Rosenberg's Dilatant Impact Absorbing Device Study Test Plan

Original Typed Copy was Dated 3/29/1974, scanned and OCR'd on 11/2/2000

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Bruce Rosenberg's original draft proposal was dated September 1971. This version was
submitted under signature of the Chief of the Human Engineering Branch to the Director of
NAFEC on 10/7/1971. The following, more detailed, proposal was subsequently prepared and
submitted 3/29/1974. All these documents were typewritten. Thinking that there may be value
in the information in these pages, the author scanned and OCRed the typed pages and converted
the table into electronically readable format. There are references to long gone organizations and
people. These and obviously outdated cost estimates can be ignored. I believe that the technical
material is still valid. I hereby release all of this material for public use. My patents are long
expired. If the material is used, I would appreciate acknowledgement, and perhaps a consulting
position if a study should ever be funded.

Bruce L. Rosenberg

DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

DATE:
IN REPLY REFER TO: NATIONAL AVIATION FACILITIES
EXPERIMENTAL CENTER
ATLANTIC CITY, NEW JERSEY 08405

SUBJECT: Engineering study of impact absorbing devices

FROM: Director, ANA-1 TO: ARD-1

Enclosed is a discussion of a new idea in the field of crash impact energy absorbing materials.

This idea was originated by Mr. Bruce Rosenberg of ANA-230 at NAFEC and may be of value

in aircraft accident injury prevention. We would suggest that you might wish to have it evaluated

by ARD-500 and/or AC 119 (Protection and Survival). As you will note, the enclosed proposal

envisions performance of the investigation by ANA-400.

C. A. COMMANDER
Enclosure

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 Rosenberg's Dilatant Impact Absorbing Device Study Test Plan
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A PROPOSAL FOR
AN ENGINEERING STUDY OF
RIGID DILATANT IMPACT ABSORBING DEVICES (RIGID DIADS)
Prepared by Bruce Rosenberg NAFEC
March 29, 1974

1 INTRODUCTION

There has been considerable recent interest in devices to protect occupants of vehicles from
injury due to crashes. The DOT is actively testing some of these devices. There is one, little-
known, class of impact absorbing devices whose characteristics warrant serious consideration in
any program of testing. This is the class consisting of Dilatant Impact Absorbing Devices
(DIADs), Absorption of impact energy by the use of DIADs is a new approach that shows
promise in many potential applications, e.g. , padding for vehicle interiors, ejection seat
cushions, suspension systems, sports equipment, automobile bumpers, large gun recoil dampers,
etc.

A few ANA-400 engineers have had an earlier exposure to prototype fluid DIADs and correctly
pointed out some of their problems. This project plan involves the testing of rigid DIADs, a new
and different approach, which overcomes many of the problems involved with the engineering
application of the fluid DIADs. The improvements embodied in the rigid DIADs owe much to
conversations with and comments of the ANA-400 engineers regarding the inadequacies of the
fluid DIADs.

The objective of this project is to develop engineering data on rigid DIADs. Empirical tests will
be performed on prototype rigid DIADs to determine how variation of the physical parameters
will affect impact absorbing performance. This knowledge should permit the synthesis of an
optimum DIAD for any given application. In addition, continuing effort will be applied to
finding practicable, operational applications of the DIADs. A successful, commercially usable
product of this sort would be a desirable payoff on the project investment.

2 TECHNICAL ORIENTATION

2.1 Current Approaches

Conventional approaches to impact absorption have relied upon the deformation of plastic forms,
the extrusion of metal through dies, crushing of structural honeycomb, plastic or other frangible
materials, stretching of metal webbing and the forcing of gases (air bags), liquids (water
bumper), or semisolids (some '73 auto bumpers) through orifices for the absorption of impact
energy. Some of these approaches involve viscous or Coulomb frictional losses of materials
flowing through orifices or surfaces. This approach is limited because the energy conversion
process takes place across a surface or area. The DIAD approach can be more efficient since it
depends upon the internal friction within a volume of extremely fine, rigid particles.
Presumably, the smaller the particles and the higher the coefficient of friction of the material, the

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higher the energy absorption opacity per unit mass of. the DIAD. Also, with the fluid DIAD the
interaction among the particles and the suspending liquid produces hydrostatic tensile stresses
and possibly negative pressures which may improve the energy absorption and conformation to
the shape of the impacting body. This is particularly true for shock loads in the case of the fluid
DIAD.

