New Applications for Resistivity Tools With advances in logging technology, the leading oilfield technology companies have

developed an impressive array of tools for a broad range application. In this section, we will discuss a variety of high resolution resistivity tools. Resistivity Imaging Tools Resistivity imaging tools were introduced during the mid-1980s, as an outgrowth of dipmeter technology. These tools utilize four to six independent arms, each with articulating pads containing multiple electrodes. This combination of multiple pads and numerous electrodes results in vastlyimproved vertical resolution -to the tune of mere fractions of an inch. A typical tool emits an electrical "survey" current into the formation, while another current focuses and maintains a high-resolution measurement. The currents measured by each electrode vary according to formation conductivity, which reflects changes in fluid properties, permeability, porosity, rock composition, and grain texture. These variations are processed and converted into synthetic color or gray-scale images, which are interpreted according to the following convention: Light Colors -reflect low micro-conductivity zones, (low porosity, low permeability and high resistivity) Dark Colors -reflect high micro-conductivity zones, (high porosity, high permeability and low resistivity) Resistivity Imaging Applications Borehole imagers use a fixed-contrast presentation for gross correlations, and a dynamic averaging display to enhance local features. The fixed, or absolute contrast allows the viewer to correlate color values between different zones of interest within the well, or between images from different wells. The dynamic averaging display is applied to local events, to allow the viewer to distinguish features on a smaller scale, such as oil-filled pores, or tight sands.

When integrated with a traditional suite of logs, the images produced by a resistivity imaging tool enable the analyst to differentiate laminated reservoirs from low-permeability shaly sands. The tool produces quantitative, highresolution micro-resistivity measurements that aid in estimating hydrocarbon saturation and reserves in thin-bedded reservoirs, thus improving the net pay estimation of laminated reservoirs. Resistivity Imaging Services Each of the three leading oilfield technology companies offers their own unique version of the resistivity imaging tool. And because each company has its own impressive design, we will feature a photo of each. Examples include: Halliburton Electrical Micro Imaging (EMI TM)Tool This tool has six independent arms, with an articulating pad on each arm (Figure 1: EMITM tool, courtesy of Halliburton Energy Services).

Figure 1

Each pad contains 25 sensors, with a resolution of 0.2 inches. The central

button on each pad produces high-definition quantitative resistivity measurements with a depth of investigation comparable to a short guard or digital focused log (Murphy, 1996). This tool is rated to 350 F, and 20,000 psi. The EMI tool maps formation micro-conductivity with its pad-mounted button electrodes. The current of each button is recorded as a curve, sampled at 0.1 inch (0.25 centimeters), or 120 samples per foot. The curves reflect the relative micro-conductivity variations within the formation. These current variations are converted to synthetic color or gray-scaled images. Light colors represent low micro-conductivity, while dark colors reflect high microconductivity zones. Evaluating thin-bed formations with a high-resolution resistivity curve will help to reduce the risk of miscalculating hydrocarbon reserves. The log in Figure 2 shows a comparison between a quantitative, high-resolution resistivity curve obtained from one EMITM button (Track 3) and DFL and HDRS curves (Track 4) obtained with the High Resolution Induction tool. The neutron/density curves are shown in Track 5.

Figure 2

Using the high-resolution resistivity measurement results in improved saturation calculations and more realistic net pay estimations. Schlumberger Formation MicroImager (FMI TM) Tool In addition to a 24-button microelectrical array pad on each of four arms (192 buttons total), the FMITM mounts an extendable pad below each arm, to increase pad coverage to about 80% of an 8-inch borehole. (Figure 3: FMITM Tool; courtesy of Schlumberger Oilfield Services) Resolution is 0.2 inch (5mm),

Figure 3

and the tool is rated to 350r F, and 20,000 psi. Hybrid Resistivity Imaging Devices In this section, we discuss two rather unique imaging devices, each of which features specialized capabilities and operating modes.

Baker Atlas Simultaneous Acoustic/Resistivity (STARTM) Tool Rather than taking only resistivity measurements, this tool simultaneously acquires high-resolution images of borehole features that have resistivity contrast or acoustic impedance. This combination of acoustic and resistivity measurements partially compensates for any shortcomings inherent in either of the individual measurements. The six-arms on the tool use a powered standoff to improve pad contact with the borehole, thus providing resistivity coverage of 60% of an 8-inch hole, and 100% acoustic coverage. (Figure 4: STARTM Tool; courtesy of Baker Atlas.)

