REVIEW OF FLUID STATICS What is fluid mechanics?

The engineering science of fluid mechanics has been developed through an understanding of fluid properties, the application of the basic laws of mechanics and thermodynamics and orderly experimentation. The behaviour of fluids is important to process engineering. An understanding of fluid is essential, not only for accurately treating problems on the movement of fluid through pipes, pumps and all kinds of process equipment but also for study of heat flow and the many separation operations that depend on diffusion and mass transfer. The branch of engineering science that has to do with the behaviour of fluids is called fluid mechanics. Fluid mechanics has two branches: fluid statics which treats fluids in the equilibrium state of no shear stress, and fluid dynamics, which treats fluids when portion of fluid are in motion relative to other parts. To decide what we mean by the word fluid, first we have to consider the idea of shear stress. It is easiest to discuss shear stress in comparison with tensile stress and compressive stress. In Figure 1.1(a) a rope is holding up a weight. The weight exerts a force, which tends to pull the rope apart. A stress is the ratio of the applied force to the area over which it is exerted. Thus the stress in the rope is the force exerted by the weight divided by the cross-sectional area of the rope. The force which tries to pull things apart is called a tensile force, and the stress it causes is called a tensile stress. In Figure 1.1(b) a steel column is holding up a weight. The weight exerts a force, which tends to crush the column. This kind of force is called a compressive force, and the stress in the column, the force divided by the cross-sectional area of the column, is called a compressive stress. In Figure 1.1(c) some glue is holding up a weight. The weight exerts a force that tends to pull the weight down the walls and thus to shear the glue. This force, which tends to make one surface slide parallel to an adjacent surface, is called a shear force, and the stress in the glue, the force divided by the area of the glue joint, is called Shear stress. In our attempt to differentiate between fluids and solids, we can now say that solids are substances,
100 Kg 100 Kg

Steel Column

Figure 1.1 (a)

100 Kg

Figure 1.1 (b)

Glue

Figure 1.1 (c)

which can permanently resist very large shear forces. When subjected to a shear force solids move a short distance (elastic deformation), thereby setting up internal shear stresses, which resist the external forces, and then they stop moving. Materials that obviously are fluids cannot permanently resist a shear force, no matter how small. When subjected to a shear force, fluids start to move and keep on moving as long as the force is applied.
1

A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when subjected to a shear stress, no matter how small that shear stress may be. Density: Density is a characteristic property of matter. Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance. = m/v The S.I. unit for density is kg/m3. The units g/cc are also used commonly, especially in chemistry. The relative density, also called specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of its density to the density of pure water at 4oC. The density of water at 4oC is 1000kg/m3. Density of the substance Relative density or Specific gravity = ------------------------------------Density of water For any given substance at a fixed temperature, a graph of mass versus volume produces a linear relationship. The slope yields the density of the substance.

Empty specific gravity bottle

Empty specific gravity bottle + substance

Empty specific gravity bottle + water

Figure 1.2. Determination of Specific gravity of a liquid

The specific volume is the reciprocal of density, that is the volume occupied by unit mass of fluid. Experimentally the specific gravity of a substance (liquid) can be obtained by following the steps given below
1. 2. 3. 4.

Weigh empty specific gravity bottle (pycnometer), let the weight be w1. Weigh pycnometer filled with the liquid , let the weight be w2. Weigh pycnometer filled with water, let the weight be w3. Find the specific gravity of the liquid as (w2 w1)/(w3 w1) i.e., ratio of weight of liquid to weight of water for same volume. Refer Figure 1.2.

Pressure: Imagine a closed container with air inside. Air, as a gas, is composed of molecules that can be imagined as round elastic balls. Molecules move in straight lines until they collide with neighbouring molecules or the container wall. Molecules of gas hitting the wall impose a force on the wall. The amount of this impact force per area of the container inner walls is called pressure. The mathematical definition of pressure can be written as F P=-----2

A where F is the force of impact of molecules on the walls and A is the area of the walls. The unit for pressure in the SI system is the Pa (Pascal) and it is name after the famous French scientist who clarified principles related to pressure measurements. Strictly speaking, the Pa is the only valid unit. However, there are some other pressure-units, which are still in use: bar, atm., and Torr. For example, the pressure at sea level is 101300 Pa at standard temperature and the most common name for this specific pressure is an atmosphere or atm. The closest match to the atmosphere is 1 bar = 100000 Pa. The ratios between different units are given in Table 1.1. Table 1.1 Ratios between different pressure units Pressure Unit Pa Bar Atm Torr Pa 1 100000 101325 113.22 Bar 0.00001 1 1.01325 0.001333 Atm 9.869x10-6 9.869x10-1 1 1.316x10
-3

Torr 7.501x 10-3 750.1 760 1

It is important to understand that pressure defined above is a property of gases. In the case of liquids the pressure at the certain position in liquid is created by the weight of the fluid column (remember that as you dive deeper into a ocean, pressure is high). The pressure imposed by the height of water is called hydrostatic pressure and is directly proportional to the height of the fluid above and its density. The mathematical definition of hydrostatic pressure is P = gh where h is the height of the fluid, is fluid density and g is gravitational acceleration. Vapour Pressure: The vapour molecules exert a partial pressure in the space, known as vapour pressure. The vapour pressure of a given fluid depends upon temperature and increases with it. When the pressure above a liquid equals the vapour pressure of the liquid, boiling occurs. Compressible and Incompressible Fluids: If the density is little affected by moderate changes in temperature and pressure, the fluid is said to be incompressible, and if the density is sensitive to changes in these variables, the fluid is said to be compressible. incompressible and gases compressible. Ideal Fluid and Ideal Gas: Ideal fluid is frictionless and incompressible but the perfect gas has viscosity and can therefore develop shear stresses and it is compressible according to ideal gas equation of state. (An equation of state is one, which relates between pressure, temperature and volume). Real gases below critical pressure and above the critical temperature tend to obey the perfect gas law. Liquids are considered to be

Viscosity: Viscosity is the measure of resistance to flow. For example molasses and tar are highly viscous liquids; water and air have very small viscosities. The viscosity of a gas increases with temperature, but the viscosity of a liquid decrease with temperature. The resistance of a fluid to shear stress depends upon its cohesion and upon its rate of transfer of molecular momentum. A liquid, with molecules much more closely spaced than a gas, has cohesive force much larger than a gas. Cohesion appears to be the predominant cause of viscosity in liquids; and since cohesion decreases with temperature, the viscosity also decreases. A gas, on the other hand, has very small cohesion forces. Most of its resistance to shear stress is the result of the transfer of molecular momentum and since molecular momentum increases with temperature, the viscosity of a gas also increases with temperature. For ordinary pressures viscosity is independent of pressure and depends upon temperature only. For very great pressures, gases and most liquids have shown variations of viscosity with pressure. The SI unit of viscosity is (N.s/m2) or (kg/m.s). The unit of viscosity in CGS system is (g/cm.s) also called poise. The viscosities ( ) of liquids generally vary approximately with absolute temperature T according to: ln = a - b ln T Viscosity of gases increases with increase in temperature. The viscosity ( ) of many gases is approximated by the formula: = o(T/To)n, in which T is the absolute temperature,
o

is the viscosity at an absolute reference

temperature To, and n is an empirical exponent that best fits the experimental data. The viscosity of an ideal gas is independent of pressure, but the viscosities of real gases and liquids usually increase with pressure. Viscosity of liquids is generally two orders of magnitude greater than gases at atmospheric pressure. For example, at 25oC,
water

= 1cP and

air

= 1x10-2 cP.

Kinematic viscosity: Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of viscosity to density = / . Kinematic viscosity of gases varies with pressure because of change in density. The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is (m2/s) and the CGS unit is (cm2/s) called Stoke (St). Newtons law of viscosity: It states that the shear stress is directly proportional to velocity gradient or shear rate. du = ----dy The proportionality factor is called the viscosity or coefficient of viscosity.
4

Fluids are classified based on Newtons law of viscosity as i. ii. Newtonian fluids which obey Newtons law of viscosity Non-Newtonian fluids which does not obey Newtons law of viscosity. a. Time
Pseudoplastic

Non-Newtonian fluids can be again classified as follows

Bingha m Shear Stress

independent

(refer

Figure 1.3 ) Bingham plastic fluids

Dilatant

Newtonian

Pseudoplastic fluids Dilatant fluids b.Time dependent Thixotropic fluids

Shear rate or Velocity gradient

Figure 1.3 . Graphical representation of Newtonian and non-newtonian fluids

Rheopectic fluids

Bingham fluids also called Bingham plastics, resist a small shear stress indefinitely, but flow easily under large shear stresses. One may say that at low stresses the viscosity in infinite and that at higher stresses the viscosity decreases with increasing velocity gradient. Examples are bread dough, toothpaste, jellies, and some slurries. Good toothpaste should be a Bingham fluid, so that it can be easily squeezed out of the tube but will not drip off the toothbrush as water or honey would. Pseudoplastic fluids show a viscosity that decreases with increase in velocity gradient. Examples are most slurries, mud, polymer solutions, solutions of natural gums, and blood. Dilatant fluids show a viscosity that increases with increase in velocity gradient. They are uncommon, but starch suspensions, quick sand etc., behave in this way. So far, we have assumed that the curve of vs. du/dy in not a function of time. The viscosity can remain constant with time, in which case the fluid is called time independent. The viscosity can decrease with time, in which case the fluid is called thixotropic. The viscosity can increase with time, in which case the fluid is called rheopectic. A good paint should be thixotropic, so that in the container it will be very viscous and the pigment will not settle to the bottom, but when it is stirred, it will become less viscous and can be easily brushed onto a surface. In addition, the brushing should temporarily reduce the viscosity, so that the paint will flow sideways and fill in the brush marks (called levelling in the paint industry); then, as it stands, its viscosity should increase, so that it will not form drops and run down the wall. A good motor oil should be Pseudoplastic, so that in the bearing, where the value of du/dy is high, it will offer little frictional resistance and so that at all the gaskets and joints, where the value of du/dy is low, it will be viscous and not leak through. Pascals law: Pascals law states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal in all directions.
5

Worked Examples : 1.1. Calculate the force acting on a 1.5m square base shown in the figure when the pressure guage reads 147KN/m2. Pressure intensity due to water = .g.h}for water 2
Air
1m
Oil Sp. gr.= 0.8

= 1000 x 9.81 x

= 19620 N/m2 Pressure intensity due to oil = .g.h }for oil = 800 x 9.81 x 1 = 7848 N/m2 Total pressure intensity = 147000 + 19620 + 7848 = 174468 N/m2

2m

Water Sp. gr =1

1.2. A rectangular vessel is 3.7 m long, 1.5m wide and 1.8m deep on its inside. There is water in it to a depth of 1.5m. Find the intensity of pressure on i. horizontal base of the vessel ii. Longer side of the vessel at a point 0.6 m below the free surface. iii. Shorter side of the vessel at a point 0.5 m above the horizontal base. (i) Data : P=? = 1000 kg/m3.
1.8m

h = 1.5 m
1.5m 3.7m 1.5m

(ii) (iii)

h = 0.6 m h = 1.5 0.5 = 1.0 m

The pressure at the bottom of the tank can be taken found out using
Since the pressure does not vary in the horizontal plane, it is the same whether it is shorter side or longer side.

the equation P = g h, where is the density of the fluid in the tank and h is the height of fluid column from measured from the free surface and g is the

acceleration due to gravity P = 1000 * 9.81 * 1.5 = 14715 N/m2 (ii) P = 1000 * 9.81 * 0.6 = 5886 N/m2 (ii) P = 1000 * 9.81 * 1 = 9810 N/m2

1.3. Find the head h of water corresponding to an intensity of pressure of 981KN/m2. Density of water is 1000kg/m3. Data : P = 981*103 N/m2. = 1000 kg/m3. h=? we have P = g h h = 1.4.
P 981 * 10 3 = =100 m g 1000 * 9.81

The pressure intensity at a point in a fluid is given 39.24 kN/m2. Find the corresponding

height of fluid, when the fluid is a) water and b) oil of specific gravity 0.9. Data : (i) P = 39.24 kN/m2 = 39.24 * 103 N/m2 = 1000 kg/m3. h=? (ii) P = 39.24 kN/m2 = 39.24 * 103 N/m2

= 900 kg/m3. h=? (i) h =

P 39 .24 * 10 3 = = 4m g 1000 * 9.81 P 39 .24 * 10 3 = = 4.44 m g 900 * 9.81

(ii) h =

1.5. Oil of specific gravity 0.9 is contained in a vessel. At a point the height of oil is 40m. Find the corresponding height of water at the point. Data : specific gravity of oil = 0.9 density = specific gravity of oil density of water = 0.9*100 = 900. hOil = 40m Poil = g h |oil = 900*9.81*40 = 353160 N/m2 . from the problem Poil = PWater h = g = 900 * 9.81 = 36 m
P 353160

1.6. An open tank contains water upto a depth of 2m and above it an oil of specific gravity 0.9 for a depth of 1m. Find the pressure intensity at the interface of the two liquids, and at the bottom of the tank. . Data : specific gravity of oil = 0.9 density = specific gravity of oil density of water = 0.9*100 = 900. Poil = g h |oil = 900*9.81*1 = 8829 N/m2 . Pwater = g h |water = 1000*9.81*2 = 19620 N/m2 . PTotal = POil + Pwater = 8829 + 19620 = 28449 N/m2.
7

1.7. Determine the gauge and absolute pressure at a point, which is 2.0m below the free surface of water. Take atmospheric pressure as 10.143 N/cm2. Data :
water

= 1000 kg/m3

h = 2m Pwater = g h |water = 1000*9.81*2 = 19620 N/m2 (gauge pressure) absolute pressure = 19620 + 10.143*104 = 121050 N/m2. MANOMETRY (MEASUREMENT OF FLUID PRESSURE) Pressure can be measured by allowing it to act on known cross-sectional area and opposing the pressure with a column of fluid or by a compressed spring. The first method of measuring pressure is called manometry. Manometers are the devices used for measuring of pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of fluid. They are classified as Simple manometers Differential manometers Simple Manometers: A simple manometer consists of a glass tube, having one of its end connected to a point, where the pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to atmosphere. Common types of simple manometers are Piezometer or pressure tube U- tube manometer Piezometer: This is the simplest form of manometer used for measuring gauge pressures. One end of this is connected to the point where pressure is to be measured and other end is open to the atmosphere as shown in Figure. The rise of liquid, gives the pressure head at that point. If at a point A, the height of liquid say water is h in piezometer tube, then the pressure at A is Pa = a . g. h The piezometer will not work for negative gauge pressure, because
h a
Fluid a with density

air will flow into the container through the tube. would need to be very long.

It is also

impractical for measuring large pressure, since the vertical tube

Simple U tube manometer [to measure pressure at a point]: It consists of a glass tube bent in U shape, one end of which is

Figure 1.5. Piezometer

connected to point at which pressure is to be measured and other end remain open to the atmosphere. The tube generally contains mercury or any other liquid whose specific gravity is greater than the specific gravity of the liquid whose pressure is to be measured.

Let A is the point at which pressure is to be measured. Let the datum line be B-B. Let h 1 be the height of the light liquid above the datum line, h2 be the height of the heavy liquid above datum line, density of light liquid be a and b be the density of the heavy liquid. To obtain the pressure at point a we start measuring the pressures at every point and resolve for the pressure at a. (refer figure 1.6) Starting with point 1. 1Pa 2Pa + a g h1 The pressure at point 2 and 3 are same because the datum line is parallel to the earths surface. 3 Pa + a g h1 4 Pa + a g h1 - b g h2 = 0, because point 4 is exposed to atmosphere.