2.2 How it Works

A DIAD is a device which consists of a volume of high strength, particulate solid material
enclosed in a container which serves to constrain the particulate material in its undeformed state.
When subjected to a deforming force, the particles attempt to slide past one another. This results
in an expansion or dilation in the deformed volume. The action of expansion or dilation can be
understood by making two fists, holding them in front of you and placing the knuckles of one fist
into the spaces between the knuckles of the other fist. Your knuckles should now be "geared" to
each other with the open spaces (interstices) at a minimum. Now, if one set of knuckles is moved
up or down relative to the other, a point of maximum open "packing" is reached when the top of
one knuckle is directly on top of another. This represents the maximum expansion or dilation of
the volume containing the sheared "particles", i. e. , knuckles. The internal Coulomb friction
between the sliding particles is thought to be the primary mechanism responsible for the strength
and energy absorbing capability of the DIADs. The elasticity of the enclosure and the
atmospheric pressure outside the DIAD tend to compress the volume of particles, to increase
their gearing and to increase the internal friction among them.

2.3 Advantages of the Proposed Approach

The characteristics of fluid DIADs differ from those of rigid DIADs. Fluid DIADs are
outstanding in that they have miniscule rebound, distribute impact forces evenly, have near
optimum deceleration time histories, are reusable, i.e., reconstitute themselves after crushing,
show little degradation with cyclic use and have a high specific heat. However, these devices
also have certain problems such as weight, stability of the suspension over time and lack of
structural rigidity. Recently it has appeared that a new class of DIADs, rigid DIADs, might
eliminate a number of the problems of fluid DIADs and yet possess most of their favorable
features. They could be lighter, they have no suspension problems, and they possess structural
rigidity.

The fact that rigid DIADs can be fabricated in rigid structural shapes seems a particular
advantage. These rigid structures can be designed to provide a controlled collapse and energy
absorbing capacity. The structural strengths of some of the prototype rigid DIADs have been
promisingly high, but it is likely that with a proper selection of the essential parameters, much
greater strengths are possible.

An example of a rigid DIAD might be instructive at this point. If an elastic container, e. g. , a

balloon or hot water bottle, is half-filled with fine, dry beach sand and sealed, the sand can be
moved quite easily inside the container. If, however, the container is now evacuated of all air, the
compressive force of the atmosphere will cause the elastic walls to press inward from all

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directions against the contained sand. As a result of this centrally-acting force, the grains of sand
will assume a packing arrangement that results in a minimum volume. The consequent
interlocking or gearing of the grains will cause the volume of sand to become rigid and to feel
almost "as hard as a rock," This is a crude rigid VIDIAD. If the vacuum is broken by poking a
pin through the envelope of this "rock", it will once again turn into a bag of loose sand. If the bag
of loose sand is molded into a certain shape and then evacuated of air, it will rigidity and retain
that shape. Structures with desirable failure or collapse characteristics can be fashioned in this
manner.

It must be stressed that the examples of DIADs used here are for illustrative purposes only. Their
obvious limitations should not be taken as limitations on the concept, itself. In fact, one of the
purposes of this study is to find materials more suitable for use in operational applications than
those already known.

3 DETAILS OF APPROACH

3.1 Types of DIADs To Be Tested

As can be seen in Table 1, all VIDIADs are rigid DIADs; but not all LIDIADs are fluid DIADs.
If the amount of liquid in a LIDIAD is just sufficient to fill all the interstices when the grains are
maximally compacted, then the grains do not have clearance to slide over one another and the
LIDIAD is a rigid DIAD. Thus, there are three basic classes of DIADs: fluid LIDIADs, rigid
LIDIADs and rigid VIDIADs. It is impossible to make static stress-strain measurements on the
fluid LIDIADs.