Figure 4

The tool is rated to 350r F. Schlumberger Azimuthal Resistivity Imager (ARITM) Tool Instead of relying on pad contact, this tool uses an array of 12 azimuthal electrodes, spaced 30 degrees apart. (Figure 5: Conceptual drawing of ARITM tool; courtesy of Schlumberger Oilfield Services).

Figure 5

This dual laterolog array is able to measure deep resistivity, but with a vertical resolution of only eight inches. This makes for a laterolog reading that is similar to the laterolog deep curve, but with a vertical resolution that approaches that of the MSFL curve. As an imaging tool, the ARITM is less sensitive to borehole rugosity than the FMI electrical imaging tool, and can also provide coarse structural dip measurements. The tool was developed for evaluation of heterogeneous reservoirs, thin-bed analysis, and fracture identification. It is rated to 350rF, and 20,000 psi. Consult your logging representative for more information on the resistivity imaging services that their company can provide. Digital Array Induction Logs Digital array induction tools use multiple receivers and multiple logging frequencies which provide capabilities that are not available with conventional induction tools.

Longer receiver coil spacings enable the determination of accurate Rt estimates, even in the presence of deep invasion. Short coil spacings provide information that is used to correct for borehole and near-borehole effects. Better vertical resolution. Array Induction Applications The array induction device provides improved vertical resolution capabilities in thin beds. These measurements are used to evaluate complicated reservoirs having thin beds (down to 1 foot thick) or having deep or unusual invasion profiles. Array Induction Services Each of the three leading oilfield technology companies offers their own unique version of the resistivity imaging tool. Examples of such resistivity imaging devices include: Baker Atlas High-Definition Induction Log (HDILTM) The HDIL provides an order of magnitude more information than conventional induction tools. The HDIL tool investigates the formation at median depths of 10, 20, 30, 60, 90, and 120 inches, and is thus able to present a precisely defined invasion profile. And identical readings by the 90-inch and 120-inch depth measurements are used to provide a direct indication of Rt. HDIL data can be processed in either of two modes to best suit reservoir conditions: HDIL true resolution data processing provides very accurate formation resistivity values by minimizing effects that near-borehole features can cast on deep-reading curves. Using this format, the vertical resolution of the curves varies with the depth of investigation. HDIL resolution-matched processing is used in thin-bed reservoirs, where bed boundary effects can limit the accuracy of deeper investigating measurements. To improve interpretation in

this situation, high-resolution data near the borehole are added to the deeper measurements so that all curves are presented with the same matched vertical resolution, of 1, 2, or 4 feet. Schlumberger Array Induction Imager Tool (AITTM) This tool uses 8 induction-coil arrays operating at multiple frequencies to generate five resistivity curves. The log curves have median depths of investigation of 10, 20, 30, 60, and 90 inches, and vertical resolution options of 1 foot, 2 feet, and 4 feet. When the logs are radially deconvolved to produce a detailed radial description of formation conductivity, the conductivity description can be presented as a color-coded image or as discrete log curves. Halliburton High Resolution Induction (HRITM) Tool tool features five radii of investigation (90, 60, 50, 40, 30, and 24 inches). Their log also displays a resistivity map to indicate formation resistivity as a function of depth and radial distance from the HRI tool. Consult your logging representative for more information on the array induction services that their company can provide. 3D Multicomponent Resistivity Tool Conventional induction logging tools use transmitter and receiver coils that are aligned with the long axis of the tool. In wells drilled perpendicular to bedding, these tools measure formation conductivity parallel to bedding. When a reservoir is composed of thinly bedded, highly conductive shales and hydrocarbon-bearing sands that are below the vertical resolution of the tool, the result is measurements experience the problematic low-contrast, lowresistivity pay effect (Mollison, 2001). Baker Atlas 3D Explorer Induction Logging Service (3DEXTM) Baker Atlas has developed a resistivity tool unique to the industry, which is designed to overcome the limitations of conventional induction tools in thin bedded, low-resistivity shaly-sand formations. The Baker Atlas 3D Explorer Induction Logging Service (3DEXTM) provides both vertical and horizontal resistivity measurements independently of borehole deviation or formation dip.