4 1
Fluid a with density a 2 h1

h2

1 a
Fluid a with density a

2 B 3

h1 h2 4

Figure 1.6. Simple U tube Manometer to measure pressure at a point.

Figure 1.7. Simple U tube Manometer to measure pressure at a point. (Vacuum)

5 Zm h1 4 Rm

Fluid a with density

Manometric fluid b with density

Figure 1.8. Simple U tube Manometer to measure pressure difference

Now solving for Pa will give Pa = b g h2 - a g h1 Similar to the one solved above, we shall solve for measuring the negative gauge pressure (vacuum). (refer figure 1.7) Starting with point 1. 1Pa 2Pa + a g h1
9

3 Pa + a g h1+ b g h2 The pressure at point 3 and 4 are same because the datum line is parallel to the earths surface. 4 Pa + a g h1 + b g h2 = 0, because point 4 is exposed to atmosphere. Now solving for Pa will give Pa = - ( b g h2 + a g h1) U tube manometer [to measure pressure difference between two points]: A U tube manometer is shown in figure 1.8. It consists of a trasparent U-tube containing the fluid A whose pressure is to be measured and an immiscible fluid B of higher density. The limbs are connected to two points between which the pressure difference is required. The connecting leads should be completely full of fluid A. The Pressure Pa is excerted in one arm of the U- tube and a pressure P b in th other. As a result of the difference in pressure Pa Pb, the meniscus in one branch of the U- tube is higher than in the other, and the vertical distance between the two meniscus Rm may be held to measure the difference in pressure. To derive the relationship between Pa - Pb and Rm, we start with point 1. 1 Pa 2 Pa + a g h1 = Pa + a g ( Zm + Rm ) { since h1 = Zm + Rm, refer figure 1.8} by principles of hydrostatics, pressure at point 2 = pressure at point 3 3 Pa + a g ( Zm + Rm ) 4 Pa + a g ( Zm + Rm ) - b g Rm 5 Pa + a g ( Zm + Rm ) - b g Rm - a g Zm = Pb Pa Pb = - a g ( Zm + Rm ) + b g Rm + a g Zm Pa Pb = g Rm (
b

- a)

This relationship is independent of the distances Zm and the dimensions of the tube provided that pressure Pa and Pb are measured in the same horizontal plane. Inclined manometer: In this, one leg of the manometer is inclined in such a manner that for a small magnitude of Rm the meniscus in the inclined tube will move considerable distance along the tube. This distance R1, is Rm divided by the sine of , the angle of inclination. By making small, the magnitude of Rm is multiplied into a long distance R1 and a large reading becomes equivalent to a small pressure difference. To derive relationship between (Pa Pb ) and Rm , we start from point 1 1 Pa 2 Pa + f g h1 Pressure at point 3 is equal to pressure at point 2, from hydrostatic principles 3 Pa + f g h1 4 Pa + f g h1 - 5 Pa + f g h1 -
m m

g Rm g Rm - f g h2 = Pb
10

By simplifying the above equation

Pa Pb = Pa Pb = Pa Pb =

m m m

g Rm - f g h1 + f g h2 g Rm + f g( h2 - h1 ) g Rm + f g( -Rm )
m

Pa Pb = g Rm ( From the figure Rm = R1 sin

- f)

Substituting the value of Rm in the above equation gives Pa Pb = g R1 sin (

m

- f)

In this type of pressure gauge, it is necessary to provide an enlargement in the vertical leg so that the movement of the meniscus in the enlargement is negligible within the operating range of the
Fluid f with density f Pa

1 2 h1 Rm 3
Fluid m with density

5 4 R1 R1

Pb h2

Rm

Sin =

Figure 1.9. Inclined manometer

Rm R1

Rm = R1 sin

instrument. Differential manometer [Micro manometer, two fluid manometer , Well type of manometer] For the measurement of smaller pressure differences, this type of manometer shown in the figure 1.10, called differential manometer is often used.

11

This manometer contains two liquids a and c which must be immiscible and whose densities are as nearly equal as possible. Enlarged chambers are inserted in the manometer, so that the position of the meniscus at point 2 and 6 does not change appreciably with changes in the reading Rm. Consequently the distance between points 1 and 2 may be considered equal to the distance between points 6 and 7. The same principle may be employed in developing the relationship between the reading of this type manometer and the pressure difference Pa Pb, as the previous cases. The changes in pressure in passing through the series of points 1 to 7 are : 1 Pa 2 Pa + b g a 3 Pa + b g a + a g b Pressure at point 3 is equal to pressure at point 4, from hydrostatic principles 4 Pa + b g a + a g b 5 Pa + b g a + a g b - c g Rm 6 Pa + b g a + a g b - c g Rm - a g d 7 Pa + b g a + a g b - c g Rm - a g d - b g a = Pb Simplifying the above equation we get, Pa Pb = a g (d b) + c g Rm From figure 1.10, b-d - Rm
Pa a 2 1 6 d Fluid A with density b
a

Fluid B with density

Pb a

5 Rm 3 4

Liquid c with density Figure 1.10. Micro manometer

Pa Pb = Rm g ( c - a ) From this equation it follows that the smaller the difference ( c - a ), larger will be the reading of Rm on the manometer for the given value of P. Inverted manometer:

12

It consists of an inverted U tube containing a light liquid. The two ends of the tube are connected to the points whose difference of pressure is to be measured. It is used for measuring low-pressure differences. Figure 1.11 shows an inverted U tube manometer connected to two points A and B. Let
3 B Rm Fluid a with density h1
a

4 h2 5 b

h1

1 a
Figure 1.11. Inverted U tube Manometer to measure low pressure differences

the pressure at A is more than the pressure at B. Let h1 be the height of liquid in left limb below the datum line B-B and h2 be the height of liquid in right limb. Rm be the manometric reading. Let a and b be the density of liquid A and manometric liquid B respectively. Starting from point 1: 1 Pa 2 Pa - a g h1 Pressure at point 3 is equal to pressure at point 2, from hydrostatic principles 3 Pa - a g h1 4 Pa - a g h1 + b g Rm 5 Pa - a g h1 + b g Rm + a g h2 = Pb Solving for Pa - Pb Pa - Pb = a g h1 - b g Rm - a g h2 Substituting the value of h1 in the above equation, we have Pa - Pb = a g (Rm + h2) - b g Rm - a g h2 Pa - Pb = a g ( h1 h2 ) b g Rm

13

Worked Examples 1.14. Find the pressure of oil in a pipe line fitted with a pressure tube and reads a height of 1.5m of oil. Assume specific gravity of oil as 0.85. Data : Density of oil
oil

= specific gravity oil * density of water = 0.85*1000=850 kg/m3. Poil =

oil

g h = 850 * 9.81 * 1.5 = 12507.75 N/m2

1.15. A simple manometer is used to measure the pressure of water flowing in a pipe line. Its right limb is opened to the atmosphere and left limb is connected to a pipe. The centre of the pipe is in level with that of the mercury in right limb. Determine the pressure in the pipe if the difference of mercury level in two limbs is 10cm. Densities of mercury and water are 13.6 * 10 3 kg/m3 and 1000 kg/m3 respectively. The data are represented in the figure. The pressure at different points are written as

1
Mercury with density 13600 kg/m3

Water with density 1000 kg/m3

10 cm

1. P1 2. P1 + wgh
1. 2.

P1 + wgh P1 + wgh- mgh =0

P1 = gh[ m- w] =9.81*0.1*[13600-1000] P1= 1.236*104 N/m2 1.16. A simple U tube manometer containing mercury is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of specific gravity of 0.8 and having vacuum pressure is flowing . The other end of the manometer is opened to the atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in the pipe if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs are 40 cm and the height of the fluid in the left limb from the centre of the pipe is 15 cm below.

14

The data are represented in the figure.

1 2
Fluid with specific gravity 0.8
15 cm

Mercury with density 13600 kg/m3

40 cm

3 B

The pressure at different points are written as 1. P1 2. P1 + agh1

3. 4.

P1 + agh1 + mgh2 P1 + agh1 + mgh2 =0

P1 = -g[ mh2+ ah1] = - 9.81*[13600*0.40 800*0.15] P1= - 54543.6 N/m2 1.17. The right limb of a simple U tube manometer containing mercury is open to the atmosphere, while the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of specific gravity 0.9 is flowing. The centre of the pipe is 12 cm below the level of mercury in the right limb. Find the pressure of the fluid in the pipe if the difference of mercury level in two limbs is 20cm. The data are represented in the figure.
4 1
h3 = 12 cm h2 = 20 cm

Fluid with specific gravity 0.9

Mercury with density 13600 kg/m3

h1

2 B B

From the figure h1 = h2 h3 h1 = 20 12 = 8 cm h1 = 0.08m. The pressure at different points are written as 1. P1 2. P1 + agh1
3.

P1 + agh1
15

4.

P1 + agh1 - mgh2 =0

P1 = g[ mh2- ah1] = - 9.81*[13600*0.20 900*0.08] P1= 25976.88 N/m2 1.18. Two tubes running full with brine( sp. gr. 1.26) are connected to a differential mercury manometer. The connecting tubes are filled with water. The centre line of high pressure pipe is 180 cm lower in elevation than the centre line of the other pipe. If the mercury reading is 60 cm, what is the pressure difference in N/m2. The data are represented in the figure.

P2

180 cm

4
a cm

1 P1
Brine with specific gravity 1.26

Rm = 60 cm

Mercury with density 13600 kg/m3

2 B

(60 a) cm

3 B

Let the distance between mercury level and the lower tube be (points 1- 4) a. the distance between points 1 and 2 is (60-a). The pressure at different points are written as 1. P1 2. P1 + b*g * (0.60-a) 3. P1 + b*g * (0.60-a) 4. P1 + b*g * (0.60-a) - m*g * 0.60 5. P1 + b*g * (0.60-a) - m*g * 0.60 - b* g * (0.180-a) = P5 P1 P5 = m*g * 0.60 + b* g * (0.180-a)- b*g * (0.60-a) P1 P5 = m*g * 0.60 + b* g * 0.180 - b* g * a - b*g * 0.60 + b*g * a Solving P1 P5 = m*g * 0.60 + b* g * 0.180 - b*g * 0.60 P1 P5 = 13600*9.81 * 0.60 + 1260* 9.81 * 0.180 - 1260*9.81 * 0.60 P1 P5 = 2224.908 + 80049.6 7416.36 P1 P5 = 74858.148 N/m2.

16

1.19. Determine the pressure difference in the figure given below. The pressure at different points are written as
1 A
0.75m

Water 0.5m

4
100m

Mercury with specific gravity 13.6

1. PA 2. PA+ w*g*(0.75+0.5+0.1) 3. PA+ w*g*(0.75+0.5+0.1) 4. PA+ w*g*(0.75+0.5+0.1) - m*g*0.1 5. PA+ w*g*(0.75+0.5+0.1) - m*g*0.1 - w*g*0.5 = PB PA PB= m*g*0.1 + w*g*0.5 - w*g*1.35 PA PB= 5003.1 N/m2 1.20. Determine (PA PB) and (PA- Pc) in the figure given and express them in kN/m2. The pressure at different points are written to find the difference between (PA-PC) as
B
Water 0.4 m

10

A
0.3m

Oil (sp.gr. 0.8)

C 5 4
0.15m

0.3 m

6 7
0.08 m

0.1m 3

Mercury (sp.gr. 13.6)

Carbon tetra chloride (sp.gr. 1.6)

1. PA 2. PA + w*g*0.3 3. PA + w*g*0.3 4. PA + w*g*0.3- m*g*0.1

17

5. PA + w*g*0.3- m*g*0.1- o*g*0.15 = Pc PA PC = m*g*0.1 + o*g*0.15 - w*g*0.3 PA PC = 13600*9.81*0.1 + 800*9.81*0.15 - 1000*9.81*0.3 = 11.5kN/m2 Continuing from point 5 till point 10 to obtain the difference between (PA PB) 6. PA + w*g*0.3- m*g*0.1- o*g*0.15 = Pc 7. PA + w*g*0.3- m*g*0.1- o*g*0.15 + o*g*(0.15+0.08) 8. PA + w*g*0.3- m*g*0.1- o*g*0.15 + o*g*(0.23) 9. PA + w*g*0.3- m*g*0.1- o*g*0.15 + o*g*(0.23)- c*g*0.3 10. PA + w*g*0.3- m*g*0.1- o*g*0.15 + o*g*(0.23)- c*g*0.3 - o*g*0.4 = PB PA PB = m*g*0.1+ o*g*0.15 + c*g*0.3 + o*g*0.4 - w*g*0.3 - o*g*(0.23) PA PB = 13600*9.81*0.1+800*9.81*0.15 + 1600*9.81*0.3 + 800*9.81*0.4 - 1000*9.81*0.3 800*9.81*(0.23) PA PB = 17.61kN/m2. Fluid dynamics: Fluid dynamics is the study of fluids in motion relative to other parts. Types of Flow: The flow patterns are classified in the following different categories. Steady and unsteady flow: The flow of fluid is said to be steady when the flow conditions like velocity, pressure, density and other similar characteristics at a point do not change with respect to time.
=0 t

P =0 t P 0 t

v =0 t v 0 t

The flow of fluid is said to be unsteady, when the flow characteristics at a point change with time.
0 t

Uniform and non- uniform flow: The flow is said to be uniform, when there is no variation in the magnitude and direction of the velocity from one point to another along the path of the flow (both velocity and area of flow must be same at every cross section) or the velocity does not change along the length of the flow. A flow of a fluid is said to be non-uniform, when the velocity of flow doesnt remain constant at all the points in space during a given interval. Rotational flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles while flowing along stream lines also rotate about their own mass axis. Irrotational flow: if the fluid particles while flowing along stream lines do not rotate about their own axis, then it is called irrotational flow. Compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid changes from point to point. Incompressible flow is one in which the density of the flowing fluid is constant. One dimensional flow is the flow in which flow parameter such as velocity is a function of time and one space co-ordinate.

18

Two dimensional flow is one in which flow parameter, velocity is a function of time and two rectangular space co-ordinates. Three dimensional flow is one in which the flow parameter, velocity is a function of time and three mutually perpendicular space coordinates. Potential flow : A moving fluid uninfluenced by stationary solid walls is not subjected to shear, and shear stresses do not exist with in it. The flow of incompressible fluid with no shear is called potential flow. Potential flow has two characteristics, 1. neither circulation nor eddies can form with in the stream, so that potential flow is also called irrotational flow. 2. friction cannot develop, so that there is no dissipation of mechanical energy into heat. Stream line : For steady flow we can map out the velocity and direction at any point; see figure 2.1, in which the velocity at any point is represented by an arrow showing the relative velocity and direction

Figure 1.12. Point values of flow velocity and direction for steady, two dimensional

flow.

of the flow. If we follow the history of a fluid particle starting at A, we see that it moves, not in a straight line, but rather along a curve, whose direction at any point is tangent to the flow direction. Such a curve, showing the path of any fluid particle in steady flow, is called streamline. Obviously, there is a streamline passing through every point in the flow; so if all the streamlines were drawn in figure 2.1, the entire flow area would be printed black. Therefore, it is common practice to draw only a few streamlines, from which the intermediate ones can be readily interpolated. In steady flow there is no flow across (i.e., perpendicular to a streamline. Definition: A streamline is an imaginary curve in a mass of flowing fluid such that the net velocity vector u is tangent to the streamline. No net flow takes place across such a line. Stream tube: is an imaginary pipe in the mass of flowing fluid through the walls of which no net flow is occurring. Laminar flow : is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid particles move along well defined paths or stream lines and all the stream lines are straight and parallel. This type of flow is also called stream line flow or viscous flow. The particles virtually move in one constant direction. They do not posses any velocity in any other directions, with the effect that the particles moving in any one layer restrict to their own layer and do not cross over to any lower or higher layer. This type of flow occurs at low velocities and /or at high viscosities.