However, all classes of DIADs can be subjected to dynamic impact tests. The only difference
between rigid LIDIADs and rigid VIDIADs is the presence of the liquid in the interstices. This
liquid introduces the additional physical phenomena of hydrostatic tensile forces negative liquid
pressure, and possible lubrication effects. Thus, it is likely that the dynamic and static stress-
strain characteristics of the rigid VIDIADs and LIDIADs will differ. Tests will be performed to
evaluate the extent of these differences and the relative advantages of the rigid VIDIADs and
rigid LIDIADs.

In order to compare the performance characteristics of all three classes of DIADs, it will be
necessary to subject the samples to dynamic impact tests. With the rigid VIDIADs it should be
possible to extrapolate from the static test results to the dynamic performance. Because of
possible hydrodynamic effects, extrapolation of static performance to dynamic performance will
be questionable for the rigid LIDIADs. Of course, static tests could not be performed on the fluid
LIDIADs since they possess no static structural rigidity.

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Table 3.1. List Of Contained-Particle. Dilatant Impact Absorbing Devices (Diads) To Be Tested

Pervading Name Or Type Of Medium Source Of Example Of System Mechanical Other Estimated Ident.
Interstice Acronym Envelope Outside Of Compressive Tests Possible Descriptive Buffer Code
Medium Envelope Strength Terms Goodness

VACUUM (4) RIGID elastic air at STP 1, 2, 4 ^ sand in a balloon static and locking solid 5 (3) 111
VIDIAD dynamic
inelastic •• 1, 2 sand in a plastic bag •. •• 6 112

LIQUID (4) RIGID elastic •• 1, 2, 3, 4 wet sand in a balloon 3 211

LIDIAD
inelastic •• 1, 2, 3 wet sand in a plastic bag •• 4 212

FLUID LIDIAD elastic ••• 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 starch/brine in a balloon dynamic only rheological 1 221
dilatancy
inelastic •• 1, 2, 3, 5 starch/brine in plastic bag •• 2 222

(1) The characteristics of the fluid LIDIAD with an elastic envelope are disclosed in U.S. Pat. 3,601,923 and in U.S. Navy Case 51991, U.S. Pat. Appl.
324,614 filed 18 Jan 73, and 2 Franklin Institute Labs reports.

(2) The "Sources of Compressive Strength" or mechanisms of impact energy absorption are:
1. Internal friction among particles,
2. Expansion (dilation or swelling) of DIAD against the pressure of the outside medium (air).
3. Hydrostatic tensile stresses in the interstitial liquid.
4. Expansion of DIAD against the centrally acting constraint of the elastic envelope (which stretches).
5. Kinetic energy of the individual suspended particles (vibration and spin).

(3) "Estimated Buffer Goodness" is a ranking of the six DIADs on the basis of expected energy absorbing effectiveness, "1" being the best. These
values are inversely correlated with the number of "Sources of Compressive Strength" listed in column 5. • ,'

(4) Engineering tests of rigid DIADs are the main thrust of this project, however, tests of fluid DIADs will be necessary for comparison.

(5) VIDIAD expands to Vacuum Interstice DIAD. LIDIAD expands to Liquid Interstice DIAD.

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3.2 Parameters To Be Tested

One of the motivations for this study is the belief that a light, compact, highly effective impact
absorbing device can be developed from the crude DIAD prototypes. In order to do this it is
necessary to know the causal relationships between the physical parameters of the DIAD and its
impact absorbing effectiveness. Some of the more important physical parameters are:

1. Mean diameter of the particles

2. The range or variability of the diameter of the particles
3. Typical particle shape
4. Type of material of the particle, e. g. , glass, metal, starch
5. Shape of the DIAD, e. g. , right cylinder, wedge, cone
6. Degree of interstice vacuum (for rigid VIDIADs)
7. Surface texture of the particles (rough or smooth)
8. Material of the envelope (natural rubber, mylar, etc. )
9. Type of interstice liquid (for rigid LIDIADs)
10. Coefficient of friction of the particle material, and
11. Density of the particle material.

