastification.
147
The ultimate results obtained numerically is within 3% deviation of the experimental
results. The elastic yield from the numerical results was used instead of the
experimental results as the latter is subjected to other experimental factors and overall
stiffness is usually lower. The numerical analysis produces a more consistent set of
results across the specimens. It is observed here that for specimen C1 and C2 which
has no noticeable chord plastification, full effective shear is resisted by the brace
alone.
Due to the good agreement between the experimental and numerical results,
parametric studies for this type of pipe trunnion can be carried out to study its
behaviour under shear and bending loads and the results would be used in determining
the validity of the formulations in designing a pipe trunnion.
148
3000
Specimen C1
2500
2000
Applied Load, kN
Specimen C3
1500
1000 Specimen C2
500 C1 Test C1 Numerical

C2 Test C2 Numerical
C3 Test C3 Numerical
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Vertical Displacment of Trunnion Brace, mm
Figure 5.10 Load-displacement diagram for experimental and numerical results of

specimens C1 to C3
149
6000
CT3
5000
CT1
Total Load, P (kN)
4000 CT5
3000
CT4
CT2
2000
CT1 Test CT1 Numerical

1000 CT2 Test CT2 Numerical
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

specimens CT1 to CT5
A parametric study has been set up and will be reported in Chapter 6. The finite
element characteristics used here in the numerical studies have been similarly used in
the parametric studies. The good agreement in the results lend confidence on the
validity of results for the subsequent use as well as of the numerical models used for
parametric studies.
150
5.3.2 Shear plate pipe trunnions
The ultimate failure mode of this trunnion during the experimental tests is shown side
by side with the results of the solid element model. The pipe trunnions with only shear
plates are compared as shown in Figure 5.12 displaying the close semblance of the
failure modes.
3000
C4 (2733 kN)
2500
C5 (2020 kN)
2000
Applied Load, kN
1500
1000
C4 Test
500
C4 Numerical
C5 Test
C5 Numerical
0
0 10 20 30 40

specimens C4 to C5
A comparison made is for specimens C4 and C5 in the case of small pipe trunnions. It
is observed from the diagrams that the failure mechanism of the specimen analysed
using finite element method match closely with that of the corresponding test
specimen. The bending profile, high stress concentration regions, loaded areas at the
151
brace as well as the likely region that shows fracture cracks are closely reflected in the
models under shear and bending loads are in close agreement with that of the test
specimens. It was observed that the analytical and experimentally determined curves
are in good agreement and the determined ultimate loads obtained is a good indication
of the efficacy of the numerical model. The finite element characteristics used in the
numerical studies have been used as a guide to model the combined configuration of
pipe trunnions with shear plate.
5.3.3 Through pipe trunnions
The ultimate failure mode of pipe trunnions with through pipes obtained
experimentally is placed side by side with the results of the solid element model
analysed showing close resemblance in the failure behaviour. A comparison is made
for specimens CT6 to CT7 in the case of large pipe trunnions. It is observed from the
diagrams that the failure mechanism of the specimen analysed using the finite element
method match closely with that of the corresponding test specimen. The bending
profile, high stress concentration regions, loaded areas at the brace as well as the
likely region that shows fracture are closely reflected in the numerical results. The
plastification of the numerical models can also be clearly seen in the diagram. This is
important as it shows that the behaviour of the numerical models under shear and
bending loads results are in close agreement with the corresponding test specimens.
specimens CT6 to CT7.
152

6000
5000
4000
Total Load (kN)
3000
2000
1000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Displacement (mm)

The ultimate results obtained numerically show only a small deviation from the
experimental results. Due to the good agreement between the experimental and
numerical results, parametric studies for this type of pipe trunnions can be set up for
such trunnions under shear and bending loads and the results would be used in
determining the validity of the formulations in designing a pipe trunnion. A
parametric study have been set up and reported in Chapter 6. The finite element
characteristics used in the numerical studies have been similarly used in the
parametric studies.
153
5.3.4 Combined shear plate and pipe trunnion
The ultimate failure mode of pipe trunnions with combined pipes and shear plates
from the experimental tests are placed side by side with the results of the solid
element model analysed using the computational model. The comparison is shown in
Figure 5.14 and 5.15 displaying the close semblance of the failure modes of the two
sets of results. A comparison made is for specimens C6 to C8 in the case of small pipe
trunnions and CT8 to CT11 in the case of large pipe trunnions. It is observed from the
diagrams that the failure mechanism of the specimen analysed using finite element
likely region that shows fracture cracks are closely reflected in the numerical results.
The plastification of the numerical models can also be clearly seen from the diagram.
This is important as it shows that the behaviour of the numerical models under shear
and bending loads are in close agreement with that of the corresponding test
specimens.
parametric studies for this type of pipe trunnion can be carried out under shear and
bending loads and the results would be used in determining the validity of the
formulations in designing a pipe trunnion. A parametric study have been set up and
reported in Chapter 6. The finite element characteristics used in the numerical studies
have been similarly used in the parametric studies. The good agreement in the results
lend confidence for the subsequent use of the results obtained numerically for the
parametric studies.
154
C6 Test C7 Test C8 Test

C6 Numerical C7 Numerical C8 Numerical
5000
4000
Applied Load, kN
3000
2000
1000
* C6 stopped due to grommet failure

0
0 5 10 15 20 25

specimens C6 to C8
It is noted here that due to the premature failure of the grommet during the test,
specimen C6 was never tested to its ultimate load. At the load where the grommet
breaks, the specimen has already yielded and is not suitable to carry out further tests
using another grommet. Thus the results for this case only was compared up to the
maximum load applied. Generally, for specimen that fails by shear or when the
deformation of the brace is not excessive, numerical analysis provides a prominent
peak value indicating the ultimate load.
155

9000
8000
7000
Total Load, P (kN)
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

5.3.5 Shear and bending loads on tubular X-joints
The load deformation plots of the tubular X-joints obtained experimentally are placed
side by side for comparison with the results of the solid element model analysed. A
comparison of the tubular X-joints are shown in Figure 5.16 displaying the close
semblance of the two sets of failure modes. A comparison made is for specimens CT3
and CT15 to CT17 in the case of large pipe trunnions. It is observed from the
diagrams that the failure mechanism of the specimen analysed using the finite element
156
likely region that shows fracture cracks closely reflected those observed in the
models under shear and bending loads are in close agreement with that of the
corresponding test specimens.
6000
CT3 Test
5500 CT3 Numerical
CT15 Test
5000 CT15 Numerical
CT16 Test
4500 CT16 Numerical
CT17 Test
Total Load, P (kN)
4000 CT17 Numerical
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 50 100 150 200 250

specimens CT3, CT15 to CT17
parametric studies for this type of pipe trunnions can be carried out under shear and
157
bending loads and the results would be used in determining the validity of the
formulations in designing a pipe trunnion. A parametric study have been set up and
reported in Chapter 6. The finite element characteristics used in the numerical studies
have been similarly used in the parametric studies. The good agreement in the results
lend confidence for the subsequent use of the results obtained numerically for the
parametric studies.
158
Numerical Parametric Studies
CHAPTER SIX
NUMERICAL PARAMETRIC STUDIES
6.1 Assumptions for the numerical models
The main characteristics of the finite element analyses conducted on tubular joints
have been described and discussed in detail in the previous chapters. Due to the good
agreement between the results of the experiments and the numerical models,
numerical parametric studies have been set up. In the following numerical parametric
studies, the real values of the dimensions of the joints, weld sizes, yield strength and
material post yield properties were used, closely mirroring those obtained through
calibration with the experimental results.
Finite element method has been used successfully in simulating the ultimate strength
behaviour of tubular joints and many references were available for use as a guide in
utilising the finite element method. Some of the more relevant research papers were
published by Cofer (1992a), which uses the finite element techniques to perform
159
ultimate strength analysis of tubular joints. In addition, Jubran (1995a) also utilised
similar finite element techniques to model tubular joints to study the interactive
behaviour of tubular X and Y-joints. Vegte (1995) reported an extensive study
through shell finite elements to model various tubular joints and the ultimate
capacities of the joints have been calibrated using experimental results. The thesis
also presented basic ultimate in-plane bending moment capacities of uni-planar
circular hollow joint sections that was derived using numerical results. The present
study utilizes the nonlinear finite element analysis software, ABAQUS (2000), with
calibration via experimental tests for the parametric study.
For these numerical studies, the following characteristics and assumptions have been
applied to all the trunnion specimens modelled. The non-dimensional geometrical
parameters which have been considered are 2J1, 2J0, E, W, and w1. The term, w1, is the
distance from the chord wall to the point of loading on the trunnion brace. The range
of parameters considered are described and listed in the following tables for the
different configurations of trunnions considered. In each case the joint dimensions
together with the non-dimensional geometrical parameters are presented for reference.
It is noted that the geometry of the weld is significant in obtaining accurate
predictions of the observed behaviour of the tubular joints tested, as discussed in the
previous chapters. The welds are modelled here in accordance with the weld
dimensions and geometry as recommended by AWS (2000). With increasing
computational speed and lower costs, the present numerical analyses adopts solid
elements, instead of shell elements, since most of the sections use thick chord and
brace wall thicknesses. Thus, as compared to Vegte (1995), the models here do not
have the same limitations encountered in modelling the weld thickness since the solid
160
elements enables representation of the full geometry of the weld along the intersection
between the chord and brace, as well as the intersection between the shear plate and
chord. This provides for more realistic models of the joints.
For the purpose of standardisation and easy reference, all the numerical models used a
standard steel grade of fy = 300 N/mm2 and fu = 440 N/mm2. The true stress – true
strain curves have been used in the analysis. In addition, the von Mises yield criterion
and isotropic strain hardening is used.
6.2 Pure pipe trunnions
It is noted here that even though fabricated trunnions has been used widely in the
offshore industry, there is little available papers or reports on the experimental and
numerical results on tests on pipe trunnions. The first set of small-scale plate trunnion
tests were conducted by Quah (1998). This is the only known tests on fabricated
trunnions. However, no experimental works were available for pipe trunnions. The
small number of tests provided by Quah (1998) gives a framework to better
understand the behaviour of trunnions subjected to shear and the associated bending
moments. The body of a plate trunnion is a main plate which is different from that of
a pipe trunnion, and there is no concern on chord plastification effects that a pipe
trunnion prone to. Comparisons of numerical and experimental results were published
by Choo et al (2001), and good correlation was observed.
The limited experimental and numerical results have provided the motivation for the
current research to be conducted since the shear load transferred by these lifting
points is very high. A more rigorous approach will provide a good basis for the
161
understanding of the behaviour which will lead to better design. Currently, trunnion
design relies on simple checks, which tend to be over designed due to many
unknowns including chord indentation effects with respect to non-dimensional
geometrical parameters. As a result, it is difficult to assess the consistency and
efficacy of safety factors adopted for trunnion design.
The current research scope attempts to investigate the influence of W, E and 2J, which
are the most important parameters with respect to the static strength of trunnion joints.
The specimens have been selected to provide a wide validity range taking into
account practical limits. For example, the minimum W is 0.5 as smaller W ratio would
be impractical since the brace may suffer from brace yielding before the joint failure.
Also, excessively thick-walled members are avoided since specially rolled or cast
joints are not covered in this study. A fabricated trunnion uses common brace and
chord sizes to ensure availability and easy fabrication.
In this study, non-linear finite element analyses have been performed on the joints
subjected to shear and in-plane bending loads. The static strength of the pipe
trunnions are expressed in normalised format and regression analyses is used to
generate the required expression that can be used to estimate the appropriate static
strength for design purposes.
6.2.1 Research Programme
The dimensions and non-dimensional geometrical parameters of pure pipe trunnions
are illustrated in Figure 6.1. The research programme for such trunnions subjected to
shear and bending moment is summarised in Table 6.1.
162
The loading arm, is set at about w1 = 100mm from the face of the chord wall. The
dimensions and the non-dimensional geometric parameters considered in the research
programme covers 0.46 < W < 1.25, 0.28 < E < 0.90, and 10 < 2J <30.
d0
D = 2l0 / d0 t0
E = d1 / d0
2J = d0 / t0
W = t1 / t0
t1
d1 l0
W1
Figure 6.1 Dimensions and non-dimensional geometric parameters of pipe trunnions
163
Table 6.1 Research programme of pure pipe trunnions (in plane only)
W = 0.46 2J0 = 10 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 20 2J0 = 25 2J0 = 30

E = 0.28 T11-1A T11X-1A T12-1A T12X-1A T13-1A
E = 0.54 T21-1A T21X-1A T22-1A T22X-1A T23-1A
E = 0.70 T31-1A T31X-1A T32-1A T32X-1A T33-1A
E = 0.90 T41-1A T41X-1A T42-1A T42X-1A T43-1A
W = 0.75 2J0 = 10 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 20 2J0 = 25 2J0 = 30

E = 0.28 T11-2A T11X-2A T12-2A T12X-2A T13-2A
E = 0.54 T21-2A T21X-2A T22-2A T22X-2A T23-2A
E = 0.70 T31-2A T31X-2A T32-2A T32X-2A T33-2A
E = 0.90 T41-2A T41X-2A T42-2A T42X-2A T43-2A
W = 1.00 2J0 = 10 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 20 2J0 = 25 2J0 = 30

E = 0.28 T11-3A T11X-3A T12-3A T12X-3A T13-3A
E = 0.54 T21-3A T21X-3A T22-3A T22X-3A T23-3A
E = 0.70 T31-3A T31X-3A T32-3A T32X-3A T33-3A
E = 0.90 T41-3A T41X-3A T42-3A T42X-3A T43-3A
W = 1.25 2J0 = 10 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 20 2J0 = 25 2J0 = 30