19

Turbulent flow: of a fluid is the flow in which the fluid particles have random motion. The particles do not restrict to their own laminae but they continuously change their layers. The velocity of the particles also changes in magnitude and direction from point to point. Transitional flow : is the type of flow when there is a change over from the laminar flow to turbulent flow or vice versa. A criterion to determine the type of flow is the Reynolds number, denoted as Nre or Re. It is a nondimensional number, which is given by the expression.
N re = du where, - density of fluid

d - diameter of pipe u - velocity of fluid - viscosity of fluid If the Reynolds number is less than 2100, the flow is laminar. If Reynolds number is more than 4000, it is called the turbulent flow. If the Reynolds number lies between 2100 and 4000 the flow may be laminar or turbulent (transition). BASIC EQUATIONS OF FLUID FLOW Basic equations of flowing fluid Mass balance: The rate of mass entering the flowing system equals that leaving as mass can neither be accumulated or depleted with in a flow system under steady conditions. Continuity equation : Consider a stream tube as shown in figure 2.2.
Velocity, ub Density , b Area, Sb

D2 =0.2m

Figure 2.1

Let the fluid enter at a point where the area of cross section of the tube is Sa and leaves where the area of cross section is Sb. Let the velocity and density at the entrance be ua and
a

respectively and the

corresponding quantities at the exit be ub and b. Assume density in a single cross section is constant. Also assume that the flow through the tube is potential flow. Then the velocity u a is constant across the area Sa and velocity ub is constant across area Sb. The mass of fluid entering and leaving the tube per unit time is
m = a u a Sa = b u bSb

where m is the rate of flow in mass per unit time. For a stream tube
m = u S = cons tan t

20

This equation is called the equation of continuity. It applies to both compressible and incompressible flows For incompressible flow, the above equation reduces to
Q = u a Sa = u b S b

Average velocity : If the flow through the stream tube is not potential flow, the velocity ua and ub will vary from point to point across the area Sa and Sb respectively. Then it is necessary to distinguish between the local and average velocity. The average velocity of the entire stream flowing through cross section S is defined by
u= m 1 = S S

u ds

also equals the total volumetric flow rate of the fluid divided by the cross sectional area of the conduit. That is u =
Q where Q is the volumetric flow rate, m3/s. and u are equal only when the local velocity S

is the same at all points in area S. The continuity equation when the velocity varies in a finite stream tube is
m = a ua S a = b ubS b = uS

Mass Velocity: We know u =

m or this may be written as S

u =

m = G . This equation defines S

mass velocity G, calculated by dividing the mass flow rate by the cross sectional area of channel, [unit kg/sm2]. The mass velocity G can also be described as the mass current density or mass flux, where flux is defined generally as any quantity passing through an unit area in unit time. The average velocity can be described as the volume flux of the fluid. Problems : 2.1. The diameters of pipe at the section 1 and 2 are 10 cm and 15 cm respectively. Find the discharge through the pipe if the velocity of water flowing through the pipe at section 1 is 5 m/s. Determine the velocity at section 2. Data: Section 1 Section 2 D2 = 15cm=0.15m S2 = ( /4)*D22=( /4) 0.152 = 0.01767 m2 D1=10cm=0.1m S1 = ( /4)*D12=( /4) 0.12 = 0.007854m2 v1= 5 m/s Discharge through the pipe is given by Q=S1v1 =0.007854 * 5 =0.03927m3/s. From continuity equation for incompressible fluid (water) v1S1 1=v2S2 2 v1S1=v2S2 v2=(v1S1)/S2 = (0.00785*5)/0.01767 = 2.22 m/s. 2.2. A 30 cm pipe conveying water, branches into two pipes of diameters 20 cm and 15 cm respectively. If the average velocity in the 30 cm diameter pipe is 2.5 m/s, find the discharge in this pipe. Also determine the velocity in 15 cm pipe if the average velocity in 20 cm is 2m/s.
21

Data: D1 = 30cm = 0.3m S1=( /4)*0.32=0.0 7068 m2 V1 = 2.5m/s D2 = 20cm = 0.2m S2=( /4)*0.22=0. 0314 m2 v2 = 2m/s D3 = 15cm = 0.15m S3=( /4)*0.152=0.0 1767 m2 v3 = ?

D1 =0.3m D3 =0.15m

Let Q1,Q2 and Q3 are discharges in pipes 1, 2 and 3. According to continuity equation Q1=Q2+Q3 Q1 = S1v1= = 0.07068*2.5 = 0.1767 m3/s Q2 = S2v2= = 0.0314*2 = 0.0628 m3/s Q3 = Q1-Q2 = 0.1767-0.0628=0.1139 m3/s We know Q3 = v3S3 v3 = Q3/S3 = 0.1139/0.01769 = 6.44 m/s. 2.3. A 25 cm diameter pipe carries oil of specific gravity 0.9 at a velocity of 3m/s. At another section the diameter is 20 cm. Find the velocity at this section and the mass rate of flow of oil. Data: specific gravity of oil = 0.9 D1 = 25cm = 0.25m S1=( /4)*0.252=0.049 m2 v1 = 3m/s
oil

= 0.9*1000=900kg/m3

D2 = 20cm = 0.2m S2=( /4)*0.22=0.0314 m2 v2 = ? ; m =?

According to continuity equation for incompressible fluids at sections 1 and 2 v1S1 1=v2S2 2 v1S1=v2S2 v2 = S1v1/S2 = (0.049*3)/0.0314 = 4.68m/s

m = 1S1v1 = 900*0.049*3 =132.3 kg/s.

2.4. Crude oil of specific gravity 0.887 flows through the piping shown in figure T 2.3. Pipe A is 50 mm, pipe is 75mm and each of pipe C is 38 mm. An equal quantity of liquid flows through each of pipes C. The flow through pipe A is 6.65 m3/hr. Calculate (a) the mass flowrate in each pipe (b) the

22 C

average linear velocity in each pipe and (c) the mass velocity in each pipe. ( mass velocity, G=mass/c/s area ). Volumetric flow rate in A = 6.65 m3/hr. mass flow rate in A = 6.65*887 = 5898.55 kg/hr. The mass flow rate through each of C is of the total. 5898.55/2 = 2949.275 kg/hr. The velocity in pipe A = Q/SA= 6.65/(2.165*10-3 *3600)=0.8532 m/s The velocity in pipe B = Q/SB= 6.65/(4.766*10-3 *3600)=0.3876 m/s Velocity through each of C = Q/(2*SB) = 6.65/(2*1.314*10-3 * 3600)= 0.7029m/s

The mass velocity through pipe A is GA = m /SA

GA = 5898.55/(2.165*10-3 *3600) = 756.81kg/m2s

GA = m /SB = 5898.55/(4.766*10-3 *3600) = 343.79kg/m2s

GB = m /SB =5898.55/(2*1.314*10-3 *3600) = 638.47kg/s

(P+ P) S

P S Z

g L S

Z+ Z

Figure 2.3

Bernoullis Equation (or ) Theorem Statement : For potential flow, the total head at any cross section is constant. The total head consists of pressure head, velocity head (kinetic head) and datum head (potential head).
P u2 + + z = constant g 2g

P1 u 1 P u + + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 g 2g g 2g

Consider a volume element of fluid flowing along a stream tube of constant cross section as shown in figure 2.3. Let the cross-section of the stream tube be S and average density of the fluid in the element is . Let P and u are the pressure and velocity at the upstream end of the tube respectively. The pressure and velocity at the downstream end are P + P and u+ u respectively. volume element of fluid to move its own length L is t.
23

Axis of the stream tube is

making an angle with vertical. The length of the volume element is L. The time required for the

Now consider the forces acting on the element. The forces, which do act to accelerate or retard flow, are
1. Force in the direction of flow = P S 2. Force opposing the flow = (P + P ) S 3. The component of force of gravity acting along the axis = S L g cos

The resultant force in the direction of flow = P S -(P + P ) S- S L g cos This force equals the mass of the volume element multiplied by its acceleration SL
PS (P + P)S SLg cos = SL u t
u t
u u t

PS PS PS SLg cos = SL
P

Dividing through out by S L gives L + g cos + t = 0 But from the figure 2.1
cos =
u u L u z = =u and t L t L L

Substituting the value of cos and u/ t, we get

P z u +g +u =0 L L L

Now taking the limit of the terms in the above equation as L approaches zero the becomes , we get the point form of Bernoullis equation or Eulers equation

1 2 1 dP dz d 2 u +g + =0 dL dL dL
The differential form of the equation is
1 dP + gdz + d 1 u 2 = 0 2

Case (i) : for incompressible fluids density is constant and the above equation can be integrated to give
P u2 + gz + = cons tant 2

or in the head form

P u2 +z + = cons tant g 2g

Between two definite points on the stream tube the above equation can be written as
P1 u2 P u2 + gz 1 + 1 = 2 + gz 2 + 2 2 2

or in the head form,

P1 u2 P u2 + z1 + 1 = 2 + z 2 + 2 g 2g g 2g
24

Modification of Bernoullis equation For real fluids that are passing through pipe are influenced by the solid boundaries. To extend the Bernoullis equation to cover these practical situations two modifications are required. They are i. ii. Fluid friction correction factor Kinetic energy correction factor

i. Fluid friction correction factor: Fluid friction correction factor can be defined as conversion of mechanical energy into heat in the flowing stream. So, in frictional fluid the total head is not constant along a stream line and always decrease in the direction of flow. In accordance with the principle of conservation of energy an amount of heat generated is equivalent to the loss in mechanical energy. So, for incompressible fluids, the bernoullis equation is corrected for friction by adding a term to the right hand side of the equation.
Pa u2 P u2 + gz a + a = b + gz b + b + h f , where hf represents all the friction generated per unit fluid that 2 2

occurs in the fluid between stations a and b. Friction appears in boundary layers because the work done by shear forces in maintaining the velocity gradients in both laminar and turbulent flow is eventually converted into heat by viscous action. Friction generated in unseparated boundary layers is called skin friction. When the boundary layers separate and form wakes, additional energy dissipation appears within the wake and friction of this type is called form friction since it is a function of the position and shape of the solid. In a given situation both skin friction and form friction may be active in varying degrees. The total friction h f in the above equation includes both types of frictional loss. ii. Kinetic energy correction factor : Kinetic energy correction factor is defined as the ratio of the kinetic energy of the flow per second based on actual velocity across a section to the kinetic energy of the flow per second based on average velocity across the same section. mathematically =
K.E /sec based on actual velocity K.E /sec based on average velocity

It is denoted by . Hence

K.E/sec based on actual velocity across a section: Consider an element of cross-sectional area S. The mass flow rate through this is u ds. Each kg of fluid flowing through area ds carries kinetic energy in amount u2/2 and the energy flow rate through area ds is therefore, dE k = (uds ) where Ek represents the time rate of flow of kinetic energy. the total rate of flow of kinetic energy through the entire cross section s , E = 2
u 3 ds 2

u 2 u 3 = ds , 2 2

u
0

ds .

But total rate of mass flow, m =

0 s 0

1 2

u
0

ds

uds

uds

25

so K.E/sec based on average velocity =

u2 2

1 2

u
0

ds
=

K.E. correction factor

uds u2 2

u ds
3 0

u 3S

Worked Examples: Problems with out friction 2.5. Water is flowing through a pipe of 5 cm diameter under a pressure of 2.943 * 105N/m2(gauge) and with mean velocity of 2 m/s. Find the total head or total energy per unit mass of the water at a cross section which is 5 m above the datum line. Data: Diameter of pipe = 5 cm = 0.05 m. Pressure P = 2.943*105 N/m2 Velocity v = 2 m/s Datum head z = 5 m Total head = pressure head + kinetic head + datum head Pressure head = Kinetic head =
P 2.943 *10 5 = =30m g 1000 * 9.81 v2 22 = =0.204m 2g 2 * 9.81

Total head = 30+0.204+5=35.204m 2.6. A pipe through which water is flowing is having diameter 20cm and 10cm at the cross section 1 and 2 respectively. The velocity of water at section 1 is 4 m/s. Find the velocity head at section 1 and 2 and also rate of discharge. Data: D1=20cm=0.20m S1=( /4)*D12 = ( /4)*0.22 = 0.314m2 v1 = 4m/s Velocity head at section 1 = D2=10cm=0.10m S2=( /4)*D22 = ( /4)*0.12 = 0.00785 m2 V1 = ? m/s
2 v1 42 = =0.815m 2g 2 * 9.81

We know from continuity equation for incompressible fluids that S1v1 = S2v2 v 2 =

S1 v1 0.0314 * 4 = =16m/s S2 0.00785

v2 16 2 2 = =13.047m 2g 2 * 9.81
26

Velocity head at section 2 =

Rate of discharge = S1v1 = 0.0314*4=0.1256 m3/s. 2.7. The diameter of a pipe changes from 20cm at a section 5m above datum, to 5m at section 3m above datum. The pressure of water at first section is 5*105N/m2. If the velocity of flow at the first section is 1m/s, determine the intensity of pressure at the second section. Data: D1=20cm = 0.2m S1=( /4)*D12 = ( /4)*0.22 D2=5cm = 0.05m S2=( /4)*D22 = ( /4)*0.052=

= 0.314m2 1.96*10-3 m2 v1 = 1m/s v2 = ? 5 2 P1=5*10 N/m P2 = ? z1= 5m z2 = 3m We know from continuity equation for incompressible fluids that S1v1 = S2v2 v 2 =

S1 v1 0.0314 * 1 = =16.02 m/s S2 1.96 * 10 3

Applying Bernoullis equation between the sections 1and 2

2 P1 v1 P v2 + + z 1g = 2 + 2 + z 2 g 2 2

P 5 * 10 5 12 16 2 + + 5 * 9.81 = 2 + + 3 * 9.81 1000 2 1000 2

549.55=157.43+(P2/1000) Solving for P2 from the above equation P2 = 3.9212*105N/m2. 2.8. The water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 20cm and 10cm at section 1 and 2 respectively. The rate of flow through pipe is 35 lit/s. the section 1 is 6m above datum and section 2 is 4m above datum. If the pressure at section 1 is 3.924*10 5N/m2. Find the intensity of pressure at section 2. Data: D1=20cm = 0.2m S1=( /4)*D12 = ( /4)*0.22 = 0.0314m2 Q = 35lit/s=0.035 m3/s P1=3.924*105N/m2 z1= 6m D2=5cm = 0.1m S2=( /4)*D22 = ( /4)*0.12= 0.00782 m2 v2 = ? P2 = ? z2 = 4m

Q 0.035 Q=S1v1= S2v2 v1 = S = 0.0314 =1.114 m/s 1 v2 = Q 0.035 = =4.456 m/s S 2 0.00785

Applying Bernoullis equation between sections 1 and 2

2 P1 v1 P v2 + + z 1g = 2 + 2 + z 2 g 2 2

27

P 3.924 * 10 5 1.114 2 4.456 2 + + 6 * 9.81 = 2 + + 4 * 9.81 1000 2 1000 2

P2 = 4.027*105 2.9. Water is flowing through a pipe having diameter 30cm and 20cm at the bottom and upper end respectively. The intensity of pressure at the bottom end is 2.4525*105 N/m2 and the pressure at the upper end is 0.981*105 N/m2. Determine the difference in datum heat if the rate of flow through pipe is 40lit/s. Data : D1=30cm = 0.3m S1=( /4)*D12 = ( /4)*0.32 = 0.0707m2 Q = 40lit/s=0.040 m3/s P1=4.4525*105N/m2 Q = 0.04m3/s = S1v1 = S2v2 D2=20cm = 0.2m S2=( /4)*D22 = ( /4)*0.22= 0.0314 m2 v2 = ? P2 = 0.981*105 N/m2