On an a-priori basis it is expected that the above parameters should be as follows for the most
effective DIAD:

1. The mean diameter should be as small as possible

2. The variability in diameters should be as small as possible
3. The particle shape should be as nearly spherical as possible
4. The type of material should be strong, rigid, cheap, easily available and non-toxic
5. The shape should be such that its collapse is stable
6. The degree of interstice vacuum should be as high as possible
7. The surface texture should be such as to maximize the internal friction
8. The material of the envelope should be nonporous and permit the maintenance of a vacuum
9. The interstice liquid should be a low viscosity and have minimum lubrication effects
10. The coefficient of friction of the particle material should be as high as possible, and
11. The density of the particle material should be as low as possible.

3.3 Testing Approach

A number of particulate materials, e. g. , glass microbeads and sandblasting sand, are available in
several graded sizes. The relationship between particle size and energy capacity will be
investigated by assembling several DIADs using the same particulate material of different
fineness. The relationship between distribution of particle sizes and energy capacity can be
determined by mixing different sizes of particles and assembling several DIADs with these
mixtures. In order to save time, preliminary rough screening will be done to minimize the
number of candidates subjected to more extensive testing.

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It is possible that the stress-strain curves for soft metals, e. g., lead, tin or zinc, might resemble
those for rigid DIADs. Static compression tests run on soft metals might then provide a valuable
reference or calibration standard. The relationships between the stress-strain characteristics of
DIADs and these metals might also elucidate the mechanisms of the plastic deformation of both
systems.

Validation tests comparing the known dynamic response of .the fluid DIADs with the dynamic
response of the most promising of the rigid DIADs will be conducted in the latter phase of the
project. These tests will indicate the value of the rigid DIADs under actual shock or impact
loading conditions. Samples of currently used impact absorbers will also be tested for purposes
of comparison.

3.4 Capital Equipment and Workspace

The greater part of the testing will consist of static compression tests. These tests will be
performed on the Riehle Universal Tension-Compression Tester located in Building 201. This
tester covers the force range of 0 to 5, 000 pounds in six ranges; Properly instrumented, this
tester should produce plots of the stress-strain curves of a given DIAD automatically. Also, there
is a Wang calculator/computer that can be interfaced to the tester and programmed to calculate
the area under the stress-strain curve. This area or integral is proportional to the energy absorbing
capacity of the DIAD. With these data it will be possible to compute the energy absorbing
capacity per unit volume and the energy absorbing capacity per unit mass. These are two of the
important static measures of goodness that will be obtained. The static test facility is managed by
Mr. R. Frack, Chief, Standards and Calibration Branch, ANA-512.

The other important measures or dependent variables can only be measured by means of
dynamic tests. These measures are: percent energy absorbed on first impact, peak deceleration,
peak jerk (initial and final), and peak penetration. These tests must be performed with either a
drop tester, a ballistic pendulum, the catapult track facility, or possibly the air gun facility. Most
of these facilities are under the management of Mr. J. Sommers, Jr. , Chief, Structures Branch,
ANA-410.

It is expected that the prototype DIADs will be assembled in Building 201 in the vicinity of the
compression tester. Vacuum pumps, gauges and other equipment necessary for this task are
available in the Standards and Calibration Lab. It was indicated that the necessary bench space
will be available.

3. 5 Materials, Supplies and Instrumentation

It will be necessary to purchase a range of candidate particulate materials and supplies for the
construction of the prototype DIADs. A file of the suppliers of the candidate materials has been
assembled.

Instrumentation for making some of the measurements may also have to be purchased. Some of
this equipment might include power supplies, instrumentation or operational amplifiers, linear

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potentiometer. meters, D/A converters, load cells, and accelerometers. The capital equipment
which will be used to make the tests is already available at NAFEC.

3.5 Possibility of Joint Sponsorship

There are at least a score of government groups having an interest in the development of
improved impact absorbing-devices. Throughout the conduct of this project, contacts will be
developed with these groups. The possibilities for joint sponsorship of work on DIADs will be
explored.

3.6 End Products

Although some aspects of this development and test project are theoretical, the main emphasis
and drive will be toward the development of a practical, inexpensive, highly effective impact
absorbing device that can be used in operational applications. Any inventions that might arise out
of the project effort will, of course, go to the FAA on a royalty-free license. However, it is not
possible to predict with any degree of assurance whether any usable invention, in fact, will result
from this effort.