E = 0.28 T11-4A - T12-4A - T13-4A
E = 0.54 T21-4A - T22-4A - T23-4A
E = 0.70 T31-4A - T32-4A - T33-4A
E = 0.90 T41-4A - T42-4A - T43-4A
164
Table 6.2 Dimensions and non-dimensional geometric parameters for

W = 0.46, 0.28 < E < 0.90, 10 < 2J <30
Specimen Chord Brace Geometrical Parameters
d0 t0 d1 t1 E 2J0 2J1 W
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) d1/d0 d0/t0 d1/t1 t1/t0
T11-1A 508.0 50.0 141.3 19.05 0.28 10.16 7.42 0.38

T21-1A 508.0 50.0 273.0 25.40 0.54 10.16 10.75 0.51
T31-1A 508.0 50.0 355.6 25.40 0.70 10.16 14.00 0.51
T41-1A 508.0 50.0 457.2 25.40 0.90 10.16 18.00 0.51
T11X-1A 508.0 33.3 141.3 15.88 0.28 15.25 8.90 0.48

T21X-1A 508.0 33.3 273.0 15.88 0.54 15.26 17.19 0.48
T31X-1A 508.0 33.3 355.6 15.88 0.70 15.26 22.39 0.48
T41X-1A 508.0 33.3 457.2 15.88 0.90 15.26 28.79 0.48
T12-1A 508.0 25.4 141.3 12.70 0.28 20.00 11.13 0.50

T22-1A 508.0 25.4 273.0 12.70 0.54 20.00 21.50 0.50
T32-1A 508.0 25.4 355.6 12.70 0.70 20.00 28.00 0.50
T42-1A 508.0 25.4 457.2 12.70 0.90 20.00 36.00 0.50
T12X-1A 508.0 20.6 141.3 9.52 0.28 24.64 14.84 0.46

T22X-1A 508.0 20.6 273.0 9.52 0.54 24.64 28.68 0.46
T32X-1A 508.0 20.6 355.6 9.52 0.70 24.64 37.35 0.46
T42X-1A 508.0 20.6 457.2 9.52 0.90 24.64 48.03 0.46
T13-1A 508.0 15.9 141.3 7.92 0.28 31.95 17.84 0.50

T23-1A 508.0 15.9 273.0 7.92 0.54 31.95 34.47 0.50
T33-1A 508.0 15.9 355.6 7.92 0.70 31.95 44.90 0.50
T43-1A 508.0 15.9 457.2 7.92 0.90 31.95 57.73 0.50
T13X-1A 508.0 14.3 141.3 7.14 0.28 35.60 19.79 0.50

T23X-1A 508.0 14.3 273.0 7.14 0.54 35.60 38.24 0.50
T33X-1A 508.0 14.3 355.6 7.14 0.70 35.60 49.80 0.50
T43X-1A 508.0 14.3 457.2 7.14 0.90 35.60 64.03 0.50
T14-1A 508.0 12.7 141.3 6.35 0.28 40.00 22.25 0.50

T24-1A 508.0 12.7 273.0 6.35 0.54 40.00 42.99 0.50
T34-1A 508.0 12.7 355.6 6.35 0.70 40.00 56.00 0.50
T44-1A 508.0 12.7 457.2 6.35 0.90 40.00 72.00 0.50
165

W = 0.75, 0.28 < E < 0.90, 10 < 2J <30
d0 t0 d1 t1 E 2J0 2J1 W
T11-2A 508.0 50.0 141.3 - 0.28 10.16 - -

T21-2A 508.0 50.0 273.0 - 0.54 10.16 - -
T31-2A 508.0 50.0 355.6 35.71 0.70 10.16 9.96 0.71
T41-2A 508.0 50.0 457.2 34.93 0.90 10.16 13.09 0.70
T11X-2A 508.0 33.3 141.3 - 0.28 15.25 - -

T21X-2A 508.0 33.3 273.0 25.40 0.54 15.26 10.75 0.76
T31X-2A 508.0 33.3 355.6 25.40 0.70 15.26 14.00 0.76
T41X-2A 508.0 33.3 457.2 25.40 0.90 15.26 18.00 0.76
T12-2A 508.0 25.4 141.3 19.05 0.28 20.00 7.42 0.75

T22-2A 508.0 25.4 273.0 19.05 0.54 20.00 14.33 0.75
T32-2A 508.0 25.4 355.6 19.05 0.70 20.00 18.67 0.75
T42-2A 508.0 25.4 457.2 19.05 0.90 20.00 24.00 0.75
T12X-2A 508.0 20.6 141.3 15.88 0.28 24.64 8.90 0.77

T22X-2A 508.0 20.6 273.0 15.88 0.54 24.64 17.19 0.77
T32X-2A 508.0 20.6 355.6 15.88 0.70 24.64 22.39 0.77
T42X-2A 508.0 20.6 457.2 15.88 0.90 24.64 28.79 0.77
T13-2A 508.0 15.9 141.3 12.70 0.28 31.95 11.13 0.80

T23-2A 508.0 15.9 273.0 12.70 0.54 31.95 21.50 0.80
T33-2A 508.0 15.9 355.6 12.70 0.70 31.95 28.00 0.80
T43-2A 508.0 15.9 457.2 12.70 0.90 31.95 36.00 0.80
T13X-2A 508.0 14.3 141.3 11.10 0.28 35.60 12.73 0.78

T23X-2A 508.0 14.3 273.0 11.10 0.54 35.60 24.59 0.78
T33X-2A 508.0 14.3 355.6 11.10 0.70 35.60 32.04 0.78
T43X-2A 508.0 14.3 457.2 11.10 0.90 35.60 41.19 0.78
T14-2A 508.0 12.7 141.3 9.52 0.28 40.00 14.84 0.75

T24-2A 508.0 12.7 273.0 9.52 0.54 40.00 28.68 0.75
T34-2A 508.0 12.7 355.6 9.52 0.70 40.00 37.35 0.75
T44-2A 508.0 12.7 457.2 9.52 0.90 40.00 48.03 0.75
166

W = 1.00, 0.28 < E < 0.90, 10 < 2J <30

d0 t0 d1 t1 E 2J0 2J1 W
T11-3A 508.0 50.0 141.3 - 0.28 10.16 - -

T21-3A 508.0 50.0 273.0 - 0.54 10.16 - -
T31-3A 508.0 50.0 355.6 - 0.70 10.16 - -
T41-3A 508.0 50.0 457.2 45.24 0.90 10.16 10.11 0.90
T11X-3A 508.0 33.3 141.3 - 0.28 15.25 - -

T21X-3A 508.0 33.3 273.0 - 0.54 15.26 - -
T31X-3A 508.0 33.3 355.6 33.30 0.70 15.26 10.68 1.00
T41X-3A 508.0 33.3 457.2 33.30 0.90 15.26 13.73 1.00
T12-3A 508.0 25.4 141.3 - 0.28 20.00 - -

T22-3A 508.0 25.4 273.0 25.40 0.54 20.00 10.75 1.00
T32-3A 508.0 25.4 355.6 25.40 0.70 20.00 14.00 1.00
T42-3A 508.0 25.4 457.2 25.40 0.90 20.00 18.00 1.00
T12X-3A 508.0 20.6 141.3 20.60 0.28 24.64 6.86 1.00

T22X-3A 508.0 20.6 273.0 20.60 0.54 24.64 13.25 1.00
T32X-3A 508.0 20.6 355.6 20.60 0.70 24.64 17.26 1.00
T42X-3A 508.0 20.6 457.2 20.60 0.90 24.64 22.19 1.00
T13-3A 508.0 15.9 141.3 15.90 0.28 31.95 8.89 1.00

T23-3A 508.0 15.9 273.0 15.90 0.54 31.95 17.17 1.00
T33-3A 508.0 15.9 355.6 15.90 0.70 31.95 22.36 1.00
T43-3A 508.0 15.9 457.2 15.90 0.90 31.95 28.75 1.00
T13X-3A 508.0 14.3 141.3 14.30 0.28 35.60 9.88 1.00

T23X-3A 508.0 14.3 273.0 14.30 0.54 35.60 19.09 1.00
T33X-3A 508.0 14.3 355.6 14.30 0.70 35.60 24.87 1.00
T43X-3A 508.0 14.3 457.2 14.30 0.90 35.60 31.97 1.00
T14-3A 508.0 12.7 141.3 12.70 0.28 40.00 11.13 1.00

T24-3A 508.0 12.7 273.0 12.70 0.54 40.00 21.50 1.00
T34-3A 508.0 12.7 355.6 12.70 0.70 40.00 28.00 1.00
T44-3A 508.0 12.7 457.2 12.70 0.90 40.00 36.00 1.00
167

W = 1.25, 0.28 < E < 0.90, 10 < 2J <30

d0 t0 d1 t1 E 2J0 2J1 W
T11-4A 508.0 50.0 141.3 - 0.28 10.16 - -

T21-4A 508.0 50.0 273.0 - 0.54 10.16 - -
T31-4A 508.0 50.0 355.6 - 0.70 10.16 - -
T41-4A 508.0 50.0 457.2 - 0.90 10.16 - -
T12-4A 508.0 25.4 141.3 - 0.28 20.00 - -

T22-4A 508.0 25.4 273.0 - 0.54 20.00 - -
T32-4A 508.0 25.4 355.6 31.75 0.70 20.00 11.20 1.25
T42-4A 508.0 25.4 457.2 31.75 0.90 20.00 14.40 1.25
T13-4A 508.0 15.9 141.3 19.05 0.28 31.95 7.42 1.20

T23-4A 508.0 15.9 273.0 19.05 0.54 31.95 14.33 1.20
T33-4A 508.0 15.9 355.6 19.05 0.70 31.95 18.67 1.20
T43-4A 508.0 15.9 457.2 19.05 0.90 31.95 24.00 1.20
Table 6.2 summarises the research programme for pipe trunnions having non-
dimensional geometric parameters W = 0.46, 0.28 < E < 0.90, and 10 < 2J <30. The
outside diameter of the chord used is 508mm with thickness varying from 15.9mm to
50mm thick. The brace diameter ranges from 141.3mm to 457.2mm with thickness of
7.92mm to 25.40mm. Due to the available thickness of circular hollow sections in the
market, the parameter W varied slightly from 0.50.
outside diameter of the chord used is 508mm with thickness varying from 15.9mm to
50mm thick. The brace diameter ranges from 141.3mm to 457.2mm with thickness of
168
12.70mm to 35.71mm. Due to available thickness of circular hollow sections in the
outer diameter of the chord used is 508mm with thickness varying from 15.9mm to
50mm thick. The brace has diameter of 141.3mm to 457.2mm with thickness of
15.90mm to 45.24mm. Due to available thickness of circular hollow sections in the
outer diameter of the chord used is 508mm with thickness varying from 15.9mm to
50mm thick. The brace has diameters of 141.3mm to 457.2mm with thickness of
19.05mm to 31.75mm. Due to the available thickness of circular hollow sections in
the market, the parameter W varied slightly from 1.25.
Even though a trunnion is loaded predominantly by shear, it is useful to include
Yura’s deformation limit. According to Yura (1980), for joints loaded by bending, the
rotation at the end of a simply supported brace with a span of 30d1 is determined for a
uniformly distributed loading which causes first yield in the middle of the brace. Yura
suggested that the practical deformation limit is reached if the rotation of a brace is
four times the brace end rotation, which results from the distributed load. Thus, for
joints loaded by bending, the deformation limit is given by 80 fy / E. This provides an
important ultimate capacity of the static strength since the load-deformation behaviour
169
of the trunnion joint is such that there is no distinctive peak. Thus the need for a
reference load so that comparisons can be made within the range of numerical results.
This also provides a useful reference where the numerical results are compared with
other studies on tubular joints. For example, Vegte (1995) uses the Yura’s
deformation to obtain the ultimate capacity of the tubular X-joints loaded by in-plane
bending and these results have been used in regression analysis to obtain the basic
formulations for joint design.
6.2.2 Effective W ratio for trunnion design
Figure 6.2 shows the numerical load displacement curves for 2J = 30 over the range
0.46 < W < 1.25 and 0.28 < E < 0.90. Yura’s deformation limit is also plotted on the
same chart, and is used as a convenient deformation level to compare the static
strength over the parametric range since some of the load deformation curves do not
show pronounced ultimate values or peaks for comparative purposes. The four
diagrams have been plotted on the same scale so that the general trend of the
development in ultimate load capacity of the pure pipe trunnions can be obtained.
Figure 6.7 shows the ultimate capacity of pure pipe trunnions for 2J0 = 30. The
diagram shows that for each E, the ultimate strength of the trunnion brace increases at
a decreasing rate as W increases. The rate of increase plateau off quickly for W > 0.75.
Thus for each E ratio, the optimum design range for W is 0.70 < W < 1.00.
It is observed that the increases in strength as W increases becomes less prominent as
the E ratio decreases. Thus as the E ratio reduces from 0.90 downwards, it reaches a
170
level where there is only a very marginal increase in static strength as W increase for
that E ratio. In fact, for specimens with E ratio of E = 0.28, the static strength is shown
to be on a plateau. This is an indication that the joint is governed by the chord
plastification or yielding of the brace rather than by the shear strength of the brace.
Similarly, Figures 6.3 to 6.6 shows the numerical load displacement curves for 2J =
25, 20, 15 and 10 over the range 0.46 < W < 1.00 and 0.28 < E < 0.90. Figures 6.8 to
6.9 shows the static strength based on Yura’ s deformation limit for 2J = 25, 20, 15
and 10. These figures again show that for each E ratio of a trunnion configuration, the
static strength of the trunnion brace increases at a decreasing rate as the ratio, W,
increases. The rate of increase tapers off quickly for W > 0.75. Thus for each E ratio,
the optimum design range for W is 0.75 < W < 0.90.
171
W W W W