Q 0.04 v1 = S = 0.0707 =0.5658 m/s 1 Q 0.04 v 2 = S = 0.0314 =1.274 m/s 2

Applying Bernoullis equation interms of head

2 P1 v 1 P v2 + + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 g 2g g 2g

2.4525 * 10 5 0.5658 2 0.981 * 10 5 1.274 2 + + z1 = + + z2 1000 * 9.81 2 * 9.81 1000 * 9.81 2 * 9.81

Solving for z2-z1= 14.93m 2.10. Water is flowing through a tapering pipe of length 100m having diameter 60cm at the upper end and 30cm at the lower end, at the rate of 50lit/s. The pipe has a slope of 1 in 30. Find the pressure at the lower end, if the pressure at the higher level is 1.962*105N/m2. Data : Slope of the pipe (axis) is 1 in 30. D1=60cm = 0.6m S1=( /4)*D12 = ( /4)*0.62 = 0.2827m2 Q = 50lit/s=0.050 m3/s P1=1.962*105N/m2 D2=30cm = 0.3m S2=( /4)*D22 = ( /4)*0.32= 0.07068 m2 v2 = ? P2 = ? N/m2

Let the datum line pass through the center line of the lower end. i.e., z2=0. For every 30m length of pipe height increases by 1m for 100m of pipe Q = 0.05m3/s = S1v1 = S2v2
28

1 * 100 =3.33m 30

Q 0.05 v1 = S = 0.2827 =0.1768 m/s 1 Q 0.05 v 2 = S = 0.07068 =0.7074 m/s 2

Applying

Bernoullis

equation

between

upper

and

lower

sections

of

pipe

2 P1 v 1 P v2 + + z1g = 2 + 2 + z 2 g 2 2

P 1.962 * 10 5 0.1768 2 0.07068 + + 3.333 * 9.81 = 2 + 1000 2 1000 2

+0

Solving for P2= 2.28909*105N/m2 2.11. A 5m long pipe in inclined at an angle of 15oC with the horizontal. The smaller section of the pipe, which is at a lower level is of 80mm dia and the larger section of the pipe is of 240mm dia as shown in figure. Determine the difference of pressure between the two sections in N/m2 if the pipe is uniformly tapered and the velocity of water at the smaller section is 1m/s. D1=80mm = 0.08m 5m S1=( /4)*D12 = ( /4)*0.082 = 0.005027m2 v1= 1m/s
15o

D2=240mm = 0.24m S2=( /4)*D22 = ( /4)*0.242= 0.042 m2 5sin15 v2 = ?

z1=0m; z2=0+5sin = 5 sin15 = 1.294m. We know from continuity equation for incompressible fluids that S1v1 = S2v2 v2 =

S1v1 0.005027*1 = =0.1112 m/s S2 0.0452

Applying Bernoullis equation between the sections 1and 2

2 P1 v1 P v2 + + z 1g = 2 + 2 + z 2 g 2 2 2 P1 P2 v 2 v1 = 2 + g (z 2 z 1 ) 2

P1 P2 0.1112 2 12 = + 9.81(1.294 0) 2

P1 P2 =12 .2003

P1-P2 = 12200.32N/m2 = 12.20032kN/m2 Problems with friction 2.12. A pipe of diameter 40cm carriers water at a velocity of 25m/s. The pressure, at the points A and B are given as 2.943*105N/m2 and 2.254*105N/m2 respectively, while the datum head at A and B are 28m and 30m. Find the loss of head between A and B.
29

Data: Diameter of pipe, d= 40cm =0.4m Velocity, v = 25m/s PA = 2.943*105 PB = N/m2 2.254*105N/m2 zA = 28m zB = 30m Applying Bernoullis equation between sections A and B in head form
PA v 2 P v2 + A +zA = B + B +zB +hf g 2g g 2g

P P v2 v2 hf = A + A + zA B + B + zB g 2g g 2g
2.943 * 10 5 2.254 * 10 5 25 2 25 2 h f = + + 28 + + 30 1000 * 9.81 1000 * 9.81 2 * 9.81 2 * 9.81

hf = 5.023m of water. (loss in head) 2.13. A conical tube of length 2m is fixed vertically with its smaller end upwards. The velocity of flow at the smaller end is 5m/s while at the lower end it is 2m/s. The pressure head at the smaller end is 2.5m of liquid. The loss of head in the tube is
0.35 ( v 1 v 2 ) 2 = h L , where v1 is the velocity 2g

at the smaller end and v2 at the lower end respectively. Determine the pressure head at the lower end. Flow takes place in the downward direction. Data:Let upper end be 1 and lower end be 2; L=2m
P1 =2.5m; v1=5m/s; v2=2m/s; g

loss of head h L =

0.35 ( v 1 v 2 ) 2 0.35 * (5 2) 2 = =0.16m 2g 2 * 9.81

Let the datum line pass through the section 2, Applying Bernoullis equation
2 P1 v 1 P v2 + + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + h L g 2g g 2g

2.5 +

P 52 22 +2 = 2 + + 0 + 0.16 2 * 9.81 g 2 * 9.81

5.7742 =

P2 + 0.3639 g

P2 =5.4103m of liquid. g

2.14. A pipe line carrying oil of specific gravity 0.87 changes in diameter from 200mm diameter at a position A to 500mm at a position B which is 4m at a higher level. If the pressure at A andB are 0.981*105N/m2 and 0.5886*105N/m2 respectively, and the discharge is 200lit/s, determine the loss of head and direction of flow.
30

Data: DA = 200mm = 0.2m SA=( /4)*DA2 = ( /4)*0.22 = 0.0314m2 PA = 0.981*105 N/m2 Q = 200 lit/s = 0.2m3/s DB = 500mm =0.5m SB=( /4)*DB2 = ( /4)*0.52= 0.1963 m2 PB = 0.5886*105 N/m2

Let the datum line pass through A zA = 0m and zB = 4m. we know v A =

vB =

Q 0.2 = =6.369m/s S A 0.0314

ZB=4m
B

Q 0.2 =1.018m/s = SB 0.1963

Applying Bernoullis equation between A and B

PA v 2 P v2 + A + gz A = B + B + gz B + h f 2 2
zA=0m
A

0.981 * 10 5 6.369 2 0.5886 * 10 5 1.018 2 + + 9.81 * 0 = + + 9.81 * 4 + h f 870 2 870 2

Solving for hf, hf = - 25.63J/kg. The ve sign signifies that the total energy at section B is greater than at section A. the flow takes place from top to bottom (B to A). The loss of energy hf = 25.63J/kg =25.63/9.81m = 2.613m of liquid. 2.15. Brine (NaCl solution) of specific gravity 1.15 is draining from the bottom of a large open head tank through a 50mm pipe. The drain pipe ends at a point 4.57m below the surface of the brine in the tank. Considering a stream line starting at the surface of the brine in the tank and passing through the center of the drain line to the point of discharge and assuming the velocity of flow a long the stream line at the point of discharge from the pipe. Let the datum line passes through the point of discharge at point B
31
B A

4.57m

 zB = 0 and zA = 4.57m Let A be the surface of the liquid in the tank and B be the point of discharge. Applying Bernoullis equation between points A and B
PA v2 P v2 + A + zA = B + B + zB g 2g g 2g

Velocity at point A will be very small because of the large cross-section of the tank and it can be neglected. The pressure at A and B are equal because, both the points are exposed to atmosphere, both will have atmospheric pressure. Finally Bernoullis equation simplifies to
zA = ve B 2g

v2 = 2gzA = 2*9.81*4.57 = 9.469m/s B

Pump problems: Work supplied to the pump from shaft work = ws Pump work = wp Total friction in the pump/kg of fluid = hfp Net mechanical energy available to the flowing fluid = wp - hfp Pump efficiency = wp - hfp/ wp

The mechanical energy delivered to the flowing fluid = wp m Power, P = wp m , watts or wp m /746, hp
Applying the bernoullis equation around the pump, the pressure drop developed by the pump is calculated as follows
P1 u2 P u2 + gz 1 + 1 + w p = 2 + gz 2 + 2 , here z1 = z2 (as pump is parallel to datum line) 2 2

1 = 2 (rate of flow is steady and dia of the pipe on suction side and delivery side are same )
P2 P 1 = w p
2 u2 u2 P2 P1 = w p 1 2

if 1 2

15m

Problems on pumps 2.16. In the figure shown a pump draws a solution of specific gravity 1.84 from a storage tank through a 75mm pipe. The efficiency of the pump is 60%. The velocity in the suction line is 0.914m/s. The pump discharges through a 50mm pipe to an overhead tank. The end of the discharge pipe is 15m above the level of the solution in the feed tank. A frictional loss in the entire piping system is 30J/kg. What pressure must the pump develop and what is the power of the pump.
32
a

Datum line

Let a be the surface of the solution in the feed tank. b be the discharge point. From the figure za = 0 and zb = 15m. va is very small compared to vb (due to large cross sectional area of the feed tank)
2 va can be neglected 2

Let the datum line passes through the surface of the liquid in the tank. Pressures at both a and b will same, because both are opened to atmosphere. Writing Bernoullis equation in energy form (because the frictional loss is given in the form of energy)
2 Pa v a P v2 + + gz a + Wp = b + b + gz b + h f , this equation reduces to the following equation after 2 2

incorporating the above assumptions

Wp =

v2 b + gz b + h f (1) 2

Diameter of suction pipe, Da=0.075m Diameter of delivery pipe, Db=0.075m Velocity in suction pipe, va = 0.914m/s Area of suction pipe, Sa = ( /4)*Da2=4.417*10-3 m2. Area of delivery pipe, Sb = ( /4)*Db2=1.963*10-3 m2. We know from continuity equation that Sava = Sbvb
vb = Sa v a 4.417 * 10 3 * 0.075 2 = =2.057m/s Sb 1.963 * 10 3

Substituting vb in equation (1), and solving

0.6 Wp = 2.057 2 + 9.81 * 15 + 30 Wp=298.776J/kg. 2

Power, P = m wp= *va*Sa*Wp

P=1840*0.914*4.417*10-3 *298.776 P=2219.408 J/s = 2219.408W P = 2.219kW To find the pressure drop developed across the pump, let 1 be input to the pump and 2 be output from the pump from the figure z1 z2. Applying Bernoullis equation across points 1 and 2,
2 P1 v1 P v2 + + gz 1 + Wp = 2 + 2 + gz 2 + h f , 2 2

here hf, because there is no piping system for the loss of head/energy in the pipe. Bernoullis equation reduces to
P1 P 0.914 2 2.057 2 + + 0.6 * 298 .779 = 2 + 1840 2 1840 2
33

solving for P2-P1, we get P2-P1 = 3.267*105N/m2 2.17. Water at 25oC is pumped at a constant rate of 24*10-4m3/s from a large reservoir resting on the floor to the top of an experimental absorption tower. The point of discharge is 5m above the floor and the frictional loss in the 0.05m pipe from the reservoir to the tower amounts to 2.4J/kg. At what height in the reservoir must the water level be kept if the pump can develop only 100 watts.
water

=1000 kg/m3

Floor is taken as datum line. Let station a be the surface of the water in the reservoir and b the discharge point. Applying Bernoullis equation between station a and b
2 Pa v a P v2 + + gz a + Wp = b + b + gz b + h f 2 2

The velocity va in the reservoir will be very small and can be neglected. The pressure P a and Pb is atmospheric. So they get cancelled out.

We know Power, P= m Wp = 100W Wp = 100/ m Where m =Q* =24*10-4*1000=2.4kg/s Wp = 100/2.4 = 41.67J/kg

Area of the delivery pipe Sb= ( /4)*d2=( /4)*0.052 = 1.96*10-3m2 vb=Q/Sb = (24*10-4)/(1.96*10-3) = Assuming an efficiency of 60%, Substituting above values
b

1.22m/s zb=5m and hf=2.4J/kg

1
P1

in

2 P2

Bernoullis equation

ABSORBER

Zb=5m

a Za

Datum line

9.81 * z a + 0.6 * 41 .67 =

1.22 2 + 9.81 * 5 + 2.4 za=2.77m 2

A height of atleast 2.77m should be maintained in the feed tank for the given operation.

34

2.18. Oil of specific gravity 0.75 is pumped from a tank over a hill through a 60cm pipe with the pressure at the top of the hill maintained at 1.75*10-3N/m2. The summit of the hill is 80m above the surface of the oil in the tank and oil is pumped at the rate of 0.6m3/s. If the lost head from the tank to summit is 5m, what HP must the pump supply to the liquid? Data :Pb = 1.75*103N/m2.
b

80m

Datum line

Pa = 1.01325*105N/m2 (atmospheric) hf = 5m = 5*9.81 = 49.05J/kg Let the station a be the surface of the oil in the reservoir and station b be the discharge point. Let the datum line pass through the surface of the oil. za = 0; zb = 80m Discharge, Q=0.6m3/s; diameter of pipe =0.6m Area of pipe, Sb = ( /4)*0.62 = 0.283m2. vb= Q/Sb = 0.6/0.283 =2.12m/s va is very small, because of the larger cross-section of the reservoir, Applying Bernoullis equation
2 Pa v a P v2 + + gz a + Wp = b + b + gz b + h f 2 2

v2 a 2g

can be neglected.

1.01325 * 10 5 1.75 * 10 3 2.12 2 + 9.81 * 0 + Wp = + + 9.81 * 80 + 49 .05 Wp = 703.33 J/kg 750 750 2

Power, P= m Wp m =Q = 0.6*750=450 kg/s

P = 450 * 703.33 = 314498.5 W P = 314498.5/746 = 424.26 HP 2.19. A pump feeds 10000kg/hr of nitrobenzene at a temperature of 20 oC from a tank to a reactor which is 15m above the level of nitrobenzene in the tank. Find the power consumed by the pump assuming an efficiency of 0.6, diameter of the pipe is 8cm. Density of nitrobenzene is 1200kg/m 3.
b

15m

Datum line

35

Viscosity, = 0.0021PaS. Length of the pipe is 200m. For the given system under the given arrangement the relationship between velocity and the friction factor is given by f=0.005v where f is the friction factor and v is the velocity in m/s. Given h f = Let the datum line pass through the surface of nitrobenzene. Let a be the point on the surface of nitrobenzene and b be the point of discharge. Data: za=0; zb = 15m
4flv 2 2D
-0.25

Mass flow rate, m = 10000kg/hr

m =10000/3600 = 2.78kg/s

vb =

m 278 = S b 1200* * 0.082 4

( )

=0.461m/s

f= 0.005 v-0.25 = 0.005* 0.461-0.25 = 6.068*10-3

hf = 4flv 2 4 * 6.608 * 10 3 * 200 * 0.461 2 =6.45 J/kg = 2D 2 * 0.08

Applying Bernoullis equation

2 Pa v a P v2 + + gz a + Wp = b + b + gz b + h f 2 2

The pressures at stations a and b are at atmospheric pressure, because they are exposed to atmosphere. The velocity in the feed tank can be neglected because of the large cross section of the tank. Bernoullis equation reduces to

W p =

v2 b + gz b + h f 2
0.461 2 + 9.81 * 15 + 6.45 2

0.6 Wp =

Wp = 265.177J/kg

Power, P = m Wp = 2.76*256.177 = 711.6W

P = 711.6/746 = 0.956HP 1HP (this is the power of the pump)

36

FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS IN PIPES Shear stress distribution in a cylindrical tube :

A P1 R B x Figure 2.4

D r P2

Consider a horizontal pipe of radius R in which a steady flow of a viscous fluid at constant density is taking place. Visualize a disk shaped element of fluid, concentric with the axis of the tube of radius r and length x as show in figure. Assume the element is isolated as a feed body. Let the fluid pressure on the upstream and downstream faces of the disk be (ie., faces AB and CD ) P 1and P2 respectively. Since the fluid posses a viscosity, a shear force opposing the flow will exist on the rim of the element. Then the forces acting on the fluid element are
1. 2. 3.

the pressure force, P1 ( r2) on the face AB the pressure force, P2( r2) on the face CD the shear force ( 2 r x) on the surface of fluid element.