The 3DEX features three transmitter-receiver coil arrays, which are mounted orthogonally in the X, Y, and Z planes relative to the tool axis. These coil arrays provide 3-D coverage in their resistivity measurements: two coils (XX and YY) measure resistivity in transverse directions (parallel to the tool body), a third coil (ZZ) measures resistivity in the direction of conventional resistivity tools (perpendicular to the tool body) in addition, there are cross component measurements (XY and XZ). These arrays induce currents that flow, for the most part, across laminated sand-shale sequences, and are far more sensitive to hydrocarbon-bearing sand resistivity, as shown in Figure 6: Basic principle of operation: Laminated sand/shale intervals are surveyed by three orthogonal coil arrays.

Figure 6

Inversion processing of XX-YY-ZZ measurements obtained through the tools orthogonal coil configuration are used to determine vertical and horizontal resistivity Rv and Rh. The 3DEX horizontal resistivity is always determined parallel to the bedding plane, consequently, the vertical resistivity is always measured perpendicular to the bedding plane. Thus, regardless of changes in borehole deviation or apparent strike and dip, the 3DEX measurements of Rv and Rh remain properly oriented to the formation bedding. Where there is a difference in values between Rv and Rh, the formation is said to be electrically anisotropic. Electrical Anisotropy Effect Conventional induction logging tools are limited to measurements in one dimension because their sensors are aligned along the length of the tool (its Zaxis). Such measurements are satisfactory only when formations are at least as thick as the tools vertical resolution, which is generally several feet. In the presence of small apparent formation dips, the conventional induction tools induce currents that mainly flow in the highly conductive beds (typically shales) of hydrocarbon bearing sections. Thus, when pay zones occur within thinly bedded sand-shale sequences, the conventional horizontal induction measurement is dominated by the lowest resistivity, usually found in the shale layers. As a result of this induced current flow pattern, the horizontal resistivity (Rh) is relatively insensitive to the higher resistivity of the hydrocarbon-bearing sands. In this manner, relatively small volumes of conductive shale can significantly reduce the apparent resistivity, thereby reducing the accuracy of computed hydrocarbon saturations for the sand layers. Vertical resistivity, however, is dominated by the highest resistivity component. In a hydrocarbon reservoir, Rv measurements provide more information on the resistive sand components, thus yielding more accurate fluid saturations in the sand layers. The 3DEX tool capitalizes on this principal, with coil arrays aligned to resolve vertical resistivity. In a thinly laminated sand-shale sequence, effective horizontal and vertical resistivities are derived through parallel and series resistor models. The corresponding formulae are:

(Equation 1) where Rh Rsh Rsd Vsh Vsd such Vsh + Vsd = 1 and (Equation 2) where Rv = Rsh = Rsd = Vsh = Vsd = sand volume

= = = = = shale

horizontal shale sand volume, sand

resistivity resistivity, resistivity and volume that

horizontal shale sand shale volume,

resistivity resistivity, resistivity and

These equations are key to understanding the important differences between horizontal and vertical resistivity. Equation 1 helps to explain how horizontal resistivity is affected by shale or by sand: horizontal resistivity (Rh) is strongly dependent on shale resistivity (usually low) and shale volume horizontal resistivity exhibits poor sensitivity to sand resistivity. Conventional induction tools, with their coils aligned along the length of the tool, are only able to measure perpendicular to formation bedding, and thus are only sensitive to horizontal resistivity. Equation 2 demonstrates that vertical resistivity averages the contributions from both sand and shale, and thereby provides a much better indicator of thin hydrocarbon-bearing sands.

The 3DEX tool capitalizes on vertical and horizontal conductivity measurements to determine the laminar shale volume and laminar sand conductivity. A Thomas-Stieber-Juhasz evaluation technique is applied to determine the volume of dispersed shale along with the total and effective porosities of the laminar sand fraction. By removing laminar shale conductivity and porosity effects, the laminated shaly sand problem is reduced to a single dispersed shaly sand model to which the Waxman-Smits equation can be applied. (For additional details, see the Petrophysical Evaluation described below.) Log Example In this example from Mollison, et al. (2000), the 3DEX tool was used to evaluate a shaly-sand interval containing three distinct zones, each of which exhibit different ranges of electrical anisotropy and shale content. The Figure 7. resulting log is shown in