W W W W
8000 8000
6000 6000
Total Load, P (kN)
Total Load, P (kN)

4000 4000
2000 2000
Yura E J Yura E J

0 0

0 10 20 30 40
0 10 20 30 40
W W W W

W W
8000 8000
6000 6000
Total Load, P (kN)
Total Load, P (kN)
4000 4000
2000 2000
Yura E J Yura E J

0 0
0 10 20 30 40
Displacement, ' (mm) Displacement, ' (mm)
0 10 20 30 40
Figure 6.2 Numerical load-displacement curves for 2J = 30
172
Wt = 0.46 Wt = 0.75 Wt = 0.46 tW= 0.75

Wt = 1.00 tW = 1.00
8000 8000
6000 6000
Applied Load, F (kN)

4000 4000
2000 2000
Yura E J Yura E J

0 0

0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Wt = 0.46 Wt = 0.75 Wt = 0.46 tW = 0.75

Wt = 1.00 Wt = 1.00
8000 8000
6000 6000
4000 4000
2000 2000
Yura E J Yura E J

0 0

0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Figure 6.3 Numerical load-displacement curves for 2J = 25
173
W W
Wt = 0.46 Wt = 0.75
W
12000 12000
10000 10000

8000 8000
6000 6000
4000 4000
2000 2000
Yura E J Yura E J

0 0

0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Displacement, D (mm)
Wt = 0.46 Wt = 0.75 Wt = 0.46 Wt = 0.75

Wt = 1.00 Wt = 1.25 Wt = 1.00 Wt = 1.25
12000 12000
10000 10000
8000 8000
6000 6000
4000 4000
2000 2000
Yura E J Yura E J

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Displacement, D (mm) Displacement, D (mm)
Figure 6.4 Numerical load-displacement curves for 2J0 = 20
174
W Wt = 0.46 Wt = 0.75

12000 12000
10000 10000

8000 8000
6000 6000
4000 4000
2000 2000
Yura E J Yura E J

0 0

0 10 20 30 40
0 10 20 30 40
Wt = 0.46 Wt = 0.75 Wt = 0.46 Wt = 0.75

Wt = 1.00 Wt = 1.00
12000 12000
10000 10000
Total Load, P (kN)
8000 8000
6000 6000
4000 4000
2000 2000
Yura E J Yura E J

0 0
0 10 20 30 40
0 10 20 30 40
175
tW = 0.46 Wt = 0.46
18000 18000
16000 16000
14000 14000
Total Load, P (kN)
Total Load, P (kN)

12000 12000
10000 10000
8000 8000
6000 6000
4000 4000
2000 2000
Yura E J Yura E J
0 0
0 10 20 30 40
0 10 20 30 40
tW = 0.46 Wt = 0.75
Wt = 0.46 Wt = 0.75
tW= 1.00
18000 18000
16000 16000
14000 14000
Total Load, P (kN)
Total Load, P (kN)
12000 12000
10000 10000
8000 8000
6000 6000
4000 4000
2000 2000
Yura E J Yura E J
0 0
0 10 20 30 40
0 10 20 30 40
176
E E
E E
8000
6000
F (kN)
4000
2000
W
0.2 0.6 1 1.4
Figure 6.7 Ultimate load capacity of pure pipe trunnion for 2J0 = 30
E E
E E
10000
8000
6000
F (kN)
4000
2000
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Figure 6.8 Ultimate load capacity of pure pipe trunnion for 2J0 = 25
177
12000
9000
F (kN)
6000
3000
0
0.30 0.50 0.70 0.90 1.10 1.30
W
Figure 6.9 Summary of ultimate load capacity of pure pipe trunnions for 2J0 = 10 to
30
Since W is a measure of the ratio of thickness between the brace and chord, it controls
the interaction of shear and bending moment at the trunnion joint resulting in a change
in the failure mode as W increases. When 2J0 is high, increasing W results in higher
bending moment acting perpendicular to the chord wall when the shear strength of the
brace increases. Thus, this bending moment would increase until it exceeds the joint’ s
bending moment capacity of the chord. At this point, the failure mode of the trunnion
is then governed by chord indentation. As a result the ultimate load capacity of the
pure pipe trunnion reduces.
178
6.2.3 Effective E ratio for trunnion design
Figures 6.10 to 6.16 shows the numerical load displacement curves and the ultimate
load capacity for 2J = 30, 25, 20, 15 and 10 over the range 0.46 < W < 1.25 and 0.28 <
E < 0.90. These figures are plotted to determine the change in ultimate load capacity
with E ratio. The ratio of the diameter of the chord to brace controlled the amount of
joint’ s bending moment resistance developed at the chord wall against chord
indentation. Specimens with small Etend to have less resistance against bending
moment. Hence a higher E ratio is preferred in the design of trunnions allowing the
chord to harness a greater area to resist chord indentation. Thus the figures for the
ultimate load capacity of the specimens show a general trend of increasing static
strength for increase in E.
Figures 6.11, 6.13 and 6.15 shows summaries of the trend of ultimate load capacity of
the pure pipe trunnion for W = 0.46, 0.75 and 1.00 respectively. There is a general
increases in ultimate load capacity when E increases. However, specimens with lower
2J0 ratio tend to have a lower ultimate capacity.
The observation from the W and E behaviour can be further summarised by providing a
guide to determine the effects of chord plastification and shear failure over the range
of non-geometric parameters discussed here. The next section provides a rational
approach to select and design pure pipe trunnions effectively.
179
E E E E

E E E E
16000 16000
W J W J
12000 12000

8000 8000
4000 4000
Yura Yura
0 0
0 10 20 30 40
0 10 20 30 40
E E E E

E E E E
16000 16000
W J W J
12000
12000
8000 8000
4000 4000
Yura Yura
0 0
0 10 20 30 40
0 10 20 30 40
Figure 6.10a Numerical load-displacement curves for W = 0.46
180
E E
E E
16000
12000
8000
4000
Yura W J

0
0 10 20 30 40
Figure 6.10b Numerical load-displacement curves for W = 0.46
J J J

J J
16000
12000
Fyura (kN)
8000
4000
0
0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00

Figure 6.11 Ultimate load capacity of pure pipe trunnion for W = 0.46
181
E E
E E
E
16000 16000
12000 12000

8000 8000
4000 4000
Yura W J Yura W J

0 0
0 10 20 30 40
0 10 20 30 40
E E E E

E E E E
16000 16000
12000
12000
8000 8000
4000 4000
Yura W J Yura W J

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
182
E E
E E
16000
12000
8000
4000
Yura W J

0
0 10 20 30 40
J J J

J J
16000
12000
Fyura (kN)
8000
4000
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Figure 6.13 Ultimate load capacity of pure pipe trunnion for W = 0.75 over E ratio
183
E E E
16000
16000
12000

12000
8000
8000
4000
4000
Yura W J Yura W J

0 0
0 10 20 30 40
0 10 20 30 40
E E E E

E E E
16000 16000
12000
12000
8000 8000
4000 4000
Yura W J Yura W J

0 0
0 10 20 30 40
0 10 20 30 40
184
E E
E E
16000
12000
8000
4000
Yura W J

0
0 10 20 30 40
J J J

J J
16000
12000
Fyura (kN)
8000
4000
0
0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00

Figure 6.15 Ultimate load capacity of pure pipe trunnion for W = 1.00 over E ratio
185
E E
E E
E E
16000
W J
16000
Yura Yura W J
12000
12000

8000 8000
4000 4000
0 0
0 10 20 30 40
0 10 20 30 40
Figure 6.16 Numerical load-displacement curves for W = 1.25
6.2.4 Selection and design approach for pure pipe trunnions
In the loading of a trunnion, there are two distinct forces, which can be represented by
a simple model as illustrated in Figure 6.17. The shear loads on the trunnion brace can
be represented by a simple shear at the end of the chord wall and two opposite forces
(a tension and a compression force) which acts perpendicular to the chord axis at a
certain distance apart along the chord axis. While the shear force acting near the chord
wall determines the static strength of the brace, the opposite bending forces acting
perpendicular to the chord wall determines the amount of static strength that can be
developed prior to chord indentation through plastification of the chord wall surface.
Thus the extent of static strength capacity that can be developed in a trunnion joint is
determined by the joint’ s bending moment resistance. The higher the joint’ s bending
186
moment capacity, the higher the static strength of the trunnion braces. It was observed
from the experimental results that many combinations of non-geometric parameter of
the trunnion results in chord indentation. For example, pipe trunnion specimens C1,
C2 and CT3 failed by shear effects while C3, CT1, CT2, CT4 and CT5 all failed by
chord indentation which reduces the ultimate load capacity of the trunnion.
Figure 6.17 Schematic representation of shear and in-plane bending moments
It was discussed by Vegte (1995) that the schematisation of the in-plane bending
moments by two opposite forces leads to a strength formula for use for joints loaded
by in-plane bending which is directly related to the strength formula of axially loaded
187
joints. The basic formula, which resulted from the analytical “ring model” approach,
can be used to describe the local strength behaviour at the tension and compression
side of the brace. This simple formulation as proposed by Vegte (1995) is used to
describe the action of the shear and bending moment on the trunnion. This
formulation is given in Equation 6.1 below, where Mu is the ultimate bending moment
capacity due to the tension and compression actions as shown in Figure 6.17.
5.1J 1.04
2
0.43
Mu

(6.1)
2 (0.4 E ) 2
(1 0.4 E ) (1 0.4 E ) 2
f y 0t0 d1
J2
The following tables, Table 6.6 to 6.7 shows the tabulated results of the numerical and
experimental specimens based on the formulations, fy1, Myura, Mu, and the failure
M yura
d1
mode for each specimen. The function, f y1 2 , defines whether the trunnion
I
undergoes brace failure when it exceeds the yield strength of 300N/mm2. The ratio
M yura
is also tabulated. Myura is the in-plane bending moment at Yura’ s deformation
Mu
limit. Table 6.7 provides a set of data for the experimental specimens, which
compares well with the type of failure mode at ultimate bending capacity generated
by the tension and compression forces acting perpendicularly to the chord.
188
Table 6.6a Results of the ultimate load capacity for pipe trunnions
M
Specimen d0 t0 d1 t1 fy1 Myura Mu1,ipb Myurayura
/Mu Failure
M u1,ipb
T11-1A 508.0 50.0 141.3 19.1 627 124 225 0.55 yield
T21-1A 508.0 50.0 273.0 25.4 331 371 655 0.57 shear
T31-1A 508.0 50.0 355.6 25.4 237 482 1058 0.46 shear
T41-1A 508.0 50.0 457.2 25.4 174 614 1703 0.36 shear
T11X-1A 508.0 33.3 141.3 15.9 585 103 112 0.92 yield
T21X-1A 508.0 33.3 273.0 15.9 293 228 352 0.65 shear
T31X-1A 508.0 33.3 355.6 15.9 214 294 590 0.50 shear
T41X-1A 508.0 33.3 457.2 15.9 159 372 981 0.38 shear
T12-1A 508.0 25.4 141.3 12.7 529 80 70 1.14 yield

T22-1A 508.0 25.4 273.0 12.7 272 176 232 0.76 shear
T32-1A 508.0 25.4 355.6 12.7 205 232 397 0.58 shear
T42-1A 508.0 25.4 457.2 12.7 153 293 675 0.43 shear
T12X-1A 508.0 20.6 141.3 9.5 495 60 49 1.23 yield

T22X-1A 508.0 20.6 273.0 9.5 264 133 168 0.79 shear
T32X-1A 508.0 20.6 355.6 9.5 194 169 293 0.58 shear
T42X-1A 508.0 20.6 457.2 9.5 147 216 504 0.43 shear
T13-1A 508.0 15.9 141.3 7.9 475 50 31 1.60 yield

T23-1A 508.0 15.9 273.0 7.9 250 106 112 0.95 shear
T33-1A 508.0 15.9 355.6 7.9 188 138 200 0.69 shear
T43-1A 508.0 15.9 457.2 7.9 138 171 350 0.49 shear
T31-2A 508.0 50.0 355.6 35.7 254 664 1058 0.63 shear
T41-2A 508.0 50.0 457.2 34.9 170 772 1703 0.45 shear
T21X-2A 508.0 33.3 273.0 25.4 309 347 352 0.98 shear
T31X-2A 508.0 33.3 355.6 25.4 219 446 590 0.76 shear
T41X-2A 508.0 33.3 457.2 25.4 136 479 981 0.49 shear
T12-2A 508.0 25.4 141.3 19.1 531 105 70 1.50 yield

T22-2A 508.0 25.4 273.0 19.1 282 254 232 1.10 chord
T32-2A 508.0 25.4 355.6 19.1 209 337 397 0.85 shear
T42-2A 508.0 25.4 457.2 19.1 155 427 675 0.63 shear
T12X-2A 508.0 20.6 141.3 15.9 454 80 49 1.64 yield