As there is no acceleration, the summation of all forces in the direction of flow must be zero i.e., P1 r2 P2 r2 - 2 r x = 0 (P1-P2) r2 - 2 r x = 0
P P2 r = 1 (1) x 2

P1 P2 The shear stress, across a section varies with r as x

is constant.

Hence shear stress distribution across a section is linear as shown in the figure 2.5.

37

Figure 2.5. Shear stress distribution

Velocity distribution across a section P1 P2 We know = x viscosity = r (1) 2 from shear stress distribution, and also from Newtons law of

du (2) dr

Equating (1) and (2) du P1 P2 r = dr x 2

P P2 r du = 1 dr , integrating with respect to r gives x 2

P P2 r 2 u = 1 + c (3) , where c is the integration constant and its value is obtained from the x 4

boundary conditions i.e., at r= R ; u=0

P1 P2 R 2 +c 0 = x 4 P P2 R 2 c = 1 , substituting the value of c in the equation (3) x 4 P P2 r 2 P1 P2 R 2 u = 1 x 4 x 4

u=

1 P1 P2 2 (R r 2 ) (4) 4 x
38

 P1 P2 and R are constants, which means that the velocity In the above equation the values of , x u varies with the square of r. This shows that the velocity distribution across the section of a pipe is parabolic. This velocity distribution is shown in figure 2.6

Figure 2.6. Velocity distribution in a circular conduit

Ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity The velocity is maximum when r=0. Thus maximum velocity, u max = 1 P1 P2 2 R 4 x

The average velocity is obtained by dividing the discharge of the fluid across the section by the area of the pipe. The discharge, Q across the section is obtained by considering the flow through a circular ring element of radius r and thickness dr.
R

dr

The fluid flowing per second through this elementary ring is dQ=velocity at a radius r x area of the ring element

39

dQ =

1 P1 P2 2 ( R r 2 ) * (2rdr ) 4 x

integrating
R

Q=

4
0

1 P1 P2 2 ( R r 2 ) ( 2rdr ) x
R

Q=

2 P1 P2 ( R 2 r r 3 )dr 4 x 0

Q=

P1 P2 2 x
P1 P2 2 x

r4 R 2 r 2 4 2 0
R4 R 4 2 4

Q=

Q=

P1 P2 R 4 2 x 4

Q =

P1 P2 4 R 8 x

Average velocity, = Q/A

P1 P2 4 R 8 x u= R 2
u= 1 P1 P2 2 R 8 x

u max u

1 P1 P2 4 x = 1 P1 P2 8 x

2 R =2 2 R

The ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity is 2 if (i) the flow is laminar flow (ii) the fluid is newtonian fluid and (iii) the flow takes place through a circular conduit. Pressure drop for a given length of pipe ( x=L) u= 1 P1 P2 2 R 8 L

8 L=(P1-P2)R2 P1-P2=8 L/R2

P1 - P2 = 8uL D 2
2

P1 - P2 =

32 uL D2

, This is the pressure drop across a length of pipe L.

40

 Head loss, h f =
hf = 32 L u gD 2

P1 P2 g

, This equation is called Hagen Poiseuille equation.

Worked Examples 2.20. Medium lubricating oil of relative density 0.86 is pumped through 305m of horizontal pipe having a diameter of 50 mm at the rate of 1.23x10-3m3/s. If the drop in pressure is 207 kN/m2. Determine the absolute viscosity of oil assuming the flow to be laminar. Sol: Given Q=1.23x10-3m3/s D= 50 mm = 0.05m. A = D2/4= (0.05)2/4=1.963x10-3m2. =Q/A = 1.23x10-3/1.963x10-3 = 0.626m/s P=32 L/D2
= 207 * 10 3 * 0.05 ) 2 PD 2 N = = 0.0847 32 uL 32 * 0626 * 305 m 2s

2.21. A laminar flow is taking place in a pipe of diameter of 20 cm. 4 cm from the wall of the pipe. Sol : = umax = * 1.5 =0.75m/s We have u = u max = 1 P1 P2 2 (R r 2 ) (1) 4 x

The maximum velocity is

1.5m/s. Find the mean velocity and the radius at which this occurs. Also calculate the velocity at

1 P1 P2 2 R ( 2) 4 x

Dividing [1] by [2]

u u max = R2 r2 R2
u u max =

, substituting u as and solving for r, gives r = 0.0707m.

R2 r2 u = u max R2

Again

R2 r2 R2

R2 r2 u = u max R2

0.12 0.06 2 = 1.5 0.12

= 0.96 m / s

2.22. A crude oil of viscosity 0.97 poise and relative density 0.9 is flowing through a horizontal circular pipe of diameter 10 cm and of length 10m. Calculate the difference of pressure at the two ends of the pipe if 100kgs of the oil is collected in a tank in 30 seconds. Sol: =0.97poise = 0.097 Ns/m2 = 0.9*1000=900 kg/m3 D= 10 cm = 0.1m L= 10m m=100/30 = 3.33kg/s
41

Q= 3.33/900 = 3.7037*10-3 m3/s = Q/A = 3.7037 *10-3/( * 0.12/4) =0.4715m/s P1 - P2 = 32 L/D2 = 32*0.097*0.4715*10/0.12 P1 - P2 =1463.75 N/m2. 2.23. The velocity distribution in a pipe 25 mm diameter and 10m long in which the flow is laminar is given by ur = 2- c r2, where ur is the velocity in m/s at any radius r and c is a constant. Determine (a) Rate of flow in lit/s (b) average velocity in m/s (c) maximum velocity in m/s (d) shear force at the pipe wall per m of pipe length in N (e) units of C and its value (f) the radial position at which a pitot tube be placed to measure the average velocity. Viscosity =0.001 N.s/m2. Sol : maximum velocity occurs when r =0 ur = 2- c r2, when r = 0 ; umax = 2 m/s (sol. for (c)) for laminar flow in a circular pipe /umax = 0.5 = 0.5 umax = 0.5 *2 =1m/s (sol. for (b)) Rate of flow Q= * S = 1* (/4)* D2 = 4.9087*10-4 m3/s Q =0.49087 lit/s (sol. for (a)) From Hagen poiseuillies equation
P1 P2 = 32 uL D
2

32 * 0.001 * 1 * 10 0.025
2

= 512

N m2

P1 P2 r 512 * 0.025 = 0.32 N (sol. for (d)) = we know = 10 * 4 L 2 When r =R, ur = 0 i.e., 0=2 c R2 c = 2/R2 = 12800 m-1s-1 (sol. for (e)) we know
u u max

u u max

R2 r2 or R2

= 0.5 =

R2 r2 R2

, solving for r we get

r = 8.83 * 10-3m 2.24. What power is required per kilometer of a line to overcome the viscous resistance to the flow of glycerine through a horizontal pipe of diameter 10cm at the rate of 10lit/s. Take =8P and kinematic viscosity 6 stokes. Data: Q=10lit/s = 0.01m3/s D = 10cm = 0.1m S = ( /4)*0.12 = 0.00785 m2 V = Q/S = 0.01/0.00785 =1.27m/s

42

From Hagen-Poiseullies P = P =

32vL D2

32 * 0.8 *1.27 *1000 =3251200N/m2 0.12

m m = P1 P2

P1 P2 Power, P =

P = (P1-P2)* Q = 3251200*0.01 =32512W = 43.58HP

43

Viscous (Laminar) flow between two parallel plates

P
1

A 2y B

dy

P
2

P
1

P
2

C x Figure 2.7. Flow between two parallel plates

Consider two parallel plates kept at a distance Y m apart as shown in the figure 2.7. A viscous fluid is flowing between these two plates from left to right. Consider a fluid element of length x m, width z m and thickness 2y m. If P1 is the intensity of pressure on the face AB then the intensity of pressure on face CD will be P2. Then the forces acting on the fluid element are
1. 2. 3. 4.

The pressure force, F1 = P12y z The pressure force, F2 = P22y z The shear force on the face AD F3 = x z The shear force on the face BC F4 = x z

As there is no acceleration the summation of all forces in the direction of flow must be zero. i.e., F1 F2 F3 F4 = 0 P1 2y z P2 2y z - x z - x z = 0 (P1 P2 ) 2y - 2 x = 0
P P2 = 1 y (1) x

The shear force across the section varies with y as (P1-P2)/ x is constant. Hence shear stress distribution is linear as shown in figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8. Shear stress distribution

Velocity distribution across the section

44

du P1 P2 y (1) and also = We have = from Newtons law of viscosity. equating dy x

the both equations gives du P1 P2 = y dy x ydy , Integrating the above equation gives

P P2 du = 1 x
P P2 u = 1 x

y2 2 + c (2)

where c is integration constant and its value is obtained from the boundary conditions; when y = Y/2, u=0
P1 P2 (2) 0 = x P P2 c = 1 x Y2 8 +c

Y2 8 (3)

substituting the value of c from equation(3) in (2)

P P2 u = 1 x
P P2 u = 1 x

y 2 P1 P2 2 + x

Y2 8

Y 2 y2 ( 8 2 4)

In equation (4) the values of , (P1-P2)/ x and Y are constants, which means that u varies with the square of y. This shows that the velocity distribution across the section of a pipe is parabolic. This velocity distribution is shown in figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9. Velocity distribution

Ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity Velocity is maximum when y = 0.

P1 P2 u max = x Y2 8

The average velocity is obtained by dividing the discharge of the fluid across the section by the area. i.e., =Q/S
Y

Q =2

uds
0

45

Q=2

P1 P2 x

Y 2 y 2 8 2 zdy
y3 Y 2 y 8 6 0
Y 2

Q=

2 P1 P2 z x

Q=

2z P1 P2 x 2z P1 P2 x

Y3 Y 3 16 48 Y 3 24

Q=

u=

Q = s

2z P1 P2 x zY

Y 3 24

u=

1 P1 P2 2 Y 12 x

u max u

P1 P2 Y 2 x 8 3 = = = 1.5 1 P1 P2 2 2 Y 12 x

Drop of pressure head for a given length u= 1 P1 P2 2 Y or 12 x

P1 P2 = 12 x/Y2 hf = (P1 P2)/ g = (12 x)/ g Y2 Worked Examples 2.25. An oil of viscosity 10P flows between two parallel fixed plates which are kept at a distance of 5cm apart. Find the rate of flow of oil between the plates, if the drop of pressure in a length of 120cm be 0.3N/cm2. The width of the plate is 20cm. Data : Y=5cm = 0.05m P=0.3N/cm2 = 0.3*104 =3000N/m2 x = 120cm =1.2m width Z = 20cm =0.2m we know P1 P2 =
u=
u=

12 xu Y2

, solving for

( P1 P2 ) Y 2
12x

( 3000 ) * 0.05 2
12 * 1 * 1.2

=0.52m/s
46

Q= S = 0.52*(0.05*0.2) = 0.0052m3/s 2.26. There is a horizontal crack of 4 cm wide and 2.5mm deep in a wall of thickness 10cm. Water leaks through the crack. Find the rate of leakage through the crack if the difference of pressure drop between the two ends of the crack is 0.02943 N/cm2. Viscosity of water is 0.01P. Data : P1-P2 = 0.02943N/cm2 = 0.02943*104= 294.3N/m2 Y=2.5mm = 2.5*10-3 x=10cm = 0.1m z=4cm =0.04m we know P1 P2 =
u= 12 xu Y2

, solving for

( P1 P2 ) Y 2
12x
2

( 294 .3) * (2.5 * 10 3 ) u=

12 * 0.001 * 0.1

=1.532m/s

Q= S = 1.532*(0.04*2.5*10-3) = 1.532*10-4m3/s 2.27. Determine the pressure gradient, shear stress at the two horizontal parallel plates and the discharge per meter width for laminar flow of oil with a maximum velocity of 2m/s between two horizontal plates which are 10cm apart. Given =2.4525Ns/m2. Data : P1-P2 = ? Y=10cm = 0.1m x=10cm = 0.1m z=4cm =0.04m

u max = 1.5 u
u = u max 2 = =1.33m/s 1.5 1.5
12 xu Y2

we know P1 P2 =

P1 P2 12 * 2.4525 * 1.33 = =3924N/m2per meter length of pipe x 0.12

P1 P2 Y = 3294 * 0.1 =329.4N/m2 x

Q = S = 1.33*1*0.1=0.133m3/s

47

HEAD LOSS IN TURBULENT FLOW DUE TO FRICTION Consider a horizontal pipe of radius R. The turbulent fluid flow is taking place in the pipe from left to right as shown in figure 2.10. Let P1 and P2 be the intensity of the pressure at sections 1-1 and 2-2 respectively. Let sections 1-1 and 2-2 are separated by a length L. Then the forces acting on the fluid element are
1 P
1

2 F P
2

F 1 L 2

Figure 2.10. Friction in turbulent flow

1. The pressure force at section 1-1, F1 = P1S 2. The pressure force at section 2-2, F2 = P2S 3. The frictional resistance force, F3 = F p L

Where S is the cross sectional area of the pipe p is the wetted perimeter = D (if the pipe is running full). As there is no acceleration, the summation of all forces in the direction of the flow must be equal to zero P1 S P2 S F pL = 0 (P1 P2) S = F p L It was found by Darcy that the frictional resistance force per unit area is proportional to kinetic energy of fluid per unit volume i.e., F
F
1 mu 2 , where V is volume 2 V

1 u 2 ; 2

F = f 2, where f is the proportionality factor called friction factor (P1 P2) S = f 2 p L

P1 P2 = fu 2 DL fu 2 DL = 2S 2 D2 4
4fu 2 L 2D

P1 P2 =

hf =

P1 P2 4fu 2 L = , This equation is known as Darcy-weisbatch equation. g 2gD

Relation between f and Nre We have h f =

4fu 2 L , from Darcy-weisbatch equation and 2gD

48

hf =

32 L u gD 2

, from Hagen Poiseuille equation.