A final report documenting the results of the tests will be prepared. Recommendations
concerning the value and future of the DIAD approach to impact energy absorption will be made.

4 SCHEDULES AND COST ESTIMATE

4.1 Cost Estimate

A goal figure for the magnitude of this effort was given by ANA-4 as 2 man-years and an
execution time of 9 months. After a careful projection of the work required, a figure of 2, 34
man-years over 12 months was arrived at. The manpower figures break-down as follows:

Title Total Weeks

Principal Investigator 60
Engineer, Structural 12
Technician, Structural 12
Machinist, Structural 4
Engineering Applications Mathematician 4
Environmental Laboratory Technician 2
Still, Graphic Lab Photo Unit 1
Technical Illustration 2
Technical Report Processing 4
7090 Computer 10 hours
Calcomp Plotter 20 hours
Materials, supplies and instrumentation $7, 000. 00 (refer to Section 3. 5)

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Total Manpower 2. 34
Total Computer Time 30 hours
Total Material Cost $7, 000. 00

4. 2 Activity Schedule

A projected activity schedule is shown in Table 4.2. Although a Manpower and Facilities
Schedule was prepared, it was felt that inclusion herein might be premature at this time.

5 BRIEF REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

5.1 History of Dilatant Impact Absorption

The references are number in chronological order (with the exception of the last 3). Reference 1
describes a fluid DIAD in an elastic envelope for use primarily as an amusement device.
Reference 2 discloses the use of a helical spring inside the fluid DIAD to provide some structural
strength and support for steady loads. , Reference 3 proposes to study the impact absorbing
properties of fluid DIADs. Reference 4 is the final report on a contract awarded by the U. S.
Navy for the performance of the study proposed in Ref. 3. Reference 4 shows the fluid DIADs to
have energy absorbing characteristics superior to materials in use at the time and to absorb up to
99 percent of the impact energy on the first impact. Reference 5 proposes a further study of the
impact properties of fluid DIADs and an investigation of alternate materials for use as the
particulate and suspending phases of the DIAD. In reference 6 an introduction to the state of the
art in fluid DIADs was given to NAFEC and concerned parties within the DOT. Reference 7 is
the final report on a U.S.N. contract awarded for the performance of the study proposed in Ref.
5. The final report shows the superior impact properties of fluid DIADs over the best available
ejection seat cushions. Reference 8 is a patent application filed by the U. S. Navy which was
based upon the disclosure of invention of Ref. 2. Reference 9 is a proposal through NAFEC for
the study of the impact performance of rigid DIADs. This is the first time that rigid DIADs,
having the potential for the fabrication of rigid, light structures with excellent impact absorbing
properties, were disclosed. References 10, 11, and 12 are the communications involved in the
patenting process of the patent application of Ref. 8. On the basis of these references it appears
that the invention of Reference 8 (fluid DIAD containing a spring) is unique and patentable.

5.2 The Phenomenon of Dilatancy

Dilatancy is a phenomenon that occurs in a mass of closely packed solid particles. Upon
deformation, the particles attempt to slide past one another and the volume occupied by the mass
of particles expands or dilates. Dilatancy was first described by Osborne Reynolds in 1885 (ref.
13). He used the example of beach sand. If one steps upon wet beach sand, the area around the
foot turns dry and, when the foot is removed, there is a puddle of liquid in the deformed area.
The explanation is as follows; In its undisturbed state the sand is in a closely packed
configuration with water just filling the spaces or interstices between the grains. When pressure

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from the foot is applied, the mass of sand tries to expand. However, to expand, it is necessary for
more water to flow into the interstices between the grains. Because of the smallness of the
channels between the grains and the viscosity of the water, movement of the water into the
disturbed area takes time. Any excess of water which may have been on the surface is sucked
into the disturbed mass of sand underfoot. The area round the foot is thus momentarily drained of
water and appears dry or white. Water has now entered the expanded interstices. When the foot
is raised, the grains of sand now begin to assume a maximally compacted configuration once
again and there is now a momentary excess of water which appears in the form of a puddle in the
deformed area.