Figure 7

The upper sand, from x100 to x145 feet, exhibits a fining-upward sequence of moderately shaly sand. The data show significant electrical anisotropy (Track 1), as demonstrated by the separation of Rv and Rh (Track 2). The middle sand, from x145 to x169 feet, is a gas producing zone with low shale content. This interval exhibits little anisotropy, as would be expected in a massive, high-porosity sand. The lower sand, from x169 to x220 feet, is characterized by higher shale content and higher electrical anisotropy than the upper sand. Conventional, deep-induction resistivity data, HDIL, shown in track 2, would not be able to effectively identify this interval as a potentially productive sand-shale sequence. However, the Rv and Rh data improve evaluation accuracy of the lower sand and properly identify this as a finely laminated sand interval. Petrophysical Evaluation of the Log Directional resistivity measurements from the 3D Explorer tool can be used to compute both the volume of laminar shale and the resistivity of the sand fraction of a laminated formation without reference to other measurements or shale indicators. The 3DEX petrophysical evaluation model removes the laminar shale conductivity effects by utilizing electrical anisotropy measurements Rv and Rh. In sand-shale sequences, Rv and Rh measurements provide a close link to the petrophysical model through the direct computation of laminar shale. This laminar shale volume may be compared to Thomas-Stieber style volumetric laminar shale calculations, thus yielding a validation of the both petrophysical models. Petrophysical analysis of the above log reveals that the shales are predominantly laminar, with minor amounts of dispersed shale (Track 4). In the upper sand interval (100 to 145), the calculated laminar-sand resistivity, Rsd, is 3 to 5 ;-m higher than that indicated by either the deep induction of the HDIL tool or the horizontal resistivity Rh of the 3D Explorer (Track 2). Water saturation from the laminar sand analysis is 10% to 15% lower than that

obtained by standard saturation analysis (Track 3), indicating commercial hydrocarbon production rates are probable from this interval. This comparison of laminar shale volumes may also provide valuable geological information. For example, the presence of anisotropic resistivity allows important additional interpretation as to the geometry of the layers, i.e., parallel bedding. The lack of resistivity anisotropy would point to a lack of parallel bedding, such as disturbed, folded or slumped bedding. Such intervals often tend toward low producibility. The lower sand interval, from x169 to x220 feet, is the most interesting in this well. Total shale volume in this interval is 60% to 70%. The separation between the Rh and Rv curve, together with the resulting anisotropy ratio, indicate that the formation is almost entirely laminar and thin-bedded, with an average net-to-gross ratio of 35%. Water saturation through the laminar sand is calculated at 40% to 55%, which agrees well with water saturation values obtained in the upper sand interval. The net result is a possible 18 feet of additional pay that might not have been identified by standard resistivity tools and traditional water saturation analysis methodology. The 3D Explorer can also provide supplemental measurements for the High Definition Induction Log (HDIL). It can be run on the same toolstring and and logged simultaneously, at the same logging speed required by the HDIL tool. Data processing at the wellsite is provided to expedite the decision-making process (e.g. testing and completion). Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Tools When microporosity, conductive mineralogy, or altered framework grains are the cause of low-resistivity pay problems, then perhaps an alternative approach to logging would help the formation evaluation program. In this case, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance logging, which does not depend on rock conductivity, can be used to accurately determine hydrocarbon saturation and distinguish between free water and bound water in the reservoir. (In fact, the esimation of bulk volume irreducible water, or BVI, is one of the earliest and most widely used applications of NMR logging.) The conventional neutron, bulk-density, and acoustic-travel-time porositylogging tools are influenced by components of the reservoir rock. Because reservoir rocks typically have more rock framework than fluid-filled space,

these conventional tools tend to be much more sensitive to matrix materials than to pore fluids. Conventional resistivity-logging tools, while being extremely sensitive to the fluid-filled space, are traditionally used to estimate the amount of water present in reservoir rocks, but cannot be regarded as true fluid-logging devices. These tools are strongly influenced by the presence of conductive minerals and, for the responses of these tools to be properly interpreted, a detailed knowledge of the properties of both the formation and the water in the pore space is required. NMR logging tools use a permanent magnet to produce a magnetic field that excites formation materials. An antenna transmits an oscillating magnetic field in precisely timed bursts of radio-frequency energy into the formation. Between these pulses, the antenna is used to listen for the decaying echo signal from hydrogen protons that are in resonance with the field from the permanent magnet. Since this magnetic resonant frequency depends on the local strength of the magnetic field, the measurement zone of the tool is a function of the magnetic field generated, and the radio frequency used. NMR measurements respond primarily to hydrogen protons in the pore spaces of the formation, thus providing a measure of water or hydrocarbons in the rock. Unlike conventional porosity measurements (such as the compensated neutron tool), this measure of NMR porosity does not include hydrogen bound in the matrix of the rock, thus providing porosity values that are not influenced by lithology. (Figure 8: MRIL porosity model, Courtesy of Baker Atlas) With only fluids visible to the NMR tool, it does not need to be calibrated to formation lithology.