T22X-2A 508.0 20.6 273.0 15.9 260 202 168 1.21 chord
T32X-2A 508.0 20.6 355.6 15.9 194 268 293 0.91 shear
T42X-2A 508.0 20.6 457.2 15.9 146 342 504 0.68 shear
T13-2A 508.0 15.9 141.3 12.7 365 55 31 1.77 yield

T23-2A 508.0 15.9 273.0 12.7 227 147 112 1.31 chord
T33-2A 508.0 15.9 355.6 12.7 175 198 200 1.00 chord
T43-2A 508.0 15.9 457.2 12.7 131 251 350 0.72 shear
189
Table 6.6b Results of the ultimate load capacity for pipe trunnions
M
Specimen d0 t0 d1 t1 fy1 Myura Mu1,ipb Myurayura
/Mu Failure
M u1,ipb
T41-3A 508 50 457.2 45.24 157 863.1 1703 0.51 shear
T31X-3A 508.0 33.3 355.6 33.3 204 507 590 0.86 shear
T41X-3A 508.0 33.3 457.2 33.3 121 532 981 0.54 shear
T22-3A 508.0 25.4 273.0 25.4 261 292 232 1.26 chord
T32-3A 508.0 25.4 355.6 25.4 196 398 397 1.00 chord
T42-3A 508.0 25.4 457.2 25.4 141 499 675 0.74 shear
T12X-3A 508.0 20.6 141.3 20.6 413 86 49 1.75 yield

T22X-3A 508.0 20.6 273.0 20.6 242 233 168 1.39 chord
T32X-3A 508.0 20.6 355.6 20.6 178 305 293 1.04 chord
T42X-3A 508.0 20.6 457.2 20.6 130 384 504 0.76 shear
T13-3A 508.0 15.9 141.3 15.9 325 58 31 1.85 yield

T23-3A 508.0 15.9 273.0 15.9 203 158 112 1.41 chord
T33-3A 508.0 15.9 355.6 15.9 159 219 200 1.10 chord
T43-3A 508.0 15.9 457.2 15.9 117 276 350 0.79 shear
Table 6.7 Results of the ultimate load capacity for test pipe trunnions
M yura
Specimen d0 t0 d1 t1 fy1 Myura Mu1,ipb Myura/M u Failure
M u1,ipb
CT1 508.0 20.5 324.0 17.6 462 492 330 1.49 chord
CT2 508.0 12.5 324.0 12.4 365 225 132 1.71 chord
CT3 508.0 20.5 406.4 12.5 465 534 539 0.99 shear
CT4 508.0 12.5 406.4 12.5 433 297 217 1.37 chord
CT5 508.0 15.2 406.4 17.0 573 470 393 1.20 chord
C1 219.1 23.0 168.3 11.0 1072 116 116 1.00 shear

C2 219.1 23.0 114.3 8.6 547 55 58 0.96 shear
C3 219.1 12.7 168.3 11.0 1058 81 50 1.62 chord
190
A summary of the results on the governing failure mode of the specimens analysed is
M yura
given in Table 6.8 below. The formulation, , used in the study corresponds well
Mu
with the numerical analysis results. The function, Myura, is the ultimate bending
moment acting on the face perpendicular to the chord according to the Yura
deformation limit whereas the function, Mu, is the ultimate bending moment capacity
for an X-joint as defined earlier. Thus it suggests that when Myura > Mu there is chord
indentation and the full static ultimate load capacity of the trunnion brace cannot be
effectively mobilised since the governing failure mode is no longer due to shear
effects. On the other hand, when Myura < Mu, the joint design resistance for bending
moment capacity is large enough to withstand the tension and compression moment
acting perpendicularly to the chord wall which results in the full development in static
strength of the trunnion.
This analytical representation of this ultimate bending moment capacity of the
trunnion brace is consistent with the sets of numerical results obtained. In the above
M yura
tables, where the ratio exceeds 1.00, the specimen fails by chord indentation.
Mu
M yura
When the ratio is below 1.00, the specimens fail by shear effects. The good
Mu
agreement in the results shows that the effects of chord indentation can be
characterised by the local strength behaviour at the tension and the compression side
of the brace. This provides a simple means to identify the non-geometric parameters
that are subjected to chord indentation failure, so that premature failure of the
M yura
trunnion brace can be avoided. It is noted here that some specimens show ratio
Mu
191
that is less than unity and yet do not fail by chord plastification. This abnormality is
due to the fact that the brace actually yielded as a member as its fy1 exceeds the yield
strength of 300N/mm2. Table 6.8 below shows a summary of the failure modes of the
pipe trunnions based on non-dimensional geometric parameters. The term ”yield”
indicates that the specimen suffers member yield effects, “shear” indicates that the
specimen for that particular set of non-geometric parameters has potential to mobilise
the full static strength due to shear and “chord” refers to members where the failure
mode is governed by chord indentation.
Table 6.8 Failure modes of pipe trunnions based on non-geometric parameters
W = 0.46 2J0 = 10 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 20 2J0 = 25 2J0 = 30

E = 0.28 yield yield yield yield yield
E = 0.54 shear shear shear shear shear
W = 0.75 2J0 = 10 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 20 2J0 = 25 2J0 = 30

E = 0.28 shear chord yield yield yield
E = 0.54 shear shear chord chord chord
E = 0.70 shear shear shear shear chord
W = 1.00 2J0 = 10 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 20 2J0 = 25 2J0 = 30

E = 0.28 chord chord chord yield yield
E = 0.54 chord chord chord chord chord
192
Several conclusions can be made from the above findings. First, from Table 6.8, W =
0.46 seems to be most appropriate for the design of trunnions since the specimens fail
predominantly by shear. However, due to the requirement that the chord thickness is
twice that of the brace thickness, these ranges of specimens would generally be of
lower static strength due to the small brace thickness. It is also not economical to
design trunnions with chord thickness twice that of the brace thickness
Second, when W = 0.75, half of the specimens have more dominant shear effect rather
than chord indentation failure. This is concentrated in specimens where either the 2J0
ratio are low or when the E ratio is high or both. At W = 0.75, the chord wall thickness
is about 30% higher than the brace thickness and this range of specimens are most
effective as far as shear effects on trunnion braces are concerned.
Third, it is good practice, from the analytical results shown, that trunnion brace should
never to be designed to be thicker than the chord wall thickness since, when W = 1.25,
most of the specimens fail by chord indentation. At W = 1.00, only specimens with
high E ratio should be designed for high static strength controlled by shear failure.
The above findings suggest that introducing a novel approach in trunnion design can
further reduce the potential for chord indentation failure. This approach requires the
brace to be inserted through the chord wall, hence reducing the effect of chord
indentation. This study will be discussed further in a later section of this chapter.
193
6.2.5 Proposed design formulation for pipe trunnions
Generally trunnions has been designed as shear plated trunnions with attached pipes
mainly because of the uncertainty in the design of pure pipe trunnions since there was
no experimental and numerical research in this area. As a result it is common when
designing to use a on the strength of the shear plate and treating the brace merely as
providing the circumference for the grommet or wire ropes to sling around. Thus any
advantage for higher shear strength due to brace is treated as extra safety margin. The
current research work has tested many specimens and conducted extensive numerical
analyses to understand pipe trunnions better and to propose a guide on the extent of
the shear capacity of a pure trunnion in the design of trunnions. Based on the results
obtained in this research, the design formulation for pipe trunnions can be assessed by
analysing the results of the experimental and numerical works.
One of the major factors influencing the static strength of pipe trunnions is the amount
of chord plastification during loading of a trunnion. As observed from the
experimental results, it was shown that once chord plastification is initiated, the static
strength of the pipe trunnion decreases. The ultimate strength is dependent on the
amount of in plane bending moment that the chord could sustain rather than on the
full mobilisation of the shear capacity of the brace. Thus full mobilisation of the shear
capacity of the pipe trunnion is only possible if the chord is designed to withstand the
in plane bending moment. The recommendation for this effect is highlighted in the
next section where the tubular X-joints are discussed in greater detail.
One of the common methods to treat the static strength of pipe trunnions is to
consider that geometrically, only 50% of the circular hollow section is fully effective
194
in resisting the loads based on the API (2000) design guide. Further, a factor of 0.4 is
use to account for the effective yield strength of the pipe subjected to a shear load.
This static strength is used as a basis in determining the level of conservatism when
using this approach through a sampling of the experimental and numerical results
available. Further, the static strength at Yura’ s deformation limit is also plotted in the
chart. Figure 6.18 shows the statistical sampling data on the static strength of pipe
trunnions. The elastic yield strength is plotted against the static strength of Yura’ s
deformation limit as well as the elastic yield strength based on the analytical results.
The diagram confirms the research objective of establishing that pipe trunnions can be
designed for use as suitable lifting points and that the effective shear capacity can be
mobilised. The statistical chart shows that in all numerical cases, the assumption of a
shear factor of 0.4 is conservative over the full range of parameters considered. A
gradient line is drawn through the chart, delineating the statistical data in which all the
yield strength is above this line. That is, all the points above the line lie above the
existing assumption of a yield factor of 0.4. The line has a gradient of 1.25 against the
elastic yield strength, which means that the existing yield factor could be based on a
new factor of:
Yield factor = 1.25 x 0.4 = 0.5
This yield factor that can be applied for the design of pipe trunnions, which is the
joint shear resistance strength for pipe trunnions subjected to a predominantly shear
load is:
V1 1
2
S f y d m t1 (6.2)
195
Fyura Fy
18
V1 0 .5 S d m t f y
16
14 V1 0 .4 S d m t f y
Static Strength (’000 kN)
12
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Eastic Yield Strength (’000 kN)
Figure 6.18 Statistical sampling data on ultimate strength of pure pipe trunnion
6.3 Through pipe trunnions
It has been observed from the previous chapter on the design of pipe trunnions that in
many cases the full effective shear capacity of the brace cannot be utilised due to
chord wall indentation. However, it was observed from the experimental results that
the proposed joint shear resistance could be sustained even for thin chord wall
provided a new pipe trunnion configuration could be implemented. This new pipe
trunnion configuration has the brace extending through the chord wall and butt
welded together.
196
This design is practical since most failure due to high 2J ratio fails by chord
plastification of the chord wall, inserting the brace through the chord wall will
enhance the shear capacity or allow the full effective shear to be mobilised before
chord plastification sets in. This is beneficial in situations where pipe materials are not
available or when the site situation demands a higher lifting capacity without
changing the existing pipe structures already fabricated. Further, cost and time for
fabricating a shear plate trunnion is high and the through pipe trunnion solution is
more appropriate. The numerical study will show that the implementation of through
pipe trunnions resolves many issues relating to chord indentation.
6.3.1 Research programme
The configuration of the pipe trunnion with through pipe dimensions and non-
dimensional geometric parameters are as presented in Figure 6.19. Note that the
additional pipe that is extended beyond the chord wall as opposed to normal pipe
trunnions where the pipe is welded outside of the chord wall only. The dimensions
and non-dimensional geometric parameters of the research programme are listed in
Table 6.9. The loading arm is placed at about w1 = 100mm from the face of the chord
wall. For the finite element analysis, it follows closely the method used for normal
pipe trunnions.
197
d0
D = 2l0 / d0 t0
E = d1 / d0
2J = d0 / t0
W = t1 / t0
t1
d1 l0
Figure 6.19 Dimensions and non-dimensional geometrical parameters of pipe

trunnions with through pipes
The results of the numerical analysis are discussed in the following sections. For each
of the plot, Yura’ s limit is plotted together to determine the load at the deformation
limit for comparison purposes to show the trend of the shear loads. In addition, the
proposed joint shear resistance for pipe trunnions is considered. Table 6.9 shows the
dimensions and non-dimensional geometric parameters used in this research
programme.
198
One of the greatest benefits of using through pipe trunnions is in extending the range
of non-geometric parameters that can be used in the design of trunnions. As shown in
the earlier section in Table 6.7, there is a wide range of specimens that failed through
chord indentation rather than shear. This limitation is quite pronounced especially
where W is 0.75 and 1.00. The figure below, Figure 6.20, clearly reflects the direct
benefit of using through pipe trunnions. The left diagram shows a pure pipe trunnion
that fails by chord indentation while the same specimen (now with through pipe
arrangement) is able to develop its full static load capacity in shear. This is truly novel
since there is no additional chord material or changes except for the insertion of the
brace through the chord wall. This arrangement is low cost in terms of materials and
ease of fabrication.
Figure 6.20 Ultimate failure of pipe trunnion with and without through pipe
199