Equating both the equations and solving for f

4fu 2 L 32 L u = 2gD gD 2
f =16 16 = u D N re

Worked Examples 2.28. An oil discharges from a large constant head tank through a horizontal round cast iron pipe 10m long at the rate of 16*103 kg/min. The tank and the tube are placed at the same level. The specific gravity and the kinematic viscosity of oil are 0.85 and 6*10-6 m2/s respectively. If the head loss does not exceed 2m per 100m, find the diameter of the pipe and also determine the average velocity of oil flowing in the pipe. Take f=0.0035 for this flowrate. Sol: hf = 0.2 m ( because 2m per 100 m 0.2 m per 10m) = 850 kg/m3, = 6*10-6 m2/s = / = 6*10-6 m2/s = * = 6*10-6 * 850 = 0.051 Ns/m2 m = 16*103 kg/min = 16*103 /60 kg/s = 266.67 kg/s Q= m/ = 266.67/850 = 0.3137 m3/s
0.3137 0.399 = = Q/S = 2 D2 D 4

we know h f =
hf =

4fu 2 L , substituting the value of , we get 2gD

2f (0.399 ) 2 L gD 5

, solving for D, we get

= 2 * 0.0035 * (0.399) 9.81 * 0.2
2

D5 =

2f(0.399) gh f

* 10

= 5.672 * 10 3

D = 0.355m
0.3137 0.399 = = 3.169 m / s 2 = Q/S = 0.355 2 D 4

2.29. Calculate the friction factor when water is flowing under laminar conditions in a pipe of 1 cm diameter and at a velocity of 10 cm/s. Sol : for laminar flow , f=16/Nre and Nre = D/ = 1000*0.01*0.1/0.001 = 1000 f = 16/1000 = 0.016 VENTURIMETER

49

Venturimeter is a variable head meter used for finding the discharge of liquid flowing at any point along a pipe line. This is a device also used to find out the rate of discharge of liquid flowing through a pipe. This apparatus follows the principle of Bernoullis theorem, that total head of a flowing fluid remains constant i.e., when liquid passes through a converging cone, its increase in kinetic head is due to the decrease in pressure head. By measuring the pressure difference with the help of a differential manometer the velocity of flow and hence the rate of discharge can be evaluated. A venturimeter consists of the following three parts: i. Converging cone: It is a short tapering pipe whose diameter gradually decreases from the diameter of the pipe to the smaller diameter at the pipe to the smaller diameter at the throat. The inclined angle is about 20oC. The length of converging cone is 2.5 times the pipe diameter and its slope is 1 in 4 to 1 in 5.

ii. Throat: It is a small portion of constant diameter which is placed in between the converging cone and diverging cone. Its diameter is to times the diameter of pipe at inlet so that the pressure at the throat may not fall below 2.5m of water, otherwise the separation will take place even at atmospheric temperature. iii. Diverging cone: This is also a tapering pipe whose diameter gradually increases from the diameter at throat to the diameter of the pipe. When fluid flows through this position of venturimeter, it is retarded. Due to the retardation, the velocity head of the fluid decreases and consequently its pressure head increases. If the pressure is rapidly increases then there is a every possibility that the fluid may break away from the walls of pipe due to boundary layer effect. For this reason the length of diverging cone is 3 to 4 times the length of converging cone. The inclined angle is about 5o. Basic equation for venturimeter can be obtained by writing Bernoulli's equation for incompressible fluid between two stations, upstream taping and throat. Friction is neglected, meter is assumed to be horizontal and there is no pump.
2 P1 u 1 P u2 + + gz 1 = 2 + 2 + gz 2 (1) 2 2

since the meter is horizontal z1 = z2

2 P1 u 1 P u2 + = 2 + 2 2 2

2 2 u 2 u1 =

2( P2 P1 ) (2)

According to continuity equation S11 = S2 2 (3)

50

 2 D1 u 1 = D 2 u 2 2 4 4

D 1 = 2 D 1

u2

1 = 2 2 eliminating 1 from equation 2

2 2 u 2 4 u 2 =

2(P1 P2 ) 2(P1 P2 )

2 u 2 (1 4 ) =

2 u2 =

2(P1 P2 ) (1 4 )
2(P1 P2 ) (1 4 ) ( 4)
D1 = diameter of pipe D2 = diameter of throat

u2 =

But we know P1-P2= gh

P1 P2 = gh

D2 = = ratio of diameter of D1
throat to the diameter of pipe.

substituting in equation 4
u2 = 2gh (1 4 ) (5)

equation 4 and 5 applies to the frictionless flow of incompressible flow. To account for friction loss between 1 and 2, equation 4 is corrected by introducing a empirical factor Cv, called venturi coefficient.
u2 = Cv 2( P1 P2 ) (1 4 ) (6)

venturi coefficient is determined experimentally. When D2/D1 is less than 0.25 the term can be neglected. For well designed meter Cv is about 0.98 to 0.99. The mass flow rate through venturimeter can be calculated from the velocity at throat 2 using continuity equation.
m = u 2S 2 =C v S 2 2( P1 P2 ) (7)

where

m - mass flow rate

S2 Area of throat. Volumetric flow rate is obtained by dividing mass flow rate by the density
q= m = C vS2 2( P1 P2 ) (1 4 ) (8)

Cv can be found experimentally. Advantages 1. High accuracy is attainable.

51

2. Pressure recovery is high, i.e., pressure losses is minimum. 3. Resistance to abrasion is minimum. 4. Ideally suited where the measured fluid contains large amount of suspended solids. Disadvantages 1. Lot of space is required. 2. Initial cost is high 3. The device is bulky and D = diameter of throat 2 D2 = = ratio of diameter of Vena Contracta: When a fluid D 1 contracted. This condition
throat to the diameter of pipe. D1 = diameter of pipe

required good support. comes out of an orifice, its area is continues upto certain distance,

where it becomes minimum. After that it again expands. The section where the area is minimum is

2 1 z1 z2 Rm

called Vena contracta. At this section all steam lines are parallel to each other and are horizontal. Inclined Venturimeter with a u tube manometer From hydrostatic principles, we shall find the difference in pressure between points 1 and 2. P1 + gz1 - mgRm - g (z2-Rm) = P2 P1-P2 = mgRm + gz2 - gRm - gz1 P1 P2 = gRm (
m

- ) + g (z2 z1) (1)

Applying Bernoulli's equation between points 1 and 2

2 P1 u 1 P u2 + + gz 1 = 2 + 2 + gz 2 (2) 2 2 2 2 u 2 u1 ( P P2 ) = 1 + g (z 1 z 2 ) (3) 2

According to continuity equation S11 = S2 2 (4)

2 D1 u 1 = D 2 u 2 2 4 4
52

D 1 = 2 D 1

u2

1 = 2 2 eliminating 1 from equation 2

2 2 u 2 4 u 2 ( P P2 ) = 1 + g(z 1 z 2 ) 2

2 u 2 (1 4 ) =

2( P1 P2 ) 2( P1 P2 ) 2 + 2g ( z 1 z 2 ) + 2g ( z 1 z 2 ) u 2 = (1 4 )

substituting the value of P1-P2 from equation 1 in the above equation

2 u2 =

gR m ( m ) + g (z 2 z 1 ) + g ( z 1 z 2 ) (1 ) 2
4

2 u2 =

gR m ( m ) (1 ) 2
4

u2 =

gR m ( m ) (5) (1 ) 2
4

If we observe equation 5, it is the same equation as the equation we have got it for horizontal venturimeter. Because for an U tube manometer P 1 P2 = gRm( venturimeter can be neglected. 4.1. A horizontal venturimeter with inlet and throat diameters 30 cm and 15cm respectively is used to measure the flow of water. The reading of differential manometer connected to the inlet and the throat is 20cm of mercury. Determine the rate of flow. Assume Cv = 0.98. Solution: Given: D1= 30cm =0.30m; D2 = 15cm = 0.15m =D2/D1 = 0.15/0.30 = 0.5 S2 = D22/4 = *0.152/4 = 0.0177m2 P = Rm*g*( m- ) = 20*10-2*9.81*(13600-1000) = 24721 N/m2.
Q = C vS2 2 P (1 4 ) 2 * 24721 .2 1000 * (1 0.5 4 )
m

- ). So it can be concluded that if

we use u-tube manometer to measure the pressure difference between the two tapings, the angle of the

Q = 0.98 * 0.177

= 0.126m3

4.2. A 30cm*15cm venturimeter is inserted in a vertical pipe carrying water, flowing in the upward direction. The difference in elevation of throat section and entrance section of throat section and entrance section of venturimeter is 30cm. A differential mercury manometer is connected to the inlet and throat gives a reading of 20 cm. Find the discharge. Take C v=0.98. Find the pressure difference between entrance and throat. Solution: Given:
53

D1= 30cm =0.30m; D2 = 15cm = 0.15m =D2/D1 = 0.15/0.30 = 0.5 S2 = D22/4 = *0.152/4 = 0.0177m2 The pressure difference according to the U tube manometer is P|manometer = Rm*g*( m- ) = 20*10-2*9.81*(13600-1000) = 24721 N/m2.
Q = C vS2 2 P (1 4 ) 2 * 24721 .2 1000 * (1 0.5 4 )

Q = 0.98 * 0.0177

= 0.126m3/s.

The pressure difference between the entrance and the throat will be P|actual = 24721- 0.3*1000*9.81= 21778N/m2. 4.3. A venturimeter has a pipe of 1.2m diameter and throat of 0.6m diameter. Find the discharge through the venturimeter and velocity of water at the throat, if the pressure is 4 cm of Hg, venturi coefficient is 0.98. Solution: Given: D1=1.2m =D2/D1 = 0.6/1.2 = 0.5 S2 = D22/4 = *0.62/4 = 0.283m2 P = Rm*g*( m- ) = 0.04*9.81*(13600-1000) = 4944.24 N/m2.
Q = C vS2 2 P (1 4 ) 2 * 4944 .24 1000 * (1 0.5 4 )

D2=0.6m Rm=4cm=0.04m.

Cv =0.98

Q = 0.98 * 0.283

= 0.9 m3/s.

The average velocity 2 =

Q 0.9 = = 3.18m/s. S2 0.283

4.4. A 30 by 15cm venturimeter is mounted in a vertical pipe with the flow upward. 140lps of oil of specific gravity 0.8, viscosity 0.01PaS flows through the pipe. The throat section is 15 cm above the upstream section. What is the value of P1-P2? Solution: Given: D1= 30cm =0.30m; D2 = 15cm = 0.15m =D2/D1 = 0.15/0.30 = 0.5 S2 = D22/4 = *0.152/4 = 0.0177m2 The pressure difference according to the U tube manometer is P|manometer = Rm*g*( m- ) = 20*10-2*9.81*(13600-1000) = 24721 N/m2.
Q = C vS2 2 P (1 4 )

54

0.14 = 0.98 * 0.0177

2 * (P1 P2 ) 800 * (1 0.5 4 )

P1-P2 = 24428.04 N/m2. This is the pressure measured assuming U tube manometer and neglecting the variation in height. Pactual = 24428.04- *g*0.15=24428.04-800*9.81*0.15 Pactual = 23250.84N/m2. The pressure difference between the entrance and the throat will be P|actual = 24721- 0.3*1000*9.81= 21778N/m2. ORIFICE METER It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid through a pipe. It is a cheaper device as compared to venturimeter. It also works on the same principle of venturimeter. It consists of a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp edged hole called orifice which is concentric with the pipe. The orifice diameter is kept generally 0.5 times the diameter of the pipe, though it may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe diameter.

A differential manometer is connected at section, which is at a distance of about 1.5 to 2 times the pipe diameter upstream from the orifice plate and at section 2, which is at a distance about half the diameter of the pipe on the downstream side from the orifice plate. Let P1, 1 and S1 are pressure, average velocity and cross sectional area respectively at section 1 and P 2, 2 and S2 are corresponding values section 2. Applying Bernoulli's equation between 1 and 2
2 P1 u 1 P u2 + + gz 1 = 2 + 2 + gz 2 (1) 2 2

since the meter is horizontal z1 = z2

2 P1 u 1 P u2 + = 2 + 2 2 2

2 2 u 2 u1 =

2( P2 P1 ) (2)

According to continuity equation S11 = S2 2 (3)

55

 2 D1 u 1 = D 2 u 2 2 4 4

D 1 = 2 D 1

u2

1 = 2 2 eliminating 1 from equation 2

2 2 u 2 4 u 2 =

2(P1 P2 ) 2(P1 P2 )

2 u 2 (1 4 ) =

2 u2 =

2(P1 P2 ) (1 4 )
2(P1 P2 ) (1 4 ) ( 4)
D1 = diameter of pipe D2 = diameter of throat

u2 =

But we know P1-P2= gh

P1 P2 = gh

D2 = = ratio of diameter of D1
throat to the diameter of pipe.

substituting in equation 4
u2 = 2gh (1 4 ) (5)

equation 4 and 5 applies to the frictionless flow of incompressible flow. In practice the diameter of the stream at vena contracta is not known, but the orifice diameter is known. Hence the above equation may be written in terms of velocity through the orifice. If a constant is inserted in the equation to correct for the difference between this velocity and the velocity at the vena contracta. There is some loss by friction and this also may be included in the constant. Then the above equation becomes
u 2 = Co 2(P1 P2 ) (1 4 ) (6)

where Co is the orifice coefficient. The mass flow rate through orifice meter can be calculated from the velocity at throat 2 using continuity equation.
m = u 2S 2 =C o S 2 2( P1 P2 ) (7)

where

m - mass flow rate

S2 Area of throat. Volumetric flow rate is obtained by dividing mass flow rate by the density
q= m = CoS2 2( P1 P2 ) (1 4 ) (8)

Co can be found experimentally and is generally 0.61.

56

Advantages 1. It is cheap device 2. It can be installed between existing pipe flanges. Disadvantages 1. Pressure recovery is very poor, i.e., pressure losses are high. 2. It is susceptible to inaccuracies resulting from wear and abrasion. 3. It may be damaged by pressure transients because of its lower physical strength. 4.5. An orifice meter with orifice diameter 10cm is inserted in a pipe of 20cm diameter. The pressure gauge fitted to the upstream and downstream of the orifice meter give readings of 1.9*105N/m2 and 1*105N/m2 respectively. Coefficient of discharge for the meter is given as 0.6. Find the discharge of water through pipe. Solution: Given: D2 =10cm = 0.1m. S2 =
2 D 2 = 0.12 =7.854*10-3m2 4 4

=0.1/0.2=0.5
h= P1 P2 1.95 *10 5 1 *10 5 = =9.684 m of H2O g 1000 * 9.81

Q = C oS2

2gh (1 4 ) 2 * 9.81 * 9.684 (1 0.5 4 )

Q = 0.6 * 7.854 *10 3

=0.0693m3/s = 69.3lps

4.6. An orifice meter with orifice diameter 15cm is inserted in a pipe of 30cm diameter. The pressure difference measured by a mercury oil differential manometer on the two sides of the orifice meter gives a reading of 50cm of Hg. Find the rate of flow of oil of specific gravity 0.9, when the coefficient of discharge of the meter is 0.61. Solution: Given: D2 =15cm = 0.15m. S2 =
2 D 2 = 0.15 2 =0.0177m2 4 4

=0.15/0.3=0.5
h= R m (m ) 0.58 (13600 900 ) = =7.655 m of oil 900
2gh (1 4 ) 2 * 9.81 * 7.655 (1 0.5 4 )

Q = C oS2

Q = 0.61 * 0.0177

=0.1309m3/s = 131lps

Comparison between Venturimeter and Orifice meter

57

In comparing the venturi meter with the orifice meter, both the cost of installation and the cost of operation must be considered.
1.

The orifice plate can easily be changed to accommodate widely different flow rates, whereas

the throat diameter of a venturi is fixed, so that its range of flow rates is circumscribed by the practical limits of p. 2. The orifice meter has a large permanent loss of pressure because of the presence of eddies on the downstream side of the orifice-plate; the shape of the venturi meter prevents the formation os these eddies and greatly reduces the permanent loss.
3.

The orifice is cheap and easy to install. The venturi meter is expensive, as it must be carefully

2 H

proportioned and fabricated. A home made orifice is often entirely satisfactory, whereas a venturi meter is practically always purchased from an instrument dealer. 4. On the other hand, the head lost in the orifice for the same conditions as in the venturi is many times greater. The power lost is proportionally greater, and, when an orifice is inserted in a line carrying fluid continuously over long periods of time, the cost of the power may be out of all proportion to the saving in first cost. Orifices are therefore best used for testing purposes or other cases where the power lost is not a factor, as in steam lines. 5. However, in spite of considerations of power loss, orifices are widely used, partly because of their greater flexibility, because installing a new orifice plate with a different opening is a simpler matter. The venturi meter can not be so altered. Venturi meters are used only for permanent installations.
6.