This response characteristic makes NMR logging tools fundamentally different from conventional logging tools. Unique Formation Measurements NMR tools can provide three types of information, each of which make these tools unique among logging devices: information about the quantities of fluids in the rock, information about the properties of these fluids, and information about the sizes of the pores that contain these fluids. Specifically, NMR tools are used determine total porosity, effective porosity, capillary bound water volume, free water volume, hydrocarbon volume, and permeability. The basic physics behind NMR interpretation is common to all such data; however, each of the current NMR logging service companies Baker Atlas, Halliburton, and Schlumberger have their own proprietary interpretation methods. In addition, there are now several companies that specialize in the interpretation of NMR data, including NuTech and NMR+. Schlumberger Combinable Magnetic Resonance Tool (CMRTM) The Schlumberger Combinable Magnetic Resonance tool uses a directional antenna sandwiched between a pair of bar magnets to focus the CMR

measurement on a 6-in. [15-cm] zone inside the formationthe same rock volume scanned by other essential logging measurements. As shown in Figure 9 (CMR tool), it is a compact skid-mounted tool that was designed to be combinable with many other standard logging tools. The CMR tool is run in an eccentered configuration.

Figure 9

The vertical resolution of the CMR measurement makes it sensitive to rapid porosity variations, as often seen in laminated shale and sand sequences. The sensitive region of the tool is shown in red in Figure 10 (Cross-section of the CMR tool). This region is approximately 0.5 x 0.5 by 6 long, and is located about 1.1 inches inside the formation.

Figure 10

Baker Atlas Magnetic Resonance Imaging Log (MRIL) Service The Magnetic Resonance Imaging Log run by Baker Atlas provides the capability to run in combination with other openhole logging instruments (Figure 11: Schematic of combined tool configuration; Courtesy of Baker Atlas).

Figure 11

The tool is run in a centralized configuration to ensure that the sensitive volume does not include the borehole fluid, and is unaffected by borehole rugosity. The MRIL measurements can investigate the formation at diameters of up to 18 inches. This tool can be operated simultaneously at different frequencies to increase the sensed volume, improve the signal-to-noise ratio, and allow multiple NMR measurements to be obtained at one time. Halliburton Magnetic Resonance Imaging Log (MRIL) Tool The MRIL-Prime tool was introduced in 1998. Like other MRI tools, this MRI probe can be tuned to be sensitive to a specific frequency, thereby allowing the MRI to image narrow slices of the rock formation. Figure 12 (Cylinders of investigation: Courtesy of Halliburton Energy Services) illustrates the measurement concept behind the MRIL-Prime tool.

Figure 12

The diameter and thickness of each thin cylindrical region are selected by simply specifying the central frequency and bandwidth to which the MRIL transmitter and receiver are tuned. The diameter of the cylinder is temperature dependent, but typically ranges from approximately 14 to 16 inches. Consult your local service company representative for more information on NMR logging tools. Log Example In the first log Figure 13, we see a classic example of a low resistivity zone, which does not show any potential for future completion.

Figure 13

This example, provided by Halliburton Energy Services, shows MRI and resistivity data obtained in a Low Resistivity Pay zone. (Figure 14: MRIL Log presentation, Courtesy of Halliburton Energy Services)

Figure 14

Log Description Following is a list of curves presented in each track of the log. Track 1: MRIL porosity derived from T2 bins, along with Caliper, Gamma Ray, and SP measurements from conventional logs. Track 2: MRIL permeability, derived from MRIL Porosity, Bound Water, and Free Fluid measurements, along with Deep and Shallow Resistivity from conventional logs. Track 3: T2 distribution from partially polarized activation with TE of 0.6 ms (left side of track 3), which is typically indicative of clay bound water, and the T2 distribution from fully polarized activation of a TE of 1.2 ms (right side of track), usually indicative of capillary bound water and free fluids. Track 4: The difference between two T2 distributions, each taken with a TE of 1.2 ms at different polarization times,

yields hydrocarbon signals within the free fluids. Relative position indicates hydrocarbon type and viscosity value. Track 5: Time Domain Analysis of calculated volumes of oil, gas, and free water in the pore space, which provides a complete description for the fluids in the invaded zone. Track 6: MRIL-Resistivity display of MRIAN (MRI Analysis) model to calculate volume of hydrocarbon and free water in the pore space, which provides a complete description of fluids in the uninvaded zone.