through pipe trunnions

d0 t0 d1 t1 E 2J0 2J1 W
TP31-1A 508.0 50.0 355.6 25.40 0.70 10.16 14.00 0.51

TP32-1A 508.0 25.4 355.6 12.70 0.70 20.00 28.00 0.50
TP33-1A 508.0 15.9 355.6 7.92 0.70 31.95 44.90 0.50
TP34-1A 508.0 12.7 355.6 6.35 0.70 40.00 56.00 0.50
TP31-2A 508.0 50.0 355.6 35.71 0.70 10.16 9.96 0.71
TP31X-2A 508.0 33.3 355.6 25.40 0.70 15.26 14.00 0.76
TP22-2A 508.0 25.4 273.0 19.05 0.54 20.00 14.33 0.75
TP32-2A 508.0 25.4 355.6 19.05 0.70 20.00 18.67 0.75
TP42-2A 508.0 25.4 457.2 19.05 0.90 20.00 24.00 0.75
TP32X-2A 508.0 20.6 355.6 15.88 0.70 24.64 22.39 0.77
TP23-2A 508.0 15.9 273.0 12.70 0.54 31.95 21.50 0.80
TP33-2A 508.0 15.9 355.6 12.70 0.70 31.95 28.00 0.80
TP43-2A 508.0 15.9 457.2 12.70 0.90 31.95 36.00 0.80
TP33X-2A 508.0 14.3 355.6 11.10 0.70 35.60 32.04 0.78
TP24-2A 508.0 12.7 273.0 9.52 0.54 40.00 28.68 0.75
TP34-2A 508.0 12.7 355.6 9.52 0.70 40.00 37.35 0.75
TP44-2A 508.0 12.7 457.2 9.52 0.90 40.00 48.03 0.75
TP31X-3A 508.0 33.3 355.6 33.30 0.70 15.26 10.68 1.00
TP32-3A 508.0 25.4 355.6 25.40 0.70 20.00 14.00 1.00
TP32X-3A 508.0 20.6 355.6 20.60 0.70 24.64 17.26 1.00
TP23-3A 508.0 15.9 273.0 15.90 0.54 31.95 17.17 1.00
TP33-3A 508.0 15.9 355.6 15.90 0.70 31.95 22.36 1.00
TP43-3A 508.0 15.9 457.2 15.90 0.90 31.95 28.75 1.00
TP33X-3A 508.0 14.3 355.6 14.30 0.70 35.60 24.87 1.00
TP24-3A 508.0 12.7 273.0 12.70 0.54 40.00 21.50 1.00
TP34-3A 508.0 12.7 355.6 12.70 0.70 40.00 28.00 1.00
TP44-3A 508.0 12.7 457.2 12.70 0.90 40.00 36.00 1.00
200
6.3.2 Comparison of ultimate load capacity of through pipe trunnions
Figure 6.21 shows the load-deformation curves of through pipe trunnions over the
range of parameters as presented in Table 6.9. The increasing static strength for
decreasing 2J0 is very pronounced for all W and E ratios plotted. Figure 6.21 shows a
comparison of the load-deformation plots for specimens with and without through
pipe arrangement. Figure 6.22a is plotted for specimens with increasing thicknesses
for W= 050 to 1.00 for a constant E of 0.70, whereas Figure 6.22b is plotted for
specimens with increasing thicknesses for W= 050 to 1.00 for a constant 2J of 30. It is
observed from the ultimate load capacity curves that for all specimens analyzed, there
is a significant increase in the ultimate load capacity of through pipe trunnions over
pure pipe trunnions. A summary of the results are presented in Tables 6.10 and 6.11
which show the percentage difference for specimens with and without through pipes.
Table 6.11 presents a comparison with increasing thicknesses for W= 050 to 1.00 for a
constant Eof 0.70. Table 6.10 presents a comparison with increasing thicknesses for
W= 050 to 1.00 for a constant 2Jof 30.
The results show that the increase could be as high as 30% in terms of static strength.
The increase could be attributed to the change in the governing failure mode from
chord indentation to shear. Specimens prone to premature failure through chord
indentation gain the most in terms of static strength increase. It is noted also that in
cases where the governing failure mode is already in shear, there is slight increase in
static strength but with no side effects. In fact stiffness increases across the board
since the interaction of shear and bending moment causes the stiffness of the trunnion
joint to become smaller.
201
J J

J J J
J J
16000 16000
14000 14000
12000 12000

10000 10000
8000 8000
6000 6000
4000 4000
2000 2000
Yura W E Yura W E
0 0

0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
J J J J

J J J J
J J J J
16000 16000
14000 14000
12000 12000
10000 10000
8000 8000
6000 6000
4000 4000
2000 2000
Yura W E Yura W E
0 0

0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Figure 6.21 Numerical load-displacement curves for through pipe trunnions
202
J J J J

J J J J
J J J J
J J J J
16000 16000
14000 14000

12000 12000
10000 10000
8000 8000
6000 6000
4000 4000
2000 2000
Yura W E Yura W E
0 0

0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
J J

J J
J J
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
Yura W E
0
0 10 20 30 40
Figure 6.22a Comparison of load-deformation plots for through pipe trunnions
203
E E E E

E E E E
E E E E
8000 8000
6000 6000
Total Load, P (kN)

4000 4000
2000 2000
Yura W J Yura W J

0 0

0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Figure 6.22b Comparison of load-deformation plots for through pipe trunnions
Table 6.10 Comparison of static strength with and without through pipe for 2J = 30
Without Thru Pipe With Thru Pipe % Difference

Fyura Failure Mode Fyura Failure Mode
W J
E 2991 chord 4276 shear 43%
E 5127 shear 5854 shear 14%
W J
E 5512 shear 5485 shear 0%
204
Table 6.11 Comparison of static strength with and without through pipe for E = 0.70
Without Thru Pipe With Thru Pipe % Difference

Fyura Failure Mode Fyura Failure Mode
W E
J 9784 shear 12490 shear 28%
J 4534 shear 5681 shear 25%
W E
J 13399 shear 13946 shear 4%
J 4048 chord 4558 shear 13%
W E
J 10157 shear 12714 shear 25%
6.3.3 Design approach of through pipe trunnions
A comparison of the numerical results has shown that through pipe trunnions
enhances the ultimate load capacity of pure pipe trunnions. The behaviour of through
pipe trunnions can be described by a simple illustration of the schematisation of
through pipe trunnions as shown in Figure 6.22. In pure pipe trunnions, the shear
force acting at a distance from the chord wall produces a tension and compression
forces generated bending moment acting perpendicular to the chord wall resulting in
chord indentation. The joint bending moment resistance against chord indentation is
governed by the formulation given by Vegte (1995), is a function of E and 2J as
presented in Equation 6.1. When the through pipe is used, there is an increase in the
205
joint bending moment capacity. The extra capacity against chord indentation is given
by the pure moment effect from the short length of brace within the chord wall as
shown in Figure 6.23. This pure moment effect is given by Equation 6.3.
fy I
M d1
(6.3)
2
This combined effect from the joint bending moment resistance of the chord wall and
the pure moment effect of the brace within the chord wall provide sufficient resistance
against chord indentation. Thus instead of having a wide range of parameters that are
governed by chord plastification effects, through pipe trunnions allow greater
flexibility in the choices in combining braces and chords for lifting.
Table 6.12 Governing failure mode of through pipe trunnions
W = 0.46 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 20 2J0 = 25 2J0 = 30

W = 0.75 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 20 2J0 = 25 2J0 = 30

E = 0.28 shear shear yield yield yield
W = 1.00 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 20 2J0 = 25 2J0 = 30

E = 0.28 shear shear shear yield yield
206
Table 6.12 shows that other than those specimens that fail by member brace yield, the
rest of the specimens that were originally governed by chord plastification can be
transformed to mobilise their full shear capacity. The combined joint bending moment
resistance from the chord wall as well as the inserted pipe neutralises the chord
indentation effects, allowing the range of parameters, shown in Table 6.12 to be used
instead of the previous Table 6.8 which rely on pure pipe trunnions.
Figure 6.23 Schematisation of the through pipe trunnion
207
6.4 Tubular X-joints
Based on the previous chapter’ s recommendation that the most effective trunnion
design lies in the range 0.70 < W < 0.80. Thus a study has been conducted on this
transition range on the effect of brace length to the static strength of tubular joints
when the loading arm is extended beyond a short stub used in the trunnion. The
tubular X-joints here are similar to trunnions except that the brace length is much
longer than that used in trunnions.
The interaction between shear and in-plane bending moment due to the length of the
brace forms an important element in defining the extent of the full shear capacity that
can be mobilised as the loading arm, w1, on the brace is extended. Since trunnions
depend on their shear strength predominantly, there is a need to provide guidance on
the loading arm, w1, such that the reduction in shear strength caused by a higher w1
can be prevented. The guidance is also useful in the design of trunnion since there is a
chance that the shear strength of trunnions is under-designed due to a reduction in
shear strength caused by bending moment effects, which are not accounted for. This
section provides a study of the interaction effect of shear and in-plane bending
moment and proposes a guide in selecting the length w1.
6.4.1 Research programme
The tubular X-joint is no different from pipe trunnions except for its brace length;
hence a comparison is made also with specimens that have a shorter brace length. The
configuration of the X-joint, dimensions and non-dimensional geometric parameters
in this research programme are presented in Table 6.13, covering a range W = 0.70, E =
0.70 and 2J = 10.
208
The loading arm, w1, is placed at a distance varying from 0.22d1 to 4.0d1 over two
series of specimens. The distance is measured from the face of the chord wall to the
point of loading.
Table 6.13 Dimensions and non-dimensional geometric parameters for X-joints
d0 t0 d1 t1 d1/d0 d0/t0 t1/t0 w1

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) E 2J0 W1 (mm)
T31-2A 508 50.8 355.6 35.7 0.7 10.0 0.7 0.28d1

X31-2C 508 50.8 355.6 35.7 0.7 10.0 0.7 0.56d1
X31-2C 508 50.8 355.6 35.7 0.7 10.0 0.7 1.0d1
X31-2D 508 50.8 355.6 35.7 0.7 10.0 0.7 2.0d1
X31-2E 508 50.8 355.6 35.7 0.7 10.0 0.7 3.0d1
X31-2F 508 50.8 355.6 35.7 0.7 10.0 0.7 4.0d1
T41-2A 508 50.8 457.2 34.9 0.9 10.0 0.7 0.22d1

X41-2C 508 50.8 457.2 34.9 0.9 10.0 0.7 0.44d1
X41-2C 508 50.8 457.2 34.9 0.9 10.0 0.7 1.0d1
X41-2D 508 50.8 457.2 34.9 0.9 10.0 0.7 2.0d1
X41-2E 508 50.8 457.2 34.9 0.9 10.0 0.7 3.0d1
X41-2F 508 50.8 457.2 34.9 0.9 10.0 0.7 4.0d1
6.4.2 Interaction effects of shear and bending moment
Figure 6.24 shows the numerical load displacement curves for the X31 series and X41
series with W = 0.75 and E = 0.70. The plots show distinct interaction behaviour when
the loading arm increases from 0.22d1 to 4.0d1. The governing failure mode of the X-
joints when w = 4.0d1 is controlled by chord plastification, hence their low static
209
strength. When the loading arm is decreased, there is a shift from the bending moment
effects towards shear effects. Thus the static strength increases as w1 becomes smaller.
w = 0.28d w = 0.56d w = 0.22d w = 0.44d

w = 1.00d w = 2.00d w = 1.00d w = 2.00d
w = 3.00d w = 4.00d w = 3.00d w = 4.00d
16000 16000
X31 X41
14000 14000

12000
12000
10000 10000
8000 8000
6000 6000
4000 4000
2000 2000
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Figure 6.24 Numerical load-displacement curves for X31 and X41 series
Figure 6.25 shows the moment-rotation curves of the two series of X-joints. Both
series show an identical trend. The plot shows that trunnions (represented by T31-2A
and T41-2A) with very short brace of 0.22d1 and 0.28d1 respectively, experienced
very low bending moment. However, as the brace increases, it was observed that the
bending moment increases with the brace length. However, this increase reaches a
plateau. In fact, when the brace length exceeds 2d1, the bending moment carried by
the brace through chord plastification effects begins to stabilise at a certain limit. This
corresponds to a case of pure bending effects where the shear capacity becomes
210
negligible. Comparing the results with the ultimate moment capacity, Mu, for in-plane
bending moment as recommended by Vegte (1995), it was observed that Mu for the
X31 and X41 series are 2041kNm and 3374kNm respectively. Thus at a distance of
w1 = 4d1, the ultimate bending moment capacity of the X31 and X41 series are
respectively 1.49 and 1.14 times of Mu.
w = 0.28d w = 0.56d w = 0.22d w = 0.44d

w = 1.00d w = 2.00d w = 1.00d w = 2.00d
w = 3.00d w = 4.00d w = 3.00d w = 4.00d
4000 5000
X31 X41
Applied Moment, M (kNm)