In 1973 several articles (e. g. , ref. 14) appeared in the scientific literature on the dilatancy theory
of earthquakes. This theory has had considerable practical success in the prediction of
earthquakes. As of the present (March 1974) evidence for the correctness of dilatancy theory of
earthquakes is increasing. Dilatancy has long been a concern of chemical engineers and
rheologists (ref. 16) since the phenomenon is often found in the flow behavior of mixes,
suspensions, slurries, etc. There has been considerable work in these areas which is relevant to
fluid DIADs. The work on dilatancy, earthquakes and soil mechanics is more relevant to rigid
DIADs.

To the writer's knowledge, his is the first attempt to systematically apply the phenomenon of
dilatancy to devices intended to absorb the energy of impact or shock loads. The history of this
attempt is documented in a list of references that is appended to this project plan.

6 REFERENCES

1. Rosenberg, B. L., Amusement Device Employing Dilatant Suspension Filler, U.S. Patent
3,601,923 granted Aug. 31, 1971, filed Oct. 7, 1968.

2. Rosenberg, B. L., Rate-Nonlinear Dynamic Elements and Their Use in Man-Machine

Systems, formal disclosure of invention submitted to the Franklin Institute Research
Laboratories, Feb. 20, 1969a.

3. Rosenberg, B. L., Experimental Systems for Impact Protection, Franklin Institute Research
Laboratories Proposal No. 9033-G submitted to the Life Sciences Group, NADC, U.S.N., April
7, 1969b.

4. Cooke, F. W., Rosenberg, B. L. and Kelly, M. G., Experimental Systems for Impact
Protection, Franklin Institute Research Laboratories Final Report NADC-AC-7003, under U.S.N.
Contract N00156-70-C1192, Mar. 1970.

5. Non-Newtonian Flow for Human Impact Protection, Franklin Institute Research

Laboratories Proposal No. 9909-G submitted to the Life Sciences Group, NADC, U.S.N., April
21, 1970.

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6. Rosenberg, B. L., Dilatant Impact Absorbing Devices, A Working Paper on the state of the
art in DIADs sent out of NAFEC under the Center Director's (ANA-1) signature to ARD-1,
AAM-1, and TSC. Oct. 20, 1971.

7. Cooke, F. W., Overall, G. M., Tarpley, W. B. Jr, and May, R. C., r Non-Newtonian Flow
for Human Impact Protection, U.S. Navy Report No. NADC-CS-7124, prepared by the Franklin
Institute Research Laboratories under NAEC Contract N00156-71-C-0745, Dec. 16, 1971.

8. Rosenberg, B. L., Nonlinear Energy Absorption System, U.S. Patent Application 324,614
filed under U.S.N. Case No. 51991 by Arthur A. McGill, Phila. Naval Shipyard, Phila., Pa., Jan.
18, 1973.

9. Rosenberg, B. L., Proposal for a Project to Study and Develop Dilatant Impact Absorbing
Devices, A letter of 3 pages sent under J. Del Balzo's (Chief, Engineering Management Staff,
ANA-4) signature to ARD-500, Aug. 24, 1973.

10. Nunberg, C. A., First Action on Pat. Application 324,614, Seven prior patents cited by
patent examiner, received by NADC Dec. 13, 1973.

11. Rosenberg, B. L., Material in Support of Claims of Pat. Application 324,614, An eight page
letter sent to Henry Hansen, Pat. Counsel, NADC Feb. 4, 1974.

12. Hansen, H., Amendment Addressed to the Commissioner of Patents regarding Pat.
Application 324,614, A seven page amendment to the claims of the application sent ) to the Pat.
Office Feb. 27, 1974.

13; Reynolds, 0., "On the Dilatancy of Media Composed of Rigid Particles in Contact,"
Philosophical Magazine., 20 (S5), 469-481, Dec. 1885.

14. Scholz, C. H., Sykes, L. R., and Aggarwal, Y. P., "Earthquake Prediction: A Physical
Basis," Science, V. 181, No. 4102, 803-810, Aug. 31, 1973.

15. Jobling, A. and Roberts, J. E., "Some Observations on Dilatancy and Thixotropy," in
Rheology of Disperse Systems. Pergamon Press, N.Y., 1959.

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