It should be noted that for a given pipe diameter and a given diameter of orifice opening or

venturi throat, the reading of the venturi meter for a given velocity is to the reading of the orifice as (0.61/0.98)2, or 1:2.58.(i.e. orifice meter will show higher manometer reading for a given velocity than venturi meter). PITOT TUBE It is a device used for measuring the velocity if flow at any point in a pipe or channel. It is based on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a point becomes zero, the pressure there is increased due to the conversion of the kinetic energy. In its simplest form, the pitot tube consists of a glass tube bent at right angles as shown in figure. The lower end, which is bent through 90o is placed in the direction of the flow. The liquid rises up in the tube due to the conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy. The velocity is determined by measuring the rise of liquid in the tube.
58

Consider two points (1) and (2) at the same level in such a way that point 2 is just at the inlet of the pitot tube and point 1 is far away from the tube. Let P1 , u1 and 1 are pressure, velocity and density at point 1. P2, u2 are pressure and velocity at point 2. H- depth of tube in the liquid h rise of liquid in the tube above the free surface. Applying Bernoulli's equation between 1 and 2, we have
2 P1 u 1 P u2 + + z 1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 (1) g 2g g 2g

but z1 = z2, and u2=0

P1 u2 P + 1 = 2 g 2g g
2 u1 P P1 = 2 =h 2g g

u 1 = 2gh

This is theoretical velocity. Actual velocity, uact = Cputheo = Cp pitot tube Cp is 1. It should be noted that where as the orifice and venturimeter measure the average velocity of the entire stream of the fluid, the pitot tube measures the velocity at one point only. This velocity varies over the cross section of the pipe. Consequently, to obtain the average velocity over the cross section, one of the two procedures is used. The tube may be accurately centered at the axis of the pipe and the average velocity calculated from the maximum velocity. If this procedure is used, care must be taken to insert the pitot tube at least 100 pipe diameters from any disturbance in the flow, so that the velocity distribution will be normal. The other procedure is to take readings at a number of known locations in the cross section of the pipe and calculate the average velocity for the entire cross section by graphical integration of the equation
u= 1 S
2g h

, where Cp is coefficient of pitot tube. For a well designed

udS
1 S

u=
u=
u=

ud (r
R

1 S

u 2rdr
urdr
0

2 R 2

plotting a graph of r on x- axis and ur on y-axis and evaluating the area under the curve between the limits 0 and R gives the answer for the integral.
59

u=

2 R2

* area under the curve. (2)

Procedure to be followed. 1. tabulate different velocities u corresponding to their radius r. 2. find the product of u and r 3. plot a graph between r 4. find area under the R (radius of the pipe)
5.

vs. ur. curve between the limits 0 and .

ur

using equation (2), find 1. 2. The pressure

0 r R

Advantages insertion of pitot tube is The cost of the

drop in a pipe caused by usually very small. pitot tube is considerably

smaller than that of venturimeter and orifice meter. Disadvantages

1.

The differential pressures produced are usually low and hence the sensitivity is low. The pitot tube is mainly used for gas lines and typical pressure differential produced is 250N/m 2. Such a small pressures requires the use of highly sensitive manometers for measurements.

2. The flow velocity must be high, say 15m/s, and above to produce measurable pressure differences. 3. The pitot tube are sensitive to velocity distribution effects in the fluid flow pattern. Therefore for accurate measurements they must be properly calibrated. 4. The small opening may get blocked if the fluid contains solid particles, giving rise to wrong results. 4.7. A pitot tube is used to measure the velocity of water in a pipe. The stagnation pressure head is 6m and static pressure head is 5m. Calculate the velocity of flow assuming the coefficient of tube equal to 0.98. Solution: Given: Stagnation pressure head = 6m Static pressure head = 5m The head, h=6-5 = 1m Velocity = Cp
2g h

= 0.98

2 * 9.8 *1 = 1

4.34m/s

4.8. A pitot tube placed in the center of a 30cm pipe line has an orifice pointing upstream and other perpendicular to it. The mean velocity in the pipe is 0.8 of the central velocity. Find the discharge through the pipe if the pressure difference between the two orifices is 6 cm of water. Take the coefficient of pitot tube as Cp=0.98. Solution: Given: Central velocity, =Cp
2g h

= 0.98

2 * 9.8 * 0.0 1 6

=1.063m/s

Mean velocity, = 0.8*central velocity = 0.8*1.063 = 0.8504m/s.

60

Discharge, Q = S1 =

2 D 1 = 0.3 2 *0.8504 = 0.06 m2/s. 4 4

4.9. Calculate the stagnation pressure if the air craft is travelling at a speed of 800 km/hr relative to air. The ambient conditions are atmospheric pressure is 92.5KN/m2 and temperature is 5oC. The gas constatnt R = 287J/kgK. Solution: Given: Temperature, T=273 5 = 268K Density, = P/RT = 92.6*103/(287*268) = 1.2Kg/m3. Velocity, = 800*1000/3600 = 222.2m/s. =
2g h

2( P1 P2 )

P1-P2 = 29626N/m2 P1= P2+29626 = 122126N/m2. VARIABLE AREA METER - ROTAMETER In the variable head meters the area of constriction or orifice is constant and the drop in pressure is dependent on the rate of flow. In the variable area meter, the drop in pressure is constant and the flow rate is a function of the area of constriction.

A typical meter of this kind, which is commonly known as rotameter consists of a tapered glass tube with the smallest diameter at the bottom. The tube contains a freely moving float which rests on a stop at the base of the tube. When the fluid is flowing the float rises until its weight is balanced by the upthrust of the fluid, the float reaches a position of equilibrium, its position then indicating the rate of flow. The flow rate can be read from the adjacent scale, which is often etched on the glass tube. The float is often stabilized by helical grooves incised into it, which introduce rotation - hence the name. Other shapes of the floats - including spheres in the smaller instruments may be employed. The pressure drop across the float is equal to its weight divided by its maximum cross-sectional area in the horizontal plane. The area for flow is the annulus formed between the float and the wall of the tube.

61

This meter may thus be considered as an orifice meter with a variable aperture, and the formula derived for orifice meter / venturi meter are applicable with only minor changes. Both in the orifice-type meter and in the rotameter the pressure drop arises from the conversion of pressure energy to kinetic energy (recall Bernoulli's equation) and from frictional losses which are accounted for in the coefficient of discharge. p/( g) = u22/(2g) - u12/(2g) 1 Continuity equation: A1u1 = A2u2 2 Where A1 is the tube cross-section, and A2 is the cross-section of annulus (area between the tube and float) From equn.1 and 2,

3 The pressure drop over the float p, is given by: p = Vf( f - )g / Af 4 where Vf is the volume of the float, f the density of the material of the float, and Af is the maximum cross sectional area of the float in a horizontal plane. Substituting for p from equn.4 in equn.3, and for the flow rate the equation is arrived as

The coefficient CD depends on the shape of the float and the Reynolds number (based on the velocity in the annulus and the mean hydraulic diameter of the annulus) for the annular space of area A2. In general, floats, which give the most nearly constant coefficient, are of such a shape that they set up eddy currents and give low values of CD. The constant coefficient for the float C arises from turbulence promotion, and for this reason the coefficient is also substantially independent of the fluid viscosity. The meter can be made relatively insensitive to changes in the density of the fluid by the selection of the density of float, f. If the density of the float is twice that of the fluid, then the position of the float for a given float is independent of the fluid density. Because of variable-area flow meter relies on gravity, it must be installed vertically (with the flow-tube perpendicular to the floor). The range of a meter can be increased by the use of floats of different densities. For high-pressure work a metal tube replaces the glass tube. When a metal tube is used or when the liquid is very dark or dirty an external indicator is required. The advantages of rotameters are direct visual readings, wide range, nearly linear scale, and constant (and small) head loss. It requires no straight pipe runs before and after the meter.
62

PUMPING EQUIPMENT FOR LIQUIDS The liquids used in the chemical industries differ considerably in physical and chemical properties. And it has been necessary to develop a wide variety of pumping equipment. The two main forms are the positive displacement type and centrifugal pumps. In the former, the volume of liquid delivered is directly related to the displacement of the piston and therefore increases directly with speed and is not appreciably influenced by the pressure. In this group are the reciprocating piston pump and the rotary gear pump, both of which are commonly used for delivery against high pressures and where nearly constant delivery rates are required. The centrifugal type depends on giving the liquid a high kinetic energy which is then converted as efficiently as possible into pressure energy. For some applications, such as the handling of liquids which are particularly corrosive or contain abrasive solids in suspension, compressed air is used as the motive force instead of a mechanical pump Specific Speed For geometrically similar pumps, the quantity NQ1/2 / (gh)3/4 is a constant. It is called as the specific speed (Ns)of the pump.

Specific speed may be defined as the speed of the pump which will produce unit flow Q against unit head h under conditions of maximum efficiency. Specific speed is a dimensionless quantity. NPSH Suction Head Pumps may be arranged so that the inlet is under a suction head or the pump may be fed from a tank. For any pump, the manufacturers specify the minimum value of the net positive suction head (NPSH) which must exist at the suction point of the pump. The NPSH is the amount by which the pressure at the suction point of the pump, expressed as the head of the liquid to be pumped, must exceed the vapor pressure of the liquid. For any installation this must be calculated, taking into account the absolute pressure of the liquid, the level of the pump, and the velocity and friction heads in the suction line. The NPSH must allow for the fall in pressure occasioned by the further acceleration of the liquid as it flows on to the impeller and for irregularities in the flow pattern in the pump. If the required value of NPSH is not obtained, partial vaporization if liable to occur, with the result that both the suction head and delivery head may be reduced. The loss of suction head is more important because it may cause the pump to be starved of liquid. If the vapor pressure of liquid is Pv, the NPSH is the difference between the total head at the suction inlet and the head corresponding to the vapor pressure of the liquid at the pump inlet.

where Pv is the vapor pressure of the liquid being pumped.

63

If cavitation and loss of suction head does occur, it can sometimes be cured by increasing the pressure in the system, either by alteration of the layout to provide a greater hydrostatic pressure or a reduced pressure drop in the suction line. Sometimes, slightly closing the valve on the pump delivery or reducing the pump speed by a small amount may be effective. Generally a small fast-running pump will

require a larger NPSH than a larger slow-running pump. Performance Characteristics of Pumps The fluid quantities involved in all hydraulic machines are the flow rate (Q) and the head (H), whereas the mechanical quantities associated with the machine itself are the power (P), speed (N), size (D) and efficiency ( ). Although they are of equal importance, the emphasis placed on certain of these quantities is different for different pumps. The output of a pump running at a given speed is the flow rate delivered by it and the head developed. Thus, a plot of head and flow rate at a given speed forms the fundamental performance characteristic of a pump. In order to achieve this performance, a power input is required which involves efficiency of energy transfer. Thus, it is useful to plot also the power P and the efficiency against Q. Over all efficiency of a pump ( ) = Fluid power output / Power input to the shaft = gHQ / P Type number or Specific speed of pump, nS = NQ1/2 / (gH)3/4 (it is a dimensionless number) Centrifugal pump Performance In the volute of the centrifugal pump, the cross section of the liquid path is greater than in the impeller, and in an ideal frictionless pump the drop from the velocity V to the lower velocity is converted according to Bernoulli's equation, to an increased pressure. This is the source of the discharge pressure of a centrifugal pump. If the speed of the impeller is increased from N1 to N2 rpm, the flow rate will increase from Q1 to Q2 as per the given formula:

The head developed(H) will be proportional to the square of the quantity discharged, so that

The power consumed(W) will be the product of H and Q, and, therefore

64

These relationships, however, form only the roughest guide to the performance of centrifugal pumps. Characteristic curves: Pump action and the performance of a pump are defined interms of their characteristic curves. These curves correlate the capacity of the pump in unit volume per unit time versus discharge or differential pressures. These curves usually supplied by pump manufacturers are for water only. These curves usually shows the following relationships (for centrifugal pump).

A plot of capacity versus differential head. The differential head is the difference in pressure between the suction and discharge. The pump efficiency as a percentage versus capacity. The break horsepower of the pump versus capacity. The net poisitive head required by the pump versus capacity. The required NPSH for the pump is a characteristic determined by the manufacturer.

Centrifugal pumps are usually rated on the basis of head and capacity at the point of maximum efficiency. The Centrifugal pump The centrifugal pump is by far the most widely used type in the chemical and petroleum industries. It will pump liquids with very wide ranging properties and suspensions with a high solids contents including, for example, cement slurries, and may be constructed from a wide range of corrosion resistant materials. The whole pump casing may be constructed from plastics such as polypropylene or it may be fitted with a corrosion resistant lining. Because it operates at high speed, it may be directly coupled to an electric motor and will give a high flow rate for its size. In this type of pump, the fluid is fed to the center of the rotating impeller (eye of the impeller) and is thrown outward by centrifugal action. As a result of high speed of rotation the liquid acquires a high kinetic energy and the pressure difference between the suction and delivery sides arises from the conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy. The impeller consists of a series of curved vanes so shaped that the flow within the pump is as smooth as possible. The greater the number of vanes on the impeller, the greater is the control over the direction of motion of liquid and hence smaller are the losses due to turbulence and circulation between the vanes. The liquid enters the casing of the pump, normally in an axial direction, and is picked up by the vanes of the impeller. In the simple type of centrifugal pump, the liquid discharges into a volute, a chamber of gradually increasing cross-section with a tangential outlet

65

Centrifugal pumps are made in a wide range of materials, and in many cases the impeller and casing are covered with resistant material. Thus stainless steel, nickel, rubber, polypropylene, stoneware, and carbon are all used. Cavitation In designing any installation in which a centrifugal pump is used, careful attention must be paid to check the minimum pressure which will arise at any point. If this pressure is less than the vapor pressure at the pumping temperature, vaporization will occur and the pump may not be capable of developing the required suction head. Moreover, if the liquid contains gases, these may come out of solution giving rise to packets of gas. This phenomenon is known as cavitation and may result in mechanical damage to the pump as the bubbles collapse. The onset of cavitation is accompanied by a marked increase in noise and vibration as the bubbles collapse, and a loss of head. PISTON PUMP

Plunger Pumps Plunger pump consists of a heavy walled cylinder of small diameter contains a close-fitting plunger, which is merely an extension of the piston rod. At the limit of its stroke the plunger fills nearly all the space in the cylinder. Plunger pumps are single-acting and can discharge against a pressure of 1500 atm or more.

66

A plunger pump is differentiated from a piston in that a plunger moves past stationary packing, whereas a piston carries packing with it. Diaphragm Pump The diaphragm pump has been developed for handling corrosive liquids and those containing suspensions of abrasive solids. It is in two sections separated by a diaphragm of rubber, leather, or plastics material. In one section a piston or plunger operates in a cylinder in which a non-corrosive fluid is displaced. The movement of the fluid is transmitted by means of flexible diaphragm to the liquid to be pumped. The only moving parts of the pump that are in contact with the liquid are the valves, and

these can be specially designed to handle the material. In some cases the movement of the diaphragm is produced by direct mechanical action, or the diaphragm may be air actuated. Pneumatically actuated diaphragm pumps require no other power source other than plant compressed air. This is of course limited to the available air pressure. Because of the slow speed and large valves, they are well suited to the gentle handling of liquids for which degradation of suspended solids should be avoided. By virtue of their construction, diaphragm pumps cannot be used for high pressure applications. A major consideration in the application of diaphragm pump is the realization that diaphragm failure will occur eventually. Diaphragm pumps handle small to moderate amounts of liquid, up to about 100 gal/min, and can develop pressures in excess of 100 atm. The following figure shows the working of a double diaphragm pump.