4000
Applied Moment, M (kNm)
3000
3000
2000
2000
1000
1000
0 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Rotation, M (rad.) Rotation, M (rad.)
Figure 6.25 Numerical moment-rotation curves for X31 and X41 series
6.4.3 Proposed interaction equation of shear and bending moment
The figures 6.24 and 6.25 show that there is a distinct correlation in the transition
from shear to bending moment, which accounts for the amount of shear that can be
fully mobilised for a trunnion. The static strength increases significantly as the
loading arm decreases and the reverse applies in the case of bending moment. The
211
effects of the interaction between shear and in-plane bending moment is plotted in
Figure 6.26. The figures presented are normalised so that a relationship can be
established. Vyura is the static strength obtained at Yura’ s deformation limit and Myura
is the bending moment at the same deformation limit. Vmax is the maximum static
strength when w1 is the shortest and Mmax is the maximum bending moment developed
when w1 is the longest. These results are obtained from Figure 6.25 for the X31 and
X41 series and Figure 5.15 & 5.16 are plotted for the experimental test series.
X31 Series X41 Series Interaction Curve
CT1, CT12-CT14 CT3, CT15-CT17
1.00
0.80
§ V yura · §M ·
2 2
0.84 ¨¨ ¸ ¨ yura ¸
¸ ¨ ¸ 1
© Vmax ¹ © M max ¹
0.60
Vyura/Vmax
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
M yura/M max
Figure 6.26 Interaction curves of shear and bending moment
Thus Figure 6.26 above shows the relationship between normalised shear and in-plane
bending moment. The results of the numerical study are plotted together with the
212
experimental results to derive the interaction curve between shear and in-plane
bending moment. For most of the loading by shear, a pronounced peak is observed in
the load-displacement curves. This maximum load is considered to be the ultimate
load, Vmax. However, for loadings where there is interaction between shear and
bending moment, no maximum in shear or moment is obtained in the load-
displacement or moment-rotation curves as deformations increases. For these cases,
the ultimate load is considered to be reached if the displacement or rotation exceeds
the Yura deformation limit.
Table 6.14 below summarises the loads at the deformation limit or maximum peak
load for the specimens plotted in Figure 6.26. The normalised results for shear and
bending moments in the table are plotted in Figure 6.26.
V yura
The value at 1 .0 indicates that shear loading is predominant and the effect from
Vmax
M yura
bending moment is negligible. On the other hand, 1 .0 indicates that the
M max
bending moments are predominant and the effect from shear loads is negligible. The
scatter in the data from the numerical and experimental results show good agreement
within the band defined by the interaction curve plotted. This interaction curve was
obtained by regression analysis, fitting the curve below the data so that a conservative
result for the interaction curve can be obtained. This shear and bending moment
interactive curve is defined by the following relationship:
§ V yura · §M ·
2 2
0.84 ¨¨ ¸ ¨ yura
¸ ¨M
¸
¸ 1 (6.4)
© Vmax ¹ © max ¹
213
The proposed interaction equation for shear loads and in-plane bending moment in
trunnion braces defines the range where shear and bending moment predominate. It
M yura
shows that beyond 0.4 , there is a reduction factor that may be applied to the
M max
shear capacity of trunnions, as in-plane bending moment becomes larger. This
reduction factor can be easily obtained by using the interaction Equation 6.4.
214
Table 6.14 Shear and bending moment interaction from the numerical and
experimental results
d0 t0 d1 t1 Vyura Myura/Mmax Vyura/Vmax w1

kN
T31-2A 508 50.8 355.6 35.7 13279 0.40 1.00 0.28 d1
X31-2B 508 50.8 355.6 35.7 11400 0.68 0.86 0.56 d1
X31-2C 508 50.8 355.6 35.7 8583 0.91 0.65 1.0 d1
X31-2D 508 50.8 355.6 35.7 4785 1.02 0.36 2.0 d1
X31-2E 508 50.8 355.6 35.7 3169 1.01 0.24 3.0 d1
X31-2F 508 50.8 355.6 35.7 2348 1.00 0.18 4.0 d1
T41-2A 508 50.8 457.2 34.9 15488 0.28 1.00 0.22 d1
X41-2B 508 50.8 457.2 34.9 14818 0.54 0.96 0.44 d1
X41-2C 508 50.8 457.2 34.9 10821 0.90 0.70 1.0 d1
X41-2D 508 50.8 457.2 34.9 6112 1.01 0.39 2.0 d1
X41-2E 508 50.8 457.2 34.9 4086 1.02 0.26 3.0 d1
X41-2F 508 50.8 457.2 34.9 3011 1.00 0.19 4.0 d1
CT1 508 20.5 324 17.6 5188 0.83 1.00 0.62 d1
CT12 508 20.7 324 17.5 2780 0.89 0.54 1.23 d1
CT13 508 20.7 324 17.6 1511 0.96 0.29 2.47 d1
CT14 508 20.7 324 17.6 966 1.00 0.19 4.0 d1
CT3 508 20.5 406.4 12.5 4824 0.57 1.00 0.49 d1
CT15 508 20.7 406.4 12.5 3780 0.89 0.78 0.98 d1
CT16 508 20.7 406.4 12.5 2124 1.00 0.44 1.97 d1
CT17 508 20.7 406.4 12.5 1050 1.00 0.22 4.0 d1
(All other dimensions in mm)
215
6.4.4 Effective width of trunnion brace
In the design of trunnions, the width of the brace is usually taken to be slightly wider
than the recommendation of Brown and Root (1990) where the trunnion width is
defined as:
w1 1.25d sl 25 (6.5)
However, the recommendation only defines the required width after taking into
account the flattening of the grommet or wire ropes by a factor 1.25. This does not
consider whether the full shear capacity can be mobilised, or address the concern
whether there is a reduction in shear capacity if the trunnion width is wider due to
unforeseen circumstances.
The interaction Equation 6.4 can be used to define the trunnion width, in terms of the
trunnion brace diameter, when shear capacity can be fully mobilised. The equation
d 0.4 , the in-plane bending moment effect is negligible since

M yura
shows that when
M max
V yura
1 .0 . Thus in order that no reduction factor due to bending moment needs to be
Vmax
applied, the maximum distance from the chord wall to the loading point on the
trunnion brace is given by:
w1 0.28d1 (6.6)
216
The proposed Equation 6.6 as derived from the interaction Equation 6.4 can be used
to define the maximum allowable trunnion width based on the shear capacity, in
addition to providing sufficient width for sling flattening effect and clearances.
217
Trunnion Design Calculations
CHAPTER SEVEN
TRUNNION DESIGN CALCULATIONS
7.1 Design approach for fabricated pipe trunnions
In this chapter, an example of a design of a fabricated trunnion for an offshore
installation is presented. Here a complete design is presented together with the steps
involved in designing a fabricated trunnion suitable for the required lifting loads.
Guidance notes are provided to highlight the important criteria governing the
selection of brace, chord, stiffener plates, keeper plates and shear plate. The trunnion
design calculations will also highlight the method and design approach that were
proposed and discussed in the earlier chapters.
Three separate approaches in the fabricated trunnion design are presented: pure pipe
trunnions, through pipe trunnions and combined shear plate and pipe trunnion. In
addition to presenting the method of selection and calculations, the benefits and
disadvantages in the selection of each trunnion type will be highlighted. That is a
comparison is made on sizing the trunnion components by using the recommendations
218
as described in the previous chapters.
Based on the previous chapters, it was observed that the current design codes do not
provide specific guidance on the selection of the different components of a fabricated
trunnion. Both Brown & Root (1990) and Shell (1992) provide some simplified
recommendations on designing mainly fabricated plate trunnions, while there is no
recommendation on pure pipe trunnions. In addition, the design is also conservative as
it is suggested that the strength contribution of the trunnion brace should not be
included in the calculation of shear capacity. The trunnion brace is considered to
provide a circumference to transfer the sling load to the shear plate, and not to
participate in carrying part of the load. However, previous research by Quah (1998)
proved in experimental tests that even in fabricated plate trunnions, there is significant
strength contribution resulting from the shear strength of the trunnion brace. In this
study, the focus will be on the new approach proposed to design fabricated pipe
trunnions.
It is noted here that there may be other guidance which has not be published and other
checks may be necessary depending on specific rules and guidance from classification
societies, joint industry project guidance notes or other in-house studies. This study
will concentrate mainly on the results from the present numerical and experimental
investigations. Since lifting operations are a critical component of an offshore
installation, no effort should be spared to ensure all aspects of a trunnion design is
fully covered to prevent any unforeseen effects resulting from oversight or ignorance.
219
7.2 Rigging arrangement and design loads
In this example, it is required that a heavy topside module is to be lifted and installed
with the requirement for a single hook – four lift point configuration on a crane hook
without spreader beam and the loads are to be spread over four lifting points. The
maximum vertical lifting force is estimated to be 16,700kN and the trunnions are to
be orientated at an inclined angle of 60o. The design loads and orientation in this
calculation are based on the rigging arrangement calculation and is not included here
as part of the design considerations. It is necessary to design a trunnion with
accompanying components to ensure successful installation using the rigging
arrangement as described.
7.3 Estimating lifting loads on the trunnion
The maximum vertical lifting point force, Fv is estimated to be Fv = 16,700kN. As the
trunnion is inclined at an angle of 60o, it is necessary to compute the actual force
acting on the trunnion so that a conservative estimate can be made for the sling force
and forces acting on the brace, shear and keeper plates, etc. It is also noted here that
due to the effect of friction and interaction of the sling with the brace as discussed by
Choo et al (1997), the distribution of the sling force is designed to be sharing in a
55%-to-45% arrangement. This is in line with the specific requirement of not under-
estimating the actual sling forces. The keeper plate is designed to take 5% of the
perpendicular loads arising from the sling force as recommended by Brown & Root
(1990). The following are the forces acting on the trunnion. A designer should check
against any standard manufacturer’s handbook on the selection of wire rope types and
dimensions to accommodate the design loads.
220
Vertical lifting force, Fv = 16,700kN
16,700kN
Horizontal component, Fh = 9,642kN
tan 60o
16,700kN
Sling force, Fsl = 19,284kN (acting on both side of trunnion)
sin 60o
Force perpendicular to keeper plates, Fh2 = ½ x 0.05 x 19,284kN = 482kN
It is noted here that the most unfavourable critical lifting loads should be considered
for all the lifting points considering the angle of inclination and distribution of sling
forces over the lifting hooks or trunnion stubs. A check should be made on the other
three lifting points. In the above example, the load case is the maximum that the
trunnion is carrying and this is to be applied to all the other three lifting points.
There are several options that a designer can pursue as described in the previous
chapters, namely pure pipe trunnions, through pipe trunnions or combined pipe and
shear plate trunnions. All the options are discussed in detail below and the method of
selection and design approach, based on the current study, is used to highlight the
benefits of the present novel and innovative findings.
7.4 Pure pipe trunnion option
The most direct method of designing a trunnion is to take the option of using pure
pipe trunnions. Here a short length of pipe is profiled and butt-welded on both sides of
the chord wall. Other than stiffeners and keeper plates sizing, there is not much else
that needs to be considered in terms of fabrication. Thus the cost and time for
fabrication work is sufficiently low to warrant a designer to consider this option.
However, it should be noted that the current design recommendations, Brown & Root
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(1990) do not consider the pipe alone to provide the shear capacity to carry a lifting
load. This may be due to concerns on potential lamellar tearing of the chord wall,
which may be overcome by the use of pipes with through-thickness properties and
appropriate welding consumables. The shear load is designed to be carried by a shear
plate slotted through the chord pipe and where the brace is used merely as a
circumference for the grommet or wire ropes to sling around. Therefore, prior to this
study, there is no experimental and numerical data that proves convincingly that a
pure pipe trunnion is a possible option. The experimental and numerical results have
provided sufficient confidence in pipe trunnion design as these provide actual failure
modes and characteristics. The results of this study have been used as a basis for the
selection and design of the pipe trunnion in this section.
7.4.1 Selection of pure pipe trunnion
Due to the inherent characteristics that the trunnion brace is likely to suffer premature
chord plastification due to the thin chord wall, the full mobilisation of the shear
capacity of the brace may not be achieved. As observed from the results presented in
the previous chapters, there is a significant reduction in static strength of the trunnion
brace when chord plastification sets in, when the governing failure mode of the
trunnion is due to chord plastification rather than in pure shear.
Therefore one of the key elements in designing pure pipe trunnions is to select
appropriate geometric ratios, W,E and 2J, such that the governing failure mode of the
trunnion is shear failure rather than chord wall plastification. This study has presented
a simple table where the selection of an appropriate combination of non-geometric
parameters can be made. Table 7.1 reproduces the table as discussed in the precious
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chapter for different combinations of W, E and 2J. The table is derived from the
proposed interaction diagram between chord plastification and pure shear capacity of
the trunnion. This provides a simple method where a quick selection can be made for
a pure pipe trunnion design, so that a preliminary design can be made without
extensive calculations or trial and error.
Table 7.1 Failure mode of pure pipe trunnions
W = 0.46 2J0 = 10 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 20 2J0 = 25 2J0 = 30

W = 0.75 2J0 = 10 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 20 2J0 = 25 2J0 = 30

E = 0.28 shear chord yield yield yield
E = 0.70 shear shear shear shear chord
W = 1.00 2J0 = 10 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 20 2J0 = 25 2J0 = 30

E = 0.28 chord chord chord yield yield
E = 0.54 chord chord chord chord chord
Based on the table above, an appropriate selection can be made of a pure pipe
trunnion that satisfies the criteria to achieve full static strength of fabricated trunnion.
The selection is limited since many of the combinations are governed by chord
plastification and associated indentation, which limits the development of full shear
strength of the brace. A designer should make a choice based on the available
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sections.
In this example, the following parameters are selected:
W = 0.75
E = 0.70
2J = 25
7.4.2 Verifying chord and brace sizes
Taking the most unfavourable position of sling and based on the 55%-45%
distribution of the sling over the two sides of the sling, the design force for the
trunnion is given by F1 and F2 as below. The diagram in Figure 7.1 shows the
reactions acting on the brace and the chord wall.
F1 = 0.45 x 19,284 = 8,678kN
F2 = 0.55 x 19,284 = 10,606kN
Thus each trunnion brace must be designed to take a shear load of 10,606kN,
assuming that the full shear static capacity can be mobilised. The shear capacity of the
brace, V1, is given by:
1
2 S d m1 t1 f y1
V1 (7.1)
3
We choose then an available size for brace of 36” x 1.5” and the yield strength is
355N/mm2. The shear strength is V1 = 10,713kN. Thus the brace dimension of 36” x
1.5” of 355N/mm2 can be used for this lifting point. (It should be noted here that for
the purpose of calculation, other factors like dynamic actions and site specific
conditions that call for special considerations where extra safety factors may be
224
applied are not considered here.)
Hence the chord that corresponds to the non-geometric parameters is 54” x 2.0” with
yield strength of 355N/mm2 or higher. The above selection is within the non-
dimensional geometric parameters of W = 0.75, E = 0.67, and 2J = 27.
wt
w1
RA RB
F1 F2
Figure 7.1 Reactions acting on the pure pipe trunnion brace by the grommet
It is important to note that in order for the full shear capacity to be fully mobilised
without a reduction due to bending moment, the trunnion width, w1, from the chord
wall to the loading point should be based on the following relation as stated in
Chapter 6 and presented in Equations 7.2 and 7.3. The interaction equation, which
gives the maximum trunnion width, w1, allowed so that there is no reduction in shear
capacity.
225
§ V yura · §M ·
2 2
0.84 ¨¨ ¸ ¨ yura
¸ ¨M
¸
¸ 1 (7.2)
© Vmax ¹ © max ¹
w1 0.28d1 (7.3)
Thus for brace of 36” , w1 is 255mm. Therefore the basic trunnion dimensions that can
accommodate the required vertical lifting load of 16,700kN is as follows:
Chord of I54” x 2.0” x 355N/mm2
Brace of I36” x 1.5” x 355N/mm2
The above selection and verification of the suitable brace and chord used for the
calculation becomes very convenient and suitable for complex trunnion design where
heavy lifting operations are required. However, as indicated earlier, it was found that
the use of pure pipe trunnions is restrictive since there are many non-dimensional
geometrical ranges that are unsuitable for the design. It poses a problem when
materials are limited and fabrication cost could become an issue. Here a more
effective method can be used to expand the range of non-geometric parameters to
include sections that are not possible under the pure pip trunnion option. This is an
important contribution as the concept has been established in this study.
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7.5 Through pipe trunnion option
Sometimes, the design of trunnions for lifting purposes is dependent on available
materials and also the need for speed and low cost of fabrication. From the study, it
was concluded that a new configuration of the pipe trunnion could be another option
in place of the pure pipe trunnions. This is because of the inherent advantages in terms
of its simplicity in design and the reduction in the need for thick chord wall.
Generally, through pipe trunnions reduces the effect of chord plastification effectively
since the internal wall of the chord is strengthened against chord indentation. This
enables the brace to fully mobilise its shear capacity before chord indentation even
when the chord wall is thinner. The selection here illustrates the potential use of
through pipe trunnions.
One important contribution from the use of pure pipe trunnions is the extension of the
range of non-dimensional geometric parameters that can be used in the selection of
brace and chord dimensions, which can become an issue under real site conditions. As
described in this study, most of the range, which was off-limits to pure pipe trunnions,
can be used in the trunnion joint design.
7.5.1 Selection of chord and brace sizes
The same design scenario was posed for the selection of the materials to produce the
required vertical lifting load of 16,700kN. Thus each trunnion brace must be designed
to take a shear load of 10,606kN, assuming that the full shear static capacity can be
mobilised.
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Based on Table 7.1, a brace of I36” x 1.5” x 355N/mm2 and a chord of I54” x 2.0” x
355N/mm2 was designed for the required lifting arrangement with W = 0.75, E = 0.67,
and 2J = 27 for a pure pipe trunnion. There is always situation where due to practical
restraints, where the chord available is I54” x 1.75” rather than a I54” x 2.0” or
where a brace of I36” x 1.5” is not available, but there is a I30” x 1.5” . Such situation
leads to dilemma in fabrication since the perfect combination can be tricky to be
achieved.
From the results of the current study, the increase in joint resistance from an inserted
brace through the chord wall allows a whole new range sections that can be used. For
example, a chord of I54” x 1.75” x 355N/mm2 in combination with a brace of I36” x
1.5” x 355N/mm2 is still admissible when designed as a through pipe trunnion rather
than as a pure pipe trunnion without significant cost involved in fabrication or design
works. Table 7.2 shows the possible range of non-dimensional geometric range
available when a through pipe trunnion is used. This compares favourably vis-a-vis
Table 7.1.
Since the brace is I36” x 1.5” x 355N/mm2, the re-designed trunnion joint is able to
carry the required vertical lifting load of 16,700kN, even though there is no additional
re-design. In fact, other combinations of brace and chord are possible using the
through pipe trunnion concept. Figure 7.4 shows the re-designed through pipe
trunnion. The only difference is in terms of the slotted through pipe and the width, w1,
of 255mm which still governs in order to fully mobilise the resistance against the
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shear load.
Table 7.2 Failure mode of through pipe trunnions

W = 0.46 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 20 2J0 = 25 2J0 = 30
W = 0.75 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 20 2J0 = 25 2J0 = 30

E = 0.28 shear shear yield yield yield
W = 1.00 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 15 2J0 = 20 2J0 = 25 2J0 = 30

E = 0.28 shear shear shear yield yield
wt
w1
RA RB
F1 F2
Figure 7.2 Reactions acting on the through pipe trunnion brace by the grommet
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7.6 Combined pipe and shear plate trunnion option
It was discussed in the earlier section that Brown & Root (1990) or Shell (1992) do
not recommend the use of pipe trunnions in the calculation of combined pipe and
shear plate trunnions. As a result, the shear plate section is generally very large. Since
the brace has been provided as a circumference for the sling, brace size and thickness
was large even though it is not considered in the calculation. Thus, trunnion design is
usually very conservative and restrictive.
The numerical and experimental results in this study have shown that the brace
contributes significantly whether in combination with the shear plate or designed as a
standalone pure pipe or through pipe trunnion. The preceding sections have shown
that both pure pipe and through pipe trunnions can be effectively designed to carry the
required vertical load of 16,700kN. Through the new understanding as presented in
this report, more options are available and more confidence can be placed in
designing trunnions.
Here, a full design of the combined shear and pipe trunnion is presented, including
standard design checks in terms of stresses developed for the components. Since the
current design practice do not include shear strength from brace, the calculation will
be based on a comparison with the earlier two options by considering only shear plate
strength here.
This section highlights that trunnion design can be designed effectively using three
different options and the shear strength contribution from brace is significant and
should be included in the design.
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7.6.1 Design load considerations and layout
The above forces are used to check for the integrity of the brace, shear plates and the
stiffener plates used in the design of the lifting point. Figure 7.3 shows a schematic
diagram of the trunnion arrangement, geometry and the direction of forces acting on
the trunnion. The main chord body is designed to be aligned in the same angle as the
sling force, Fsl, so that the shear force of pipe and shear plate can be fully effective in
the direction of loading from the grommet. The main chord body should be
strengthened with additional stiffeners for attachment to the deck level as supports.
The design has been adapted from internal report of Heerema (1987) as a basis of
comparison.
Section X-X is shown in Figure 7.4, which shows the main components of a pipe
trunnion, including main chord body, shear plate slotted through the chord wall, brace
circular hollow section, stiffeners, and the most unfavourable or most conservative
arrangement of the sling acting on the trunnion stub. The sling force is designed for
the load furthest from the chord wall. The stiffeners are provided to ensure that the
brace do not suffer local buckling before the full sling force has been transmitted
through the shear plate. Taking the most unfavourable position of sling and based on
the 45%/55% distribution of the sling over the two sides of the sling, the design force
for the trunnion is given by F1 and F2 below. Figure 7.5 shows distribution of the
sling forces on both sides of trunnion.
F1 = 0.45 x 19,284 = 8,678kN
F2 = 0.55 x 19,284 = 10,606kN
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Sling force, Fs
Keeper plate
X Shear plate
Brace
Stiffeners
Extended main
Deck level chord body
Figure 7.3 Schematic view of the trunnion configuration in the design
Taking F2, the most conservative estimate of the load distribution, as the design load,
the perpendicular force acting on the keeper plate is F2h where:
F2h = 0.05 x 10,606 = 530kN (maximum)
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Chord wall Shear plate
Brace width
Stiffener plate
Shear plate
height
Grommet (near to Grommet (near to

chord wall) keeper plate)
Figure 7.4 Section X-X view of the trunnion configuration in the design
The reactions acting on the trunnion brace due to the grommet sling, as shown in
Figure 7.5, are given by RA and RB (both sides of the chord wall) respectively as
follows:
Taking moment about point B,
RA = (8,678 x (1,321 + 167) x 1,488 – 10,606 x 0.255) / 1,321 = 7,728kN
RB = 19,284 – 7,728 = 11,556kN
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wt
w1
F1 RA RB F2
Figure 7.5 Reactions acting on the trunnion brace by the grommet
7.6.2 Selection of main parameters
It is recommended to use the same parameters as selected from the design of the pure
pipe trunnion. That is W = 0.75, E = 0.70, and 2J = 25.
Assuming that main deck is provided with a chord extension, which can be used as
the main chord body of the trunnion. The chord is of diameter I54” x 2” thick and the
yield strength used here is 355 N/mm2. The following are some assumptions made in
the following calculations. Selecting the same brace size used earlier, i.e. 36” x 1.5”
and w1 of 255mm. This fulfils the geometric dimensions as recommended. The chord
is then checked for joint resistance against bending moment as follows:
The shear plate in this design provides the necessary shear strength to the trunnion.
The design strength of shear plate on one side of the chord may be taken as follows. It
234
is noted in the research that the shear plate height should be designed such that the
length extends beyond the brace diameter of 36” . A height of 1,550mm is used. It is
necessary to select a shear plate thickness that can carry the required sling load. The
shear strength of the shear plate is given by Vs.
2 d s t s f ys
Vs (7.4)
3
1550 t s 355
Vs = = 10,606kN
3
Therefore the required thickness for shear plate is minimum 1.5” . Choose a section of
shear plate of size 2.0” for this example. Depending on the design requirement in
terms of safety due to dynamic effects or other site conditions, an increase in the shear
plate from 50.8mm to 4” (101.6mm) would provide a higher design factor of safety in
the design when necessary.
7.6.3 Checks for trunnion brace
Based on the sling force distribution as shown in Figure 7.6, the following are used to
estimate the forces acting on the trunnion.
Fsl = 10,606 kN
Sling force distribution is given by:
F3 = 0.55 x 10,606 = 5,833 kN
F4 = 0.45 x 10,606 = 4,773 kN
q = F/R = (5833 x 103)/(914/2) = 12,764 N/mm
235
F3
F4
Figure 7.6 Distribution of forces on both sides of the trunnion brace
Consider the effect of sling flattening and using a sling diameter of 282 mm, the area
of the sling is 62,458 mm2. Assuming that the sling flattens to 1.25 of its diameter
under loading, the length L becomes 353mm, as shown in Figure 7.7. This gives the
flat portion acting on the brace a length, B, of 151mm.
Flattened grommet
Figure 7.7 Distribution of width after the grommet is flattened
236
Assuming that the stiffeners used is 32 mm thick, the bearing stress acting on the
trunnion pipe and stiffeners is shown in Figure 7.8. The bearing stresses are less than
355 N/mm2.
Bearing stress on trunnion pipe = 12764/151 = 85 N/mm2
Compression on stiffeners = 12764/2x32 = 199 N/mm2
Chord wall Stiffeners
Figure 7.8 Bearing stress distribution on brace and stiffeners
7.6.4 Checks for shear plate
The effective width for stress distribution into shear plate is shown in Figure 7.10.
Assuming a stress distribution angle of 45o from the bottom of the shear plate through
the thickness, therefore
Width at the base of the shear plate is 50.8 + 2 x 38.1 = 127mm
Force directly through the shear plate = 12764 x 127 = 1,621kN
Effective width from grommet = 151 + 2 x 38.1 = 227mm
Bearing stress through shear plate = 1621 x 103 /227 = 71 N/mm2
237
F6
F7
F5
Figure 7.9 Forces acting through the shear plate
y
1
Shear plate sections:
ts = 50.8 mm
fy = 355 N/mm2 2
x x
A = 50.8 x 1550 = 155,000 mm2
Figure 7.10 Section properties of the shear plate
Elastic section modulus:
Sx = 1/6 x 50.8 x 15502 = 20.34 x 106 mm3
Sy = 1/6 x 1550 x 50.82 = 0.67 x 106 mm3
238
Moments acting through sections x-x and y-y:
Mx = 10606 x 0.255 = 2,705kNm
My = 530 x 0.255 = 135kNm
Stresses at the extreme point 1:
V x 106)/(20.34 x 106) + (135 x 106)/(0.67 x 106)
V1 = 133 + 201 = 334N/mm2
W1 = 0
Stresses at the extreme point 2:
V (135 x 106)/(0.67 x 106) = 52N/mm2

W2 = 3/2 V/A = 3/2 x 10606/155000 = 102N/mm2
Vc = ¥V22 + 3W22) = 184N/mm2
Where Sx and Sy are the elastic section modulus of the shear plate and Mx and My are
the moment acting across the x-x and y-y sections of the shear plate. The maximum
stresses due to the moments, Mx and My are respectively Vx and Vy. The combined
stresses for both extreme points are within the yield stress of 355N/mm2.
7.6.5 Checks for chord wall
The stress through the shear plate and chord wall is checked
Chord wall thickness, t0 = 50.8mm
Chord yield strength,V0 = 355N/mm2
Force acting directly through the chord wall, RB = 11,556kN
239
f0 = (11556 x 103)/(2 x 50.8 x 1550) = 73 N/mm2
It is concluded that the above stress checks confirm that the selection of the shear
plate of 2” is sufficient for the design.
7.7 Conclusions
The above sections presented three different trunnion options. All the three different
types of trunnion are able to satisfy the required lifting load. However, it is observed
from the calculations that the best option is either the pure pipe trunnion or the
through pipe trunnion. The combined shear plate and pipe trunnion requires additional
materials, higher cost of fabrication and longer preparation time to handle, whereas
the other two options are direct and do not require any special treatment.
The above calculations fulfil the objectives of the study to understand the behaviour
of trunnion subjected to shear and bending moment, generate formulations and design
guide in the selection of trunnion components and provide greater confidence in the
design through a deeper understanding of trunnion behaviour.
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Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Work
CHAPTER EIGHT
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