67

Liquid inlet is from bottom to top. The following is the action of single diaphragm pump.

Rotary Pumps The rotary pump is good for handling viscous liquids, nut because of the close tolerances needed, it can not be manufactured large enough to compete with centrifugal pumps for coping with very high flow rates. Rotary pumps are available in a variety of configurations.

Double lobe pump Triple lobe pumps Gear pump

Gear Pumps Spur Gear or External-gear pump

A external-gear pump (called as gear pump) consists essentially of two intermeshing gears which are identical and which are surrounded by a closely fitting casing. One of the gears is driven directly by the prime mover while the other is allowed to rotate freely. The fluid enters the spaces between the teeth and the casing and moves with the teeth along the outer periphery until it reaches the outlet where it is expelled from the pump.
68

External-gear pumps are used for flow rates up to about 400 m3/hr working against pressures as high as 170 atm. The volumetric efficiency of gear pumps is in the order of 96 percent at pressures of about 40 atm but decreases as the pressure rises. Internal-gear Pump

The above figure shows the operation of a internal gear pump. In the internal-gear pump a spur gear, or pinion, meshes with a ring gear with internal teeth. Both gears are inside the casing. The ring gear is coaxial with the inside of the casing, but the pinion, which is externally driven, is mounted eccentrically with respect to the center of the casing. A stationary metal crescent fills the space between the two gears. Liquid is carried from inlet to discharge by both gears, in the spaces between the gear teeth and the crescent. Lobe pumps In principle the lobe pump is similar to the external gear pump; liquid flows into the region created as the counter-rotating lobes unmesh. Displacement volumes are formed between the surfaces of each lobe and the casing, and the liquid is displaced by meshing of the lobes. Relatively large displacement volumes enable large solids (nonabrasive) to be handled. They also tend to keep liquid velocities and shear low, making the pump type suitable for high viscosity, shear-sensitive liquids.
Two lobe pump Three lobe pump

The choice of two or three lobe rotors depends upon solids size, liquid viscosity, and tolerance of flow pulsation. Two lobe handles larger solids and high viscosity but pulsates more. Larger lobe pumps cost 4-5 times a centrifugal pump of equal flow and head.

Screw pumps A most important class of pump for dealing with highly viscous material is the screw pump.

69

Designs employing one, two and three screws are in use. Multiple screw pumps operate as follows:

The displacement volume is opened at the suction as the counter-rotating screws unmesh. Subsequent meshing of the screws produces a displacement volume bounded by the thread roots, the thread flanks, and the pump casing. Continued rotation of the screws translate the displacement volume to the pump discharge. At the pump discharge the volume is displaced by the meshing of the screw ends.

In single screw pumps, the fluid is sheared in the channel between the screw and the wall. Flow is produced as a result of viscous forces. Pressures achieved with low viscosity materials are negligible. Air-lift Pump Compressed gas is sometimes used for transferring liquid from one position to another in a chemical plant, but more particularly for emptying vessels. It is frequently more convenient to apply pressure by means of compressed gas rather than to install a pump, particularly when the liquid is corrosive or contains solids in suspension. Several devices have been developed to eliminate the necessity for manual operation of valves, and the automatic acid elevator is an example of equipment incorporating such a device. The air-lift pump makes more efficient use of the compressed air and is used for pumping corrosive liquids. Although it is not extensively used in the chemical industry, it is used for pumping oil from wells. From hydrostatics, the pressure at the base of the column is obtained as, gHo = gH(1- ) 1 where is the volume fraction of air in the column of liquid of height H and is the density of liquid. If a mass (M) of liquid is raised through a net height (H-Ho) by a mass (m) of air, the net work done on the liquid is Mg(Ho-H)..

70

If the pressure of the entering air is P, the net work done (W) by the air in expanding isothermally to atmospheric pressure Pa is given by: W = PdV = - VdP For isothermal process PV = constant, and V = nRT/P Therefore, W = nRT dP/P = PaVa ln(P/Pa) where Pa is the atmospheric pressure and P is the inlet pressure of air. substituting for Va in terms of mass(m) and density( a) of air, W = Pa(m/ a)ln(P/Pa) The expansion will be almost exactly isothermal because of the intimate contact between the liquid and the air. The efficiency ( ) of the pump is given by:

If all losses in the operation of the pump were neglected, the pressure at the point of introduction of the compressed air would be equal to the atmospheric pressure together with the pressure gHo (refer equn.1) writing for atmospheric pressure in terms of head of liquid, Pa = Ha g and P = (Ha + Ho) g

It will be seen that mass of air required per mass of liquid raised, (m/M) decreases as Ho increases (i.e. submergence increase). If Ho is zero, (m/M) is infinite and therefore the pump will not work. A high submergence is therefore desirable.
71

The submergence, expressed as the ratio Ho/H, should vary from 0.66 for a lift of 20 feet to 0.41 for a lift of 500 feet. Thirty percent mechanical efficiency is usually obtained. There are a number of important applications of the air-lift pump in the process industry due to its simplicity. It is particularly useful for handling radioactive materials as there are no mechanical parts in contact with the fluid, and the pump will operate virtually indefinitely without the need for maintenance which can prove very difficult when handling radioactive liquids Selection of Pumps The following factors influence the choice of pump for a particular operation:
1.

The quantity of liquid to be handled: This primarily affects the size of the pump and determines whether it is desirable to use a number of pumps in parallel. The head against which the liquid is to be pumped. This will be determined by the difference in pressure, the vertical height of the downstream and upstream reservoirs and by the frictional losses which occur in the delivery line. The suitability of a centrifugal pump and the number of stages required will largely be determined by this factor.

2.

3.

The nature of the liquid to be pumped. For a given throughput, the viscosity largely determines the frictional losses and hence the power required. The corrosive nature will determine the material of construction both for the pump and the packing. With suspensions, the clearance in the pump must be large compared with the size of the particles.

4.

The nature of power supply. If the pump is to be driven by an electric motor or internal combustion engine, a high-speed centrifugal or rotary pump will be preferred as it can be coupled directly to the motor.

5.

If the pump is used only intermittently, corrosion troubles are more likely than with continuous working.

Reciprocating pumps Vs centrifugal pumps The advantages of reciprocating pumps in general over centrifugal pumps may be summarized as follows: 1. They can be designed for higher heads than centrifugal pumps. 2. They are not subject to air binding, and the suction may be under a pressure less than atmospheric without necessitating special devices for priming. 3. They are more flexible in operation than centrifugal pumps. 4. They operate at nearly constant efficiency over a wide range of flow rates. The advantages of centrifugal pumps over reciprocating pumps are: 1. The simplest centrifugal pumps are cheaper than the simplest reciprocating pumps. 2. Centrifugal pumps deliver liquid at uniform pressure without shocks or pulsations. 3. They can be directly connected to motor derive without the use of gears or belts. 4. Valves in the discharge line may be completely closed without injuring them. 5. They can handle liquids with large amounts of solids in suspension. The general result of the above considerations is strongly in favor of the centrifugal pump. Pumping equipment for gases
72

Essentially the same basic types of mechanical equipment are used for handling gases and liquids, though the construction may be very different in two cases. Under the normal range of operating pressures, the density of a gas is considerably less than that of a liquid so that higher speeds of operation can be employed and lighter valves fitted to the delivery and suction lines. Because of the lower viscosity of a gas there is a greater tendency for leak to occur, and therefore gas compressors are designed with smaller clearances between the moving parts. Since a large proportion of the energy of compression appears as heat in the gas, there will normally be a considerable increase in temperature which may limit the operation of the compressor unless suitable cooling can be effected. For this reason, gas compression is often carried out in a number of stages and the gas is cooled between each stage. Fans, Blowers, and Compressors Machinery for compressing and moving gases is conveniently considered from the standpoint of pressure difference produced in the equipment. This order is fans, blowers, compressors. Fans: The commonest method of moving gases under moderate pressures is by means of some type of fan. These are effective for pressures from 2 or 3 inch of water up to about 0.5 psi. Large fans are usually centrifugal, operating on exactly the same principle as centrifugal pumps. Their impeller blades, however, may be curved forward; this would lead to instability in a pump, but not in a fan. Since the change in density in a fan is small, the incompressible flow equations used in centrifugal pump calculations are often adequate. The fans may be classified into three types: the propeller type, the plate fan, and the multi-blade type. The propeller type is represented by the familiar electric fan and is of no great importance for moving gases in plant practice. Plate fan consists of plate steel blades on radial arms inside a casing. These fans are satisfactory for pressures from 0 to 5 inch of water, have from 8 to 12 blades. Another variation of the steel-plate fan has blades curved like the vanes of centrifugal pump impellers and can be used for pressures up to 27 inch of water. The multi-blade fans are useful for pressures of from 0 to 5 inch of water. It is claimed that they have much higher efficiencies than the steel-plate fan. These fans will deliver much larger volumes for a given size of drum than steel-plate fans. Blowers: Any pump of the rotary type can be used as a blower. When so used they generally have only two or three lobes on the rotating parts. These blowers are used for pressures from 0.5 to 10 psi. Such blowers are often used for services where very large volumes must be delivered against pressures too high for a fan. They are being replaced in many cases by centrifugal blowers. The appearance of centrifugal blower resembles a centrifugal pump, except that the casing is narrower and larger impeller diameter. The operating speed is high, 3000 rpm or more. The reason for the high speed and large impeller diameter is that very high heads, measured in meters of low-density fluid, are needed to generate moderate pressure ratios.
73

Compressors: Centrifugal compressors are multistage units containing a series of impellers on a single shaft, rotating at high speeds in a massive casing. These machines compress enormous volumes of air or process gas up to 100 m3/sec at the inlet - to an outlet pressure of 20 atm. Smaller capacity machines discharge at pressures up to several hundred atmospheres. Interstage cooling is needed on the high pressure units. Axial flow machines handle even larger volumes of gas, up to 300 m3/sec, but at a lower discharge pressures of 2 to 10 atm. In these units the rotor vanes propel the gas axially from one set of vanes directly to the next. Interstage cooling is normally not required. Rotary positive displacement compressors can be used for discharge pressures to about 6 atm. Most compressors operating at discharge pressures above 3 atm are reciprocating positive displacement machines. When the required compression ratio is greater than that can be achieved in one cylinder, multistage compressors are used. The maximum pressure ratio normally obtained in a single cylinder is 10 but values above 6 are unusual.

FLOW THROUGH PACKED AND FLUIDIZED BEDS Packed Towers: Packed towers are finding applications in adsorption, absorption, ion-exchange, distillation, humidification, catalytic reactions, regenerative heaters etc., The packing is to provide a good contact between the contacting phases. Based on the method of packing, packing are classified as (a) Random packing and (b) Stacked packing There are a variety of materials that are being used as random packing. The packing are made with clay, porcelain, plastics or metals. The following table gives the different packing materials and their approximate void fraction.

Type of Packing Material Berl Saddle Intalox Saddle Rashig Ring Pall Ring of a tower packing are:

Void fraction () 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.9 0.95 Principal requirements

1. It must be chemically inert to the fluids in the tower.

2.

It must be strong without excessive weight.

3. It must contain adequate passages for the contacting streams without excessive pressure drop.
74

4. It must provide good contact between the contacting phases. 5. It should be reasonable in cost. Two-phase counter current flow of liquid and gas: Normally, the denser fluid (e.g. water) runs down the surface of the packing by gravity, while the less dense fluid flows upward because it is introduced at the bottom of the tower at a higher pressure than it is withdrawn from the top.

SPHERICITY (s): is defined as the surface to volume ratio for a sphere of diameter Dp divided by the surface-volume ratio for the irregular particle whose nominal size is Dp.

= POROSITY ( : is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the volume of the bed.

PRESSURE DROP ACROSS PACKED COLUMN: Under laminar flow conditions when particle Reynolds number up to about 1.0 we can use Kozeny-Carman equation

NRePM = DpVo /( (1 - ) ) For laminar flow (i.e. NRePM < 10) pressure drop is given by Blake-Kozeny equation.

For turbulent flow (i.e. NRePM > 1000) pressure drop is given by Burke-Plummer equation.

For intermediate flows pressure drop is given by Ergun equation

Superficial velocity Vo = Volumetric flow rate/ cross-sectional area of bed

75

PROBLEM 1: Figure shows a water softener in which water trickles by gravity over a bed of spherical ion-exchange resin particles, each 0.05 inch in diameter. The bed has a porosity of 0.33. Calculate the volumetric flow rate of water. Calculations: Data: = 1 cp = 1 x 6.72x10-4 lb/(ft.sec) = 0.33 = 62.3 lb/ft3 x = 1 ft g = 32.2 ft/sec2 Formula:

Courtesy: Problem: http://www.msubbu.in/ln/fm/ Applying Bernoulli's equation from the top surface of the fluid to the outlet of the packed bed and ignoring the kinetic-energy term and the pressure drop through the support screen, which are both small, we find g(z) = hf ; hf = p/ For laminar flow, (Blake-Kozeny Equation)

Calculations: Therefore, Vs = 32.2 x 1.25 x (0.05/12)2 x 0.333 x 62.3 / ( 150 x (1 x 6.72x10-4) x (1 - 0.33)2 x 1)= 0.035 ft/sec = 0.011 m/sec. Q = AVs = (2/12)2 x (/4) x 0.035 = 0.00075 ft3/sec = 21 cm3/sec. Before accepting this as the correct solution, we check the NRem.
76

NRem = (0.05/12) x 0.035 x 62.3 / (1 x 6.72x10-4 x (1 - 0.33) ) = 20.2 This is slightly above the value of 10 (up to which the Blake-Kozeny Equation can be used), for which we can safely use without appreciable error. Problem 2: Calculate the pressure drop of air flowing at 30oC and 1 atm pressure through a bed of 1.25 cm diameter spheres, at a rate of 60 kg/min. The bed is 125 cm diameter and 250 cm height. The porosity of the bed is 0.38. The viscosity of air is 0.0182 cP and the density is 0.001156 gm/cc. Data: Mass flow rate of Air = 60 kg/min = 1 kg/sec Density of Air () = 0.001156 gm/cc = 1.156 kg/m3 Viscosity of Air () = 0.0182 cP = 0.0182 x 10-3 kg/(m.sec) Bed porosity () = 0.38 Diameter of bed (D)= 125 cm = 1.25 m Length of bed (L) = 250 cm = 2.5 m Dia of particles (Dp)= 1.25 cm = 0.0125 m Sphericity (s) = 1 (sphere) Formulae: NRePM = DpVo /( (1 - ) ) For laminar flow (i.e. NRePM < 10) pressure drop is given by Blake-Kozeny equation.

For turbulent flow (i.e. NRePM > 1000) pressure drop is given by Burke-Plummer equation.

For intermediate flows pressure drop is given by Ergun equation

Superficial velocity Vo = Volumetric flow rate/ cross-sectional area of bed Calculations: Volumetric flow rate = mass flow rate / density = 1 / 1.156 = 0.865 m3/sec
77

Superficial velocity Vo =

0.865 / (1.25)2 / 4 Vo = 0.705 m/sec

NRePM = NRePM = 0.0125 x 0.705 x 1.156 / (0.0182 x 10-3 x ( 1- 0.38 ) ) = 903 We shall use Ergun equation to find the pressure drop.

i.e. p x 0.0125 x 0.383 / ( 2.5 x 1.156 x 0.7052 x ( 1 - 0.38 ) ) = 150 / 903 + 1.75 p x 7.702 x 10-4 = 1.92 p = 1.92 / 7.702 x 10-4 = 2492.92 N/m2

78