FOR FUTURE WORK
8.1 Overview of experimental study
In an attempt to fill the gap due to a lack of experimental data that can be used to
benchmark the static strength of fabricated trunnions subjected to shear and in-plane
bending loads, the author has embarked on an extensive testing program to enhance
the knowledge base of test results for reference and provide a rational basis for
assessing the static strength for design considerations.
The experimental programme was conducted using five different configurations of
fabricated trunnions and tubular X-joints of varying brace lengths. These
configurations include pipe trunnions (with attached brace pipes only), pipe trunnions
(with slotted shear plates), pipe trunnions (with through brace pipes), pipe trunnions
(with combined shear plates and brace pipes), and tubular X-joints (with varying
brace lengths). The ranges of non-dimensional geometric parameters covered in the
241
investigation comprise brace-to-chord diameter ratios, 0.64 < E < 0.80; brace-to-chord
wall thickness ratios, 0.66 < W0 < 1.10; and chord diameter-to-wall thickness ratios, 27
< 2J0 < 40. There were a total of twenty-five fabricated trunnion specimens tested in
the Structural Engineering Laboratory in National University of Singapore.
Seventeen of the specimens were tested in a state-of-the-art test rig which was first
designed specially for these set of specimens in order to achieve the required test
loads and loading configuration. Since the expected load carrying capacity of the
trunnion is large, it is important that a test rig with substantial load magnitude (up to
1,000 tonne capacity) be built to ensure that there is no scale effect that may mask
possible failure mechanisms of the fabricated trunnions. All the specimens were tested
to their ultimate load and the author was able to collect a significant set of results,
which have been used to benchmark the ultimate load carrying capacities of the
different trunnions.
Prior to the large pipe trunnion test, the author attempted to understand the load
transfer mechanism of grommet sling on fabricated trunnion in the laboratory. The
first set of eight specimens were tested using a self-straining test frame and special
design features to accommodate the grommet for the simulation of shear and in plane
bending loads on the trunnions. This set of test is significant as it provided a good
basis and understanding to design the 1,000 tonne capacity test rig for testing the
larger trunnion specimens. The range of non-dimensional geometric parameters in this
initial series cover 0.52 < E < 0.77; 0.37 < W0 < 0.86; and 10 < 2J < 17.
The range of non-dimensional geometric parameters in the two series of tests covered
a sufficiently large range for calibration of the numerical methods and subsequent
242
parametric studies. As a result of the two sets of fabricated trunnion specimens tested,
the range of geometric parameters included a wide spectrum of ratios, with 0.52 < E <
0.80, 0.37 < W0 < 1.10, and 10 < 2J0 < 40, and these cover a practical range of
parameters as used in the industry.
8.2 Overview of numerical and parametric studies
One of the objectives of the present research is to generate additional results through
validated numerical models after careful calibration with the experimental results.
The numerical study was conducted to establish the basis for additional parametric
study so that a fully verified range of the trunnion parameters can be investigated.
All the twenty-five specimens were analysed using the measured data from the
experimental programmes. The complete finite element model using solid elements
with graded meshes was defined with proper material definition and loading
conditions. The numerical results showed close agreement with the experimental
results and this has provided a good basis to extend the study through an extensive
parametric study.
The results of these parametric studies have been compiled and compared with current
recommendations and guidance available in the industry. It is found that current
design recommendations are conservative. The author then proposes design
formulations which are established from the parametric study to provide assistance to
designers in choosing the appropriate parameters in trunnion design. The proposed
design guidance can be useful for quick and reliable checking in the design of
trunnions.
243
8.3 Overview of trunnion calculations
A set of trunnion calculations for fabricated pipe trunnion is presented in the thesis to
provide guidance to the designer on the choice of key parameters in proportioning the
trunnion. The sample calculations include the steps in establishing the design loads
and the selection of appropriate dimensions of the trunnion components: brace, shear
plate, keeper plate and stiffeners. This will help to eliminate uncertainties in the
design process. The calculations include only parameters that are important and
crucial to the overall design of the trunnion. It is important that the designer accounts
for the site conditions or special considerations which may vary considerably for
different projects.
8.4 Main findings and conclusions
The experimental, numerical and parametric studies conducted in this research project
have yielded important findings that are critical to the design of trunnions. The
following are key findings:
1. It is observed from the first set of small pipe trunnion experimental
tests for the three different configurations of fabricated trunnion
specimens tested (as reported in Chapter 2) that there is significant
level of ductility in the trunnion irregardless of the configuration. For
the materials selected for the trunnions, there is very low probability of
the trunnion suffering premature failure due to sudden fracture.
Progressive yielding is observed during the loading stages and the
load-deformation plots provide well defined ultimate failure loads. The
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failure modes of these specimens are predominantly shear failure
through fracture of the shear-loaded arm of the trunnion.
2. It is observed that there is significant reserve strength and ductility for
the fabricated pipe trunnions (as reported in Chapter 2 and 3) for the
configurations investigated, with the failure mode predominantly in
shear. This is advantages as the ductility will provide appropriate
forewarning of the potential failure of a lifting point.
3. The experimental results for pipe trunnions with attached brace pipes
only (as reported in Section 2.4.1 and 3.4.1) confirm that the existing
design recommendations in neglecting the strength contribution of the
attached brace is overly conservative.
4. It is reported in Section 2.4.1 and 3.4.1 that the strength of pipe
trunnions with attached brace pipes under in-plane bending moment
has a direct impact on the magnitude of shear load that can be
mobilised by the brace (through the shear plate and brace pipe). When
the chord pipe has high resistance against chord plastification, the pipe
trunnion may be designed to fully mobilise the effective shear strength
of the brace.
5. It is reported in Section 2.4.2 that the combined shear resistance of a
pipe trunnion designed to include the contributions of both the brace
and shear plate indicates that the existing design recommendation
provides a significant under-estimation of the strength of the combined
case. The individual strength contributions of the shear plate and the
brace pipe tested separately showed that the combined strength
provides a good correlation to the observed static strength (as noted in
245
Section 2.4.2). Thus it is observed that pipe trunnions with side braces
may be used to effectively transfer the shear load. This needs to be
correlated with proper precautions in selecting pipes with through-
thickness properties and compatible welding consumables.
6. In the large fabricated pipe trunnion tests (as reported in Chapter 3),
the joint strength subjected to in-plane bending moment was used as a
reference to assess the failure modes of the specimens: chord
indentation or shear. It is observed that when joint strength under in-
plane bending moment is high, the trunnion brace fails by shear. This
observation was also confirmed in the numerical study (as noted in
Section 6.2).
7. It was shown in the tests (as reported in Section 3.4.2) that through
pipe trunnions can be designed to overcome the effect of chord
indentation failure. It is possible for pipe trunnions with side braces,
which is low in shear capacity due to the thin chord wall adopted, to be
re-designed to carry significantly higher shear load through inserting a
brace through the chord pipe.
8. The experimental results for the large pipe trunnions with combined
shear plates and side braces (as reported in Section 3.4.3) show that
there is a need to ensure that the chord diameter-to-wall thickness ratio
is sufficiently low (to give the correct 2J ratio) to sustain the full shear
load if the edge of the shear plate which is subjected to compression is
not prevented from lateral buckling. Otherwise, effective shear strength
of the shear plate cannot be fully mobilised and may result in buckling
of the shear plate internally within the chord pipe.
246
9. The nonlinear finite element analyses (as reported in Chapter 5) have
demonstrated the ability to track the progressive collapse, failure mode
and corresponding strength of fabricated pipe trunnions of various
configurations. These form a strong basis for the numerical parametric
study of fabricated pipe trunnions.
10. From the numerical study, it was observed (in Section 6.2.2) that when
E and W remain constant, the static strength of the pipe trunnions
decreases when the 2J ratio increases. This is due to the change in the
governing shear failure mode to that of chord indentation when the
chord wall becomes thinner.
11. From the numerical study, it was observed (in Section 6.2.3) that when
2J and E remains constant, the static strength of the pipe trunnions
increases when the W ratio increases, due to an increase in the shear
capacity of the brace.
12. It is concluded (in Section 6.2.2) that the increase in trunnion strength
as W increases becomes less prominent as the E ratio decreases. Thus as
the E ratio reduces from 0.90 and below, it reaches a level where there
is a very marginal increase in static strength with W for that E ratio. In
fact, for specimens with E = 0.28, the static strength is observed to
remain constant.
13. Based on the observations and review of the design shear resistance, it
is observed (as reported in Section 6.4.2) that the trunnion strength
under in-plane bending moment may be used as a reference for relating
the transition of failure mode from chord plastification to brace shear.
247
14. An interaction equation was obtained based on the analysis of the
experimental and numerical results, which relates to the transition from
shear to bending moment effects (as reported in Section 6.4.3).
8.5 Proposals for future research
Due to the lack of previous experimental tests prior to this research, an extensive
number of laboratory tests on fabricated trunnions with a wide range of geometric
parameters have been conducted. The different configurations of trunnions tested
included pipe trunnions and through pipe trunnions that can be designed to transfer
larger sling loads for use in heavy lifting.
Moving forward, research may be conducted on the behaviour of the fabricated
trunnions subjected to shear and out-of-plane bending loads. During certain
installation procedures, large out-of-plane forces and associated moments may be
imposed on the fabricated trunnion. The governing failure load for this case will likely
be significantly different from the in-plane loading mode. The proposed research is
important for a better understanding of fabricated trunnions subjected to loading
conditions which has not be investigated in the present study.
There is currently a lack of data on the potential fracture at the interface between the
main chord and brace which may be critical for lifting operations to be carried out in
arctic offshore oil & gas fields. In view of the advancement in fracture mechanics and
numerical techniques, computational models may be developed to provide a better
understanding of these potential effects.
248
Due to the complexities of the experimental works and limited resources available,
the research study conducted do not take into account the effects that residual stresses,
geometrical imperfections or past local buckling may have on the results presented.
These effects may affect the ultimate load capacity and should be studied.
In summary, there is incentive to enhance the knowledge base of fabricated trunnion
through various studies to provide robust and safe designs for the heavy lifting
installations of offshore structures.
249
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General Aspects Regarding Finite Element Analyses On Tubular Joints

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSES

advances in finite element method as well as reduction cost of computations have

extensive investigation on the uni-planar and multi-planar X- and T- joints was

conducted by Vegte (1995). The numerical analyses utilized primarily eight-noded

thick shell elements.

In addition, Lee et al (1995) presented research on the accuracy of studies on mesh

discretisation, boundary conditions and material properties in the numerical study of

programmes hope to cover.

garbage out”, relying on computational mechanics means that a thorough

parametric simulations in the subsequent chapters.

4.2 Finite element programs and hardware used

software package. PATRAN is a powerful software that enables a good geometric

representation of the modelling of the specimen. The PATRAN model of the

non-linear finite element programme post-processor ABAQUS.

4.3 Main characteristics of finite element work on tubular joints

solutions to the finite element computations.

4.3.1 Finite element mesh and boundary conditions

elements in the finite element computational is important.

appropriate boundary conditions, was considered in the analysis. The boundary

symmetry, the nodal displacements perpendicular to the plane of symmetry are

used in ABAQUS (2000), the notations are listed below.

The symmetry conditions in ABAQUS can be specified conveniently in terms of the

x XSYMM and ZSYMM, ux=uz=)x )y=)z=0

x ENCASTRE, ux=uy=uz=)x )y=)z=0

4.3.2 Finite element types

associated reduction in computational effort.

converting an engineering stress-strain curve for a material into a true stress-strain

consisted of iterations to achieve convergence within the step. In ABAQUS, the

Newton-Raphson iteration method was implemented to obtain equilibrium within

moments exceeds a certain small tolerance, recycling was continued within an

displacement and ultimate load.

4.3.3 Loading of the joints

several steps by load-controlled method, while under the displacement-controlled

the effect of applied load.

4.3.4 Modelling of the post-yield material property

stress-strain curve. The engineering stress-strain curves have been determined

experimentally by tensile coupon tests. Integration of the deformation rate in a uni-

axial tensile specimen gives the logarithmic strains.

multilinear relationship. The following relationships define the conversion required

from the engineering to true stress-strain.

where H : true strain

In all numerical analyses, the true stress-strain curve is modelled as a multi-linear

relationship. These multi-linear relationships have been obtained after converting an

engineering stress-strain curve for a material into a true stress-strain curve. In

4.3.5 Iteration procedure and convergence criteria

consisted of iterations to achieve convergence within the step. In ABAQUS, the

Newton-Raphson iteration method was implemented to obtain equilibrium within

moments exceeds a certain small tolerance, recycling was continued within an

Figure 4.3 Effect of mesh on the finite element results

4.3.6 Numerical modelling of weld geometry

4.4 Numerical analysis for the experimental tests

all the specimens modelled.

parameters have on the trunnions and tubular X-joints.

following hold true for these models:

(i) The modelling was based on solid models.

engineering stress-strain curves to the true stress-strain curves. The latter

conditions to prevent rigid body movement.

(vi) Full Newton-Raphson iterations have been applied.

(vii) Twenty-nodes solid elements including reduced integration (C3D20R) is

used in the modelling.

the same load-deformation charts.

5.1 Research programme and general finite element aspects