Chris Evans Jakob Jespersen - Farmers' Handbook

Inside the House
Content :
Inside the House Diet & Nutrition House Hygeine Improved Stove Hay Box
- wrote :
A Gift Package for Sustainable Agriculture The idea of publishing a series of booklets on agriculture for farmers, using simple language, is a wonderful concept. The planned series will surely be a milestone in trying to reach out to farmers with useful and up-to-date information on sustainable agriculture. An additional attraction is that this series will also act as follow-up literacy material in any country where so little readable information reaches the neo-literate population in the rural areas. Neither is the text and presentation so simplistic that educated farmers will not find interest in what is offered.
Farmers' Handbook
Near the House - part 1 Waste Water Management Near the House Integrated Pest Management Non-Cement Drinking Water Part One Livestock Management Sweepings Pit Latrine Compost Mulching Double Digging Farmers' Handbook Seed Production Liquid Manure Near the House - part 2 Beekeeping Kitchen Garden Vegetable Polyculture Off-Season Onion Growing House Near the Herbs Part Two Home Nursery Hot Bed Air Nursery Producing Fruit Trees (5 chapters) Leaf Pot Nursery
Farmers' Handbook
Farmers Handbook
for
Farmers, Extension Workers, Development Workers, Gardeners, and for everyone interested in the improving the well-being of the millions of small farmers in the World.
How much ?
The whole handbook is 50 chapters in 5 volumes, total 792 pages, including 170 pages of colour photos & illustrations. Cost includes a waterproof carrying bag + a design poster :
(about 30)
The Fields Green Manures Zero Tillage Agro Forestry Integrated Fruit Orchard Planting Fruit Trees Top Grafting Air Layering Bamboo Propagation Living Fence S.R.I Rice cultivation
Forest, Soil
and Other Topics
The Fields
When ?
The handbook will be published in 2007??
easy to read practical robust based on local resources sustainable techniques
From Where ?
Farmers' Handbook
Farmers' Handbook
Forestry, Integrated Literacy, Permaculture etc. Forestry Soil Improvement A-Frame Village Funds Design, Glossary Practical Literacy, Permaculture, Etc.
The handbooks are available from: Permanent Publications (UK) ?? Address ph./email and from Appropriate Technology Asia (Nepal) ?? Address ph./email
Why a Farmers' Handbook ?

Sustainable Livelihoods
Most people in rural areas of developing countries depend on home production of food. However with more people, and the landholdings becoming smaller, there is a need for raising the productivity of the small farm. And this should be done in a way that will also allow their grandchildren to produce food, fibre, fodder, firewood etc. from the land. This way is sustainable agriculture.
Structure of the Chapters :

Each chapter deals with one or a few techniques and is structured in the following way : 1. What is it ? 2. Why do it ? 3. How to do it ? 4. How to maintain it ? A selection from 5. Links between the books the over 50 illustra6. Farmers Experiences tions in the TopGrafting chapter
Illustrations :
all in all over 450 colour photos 150 bw photos 650 drawings
Bag :
Practical waterproof carrying bag
5 volumes 792 pages
Reading Skills
The handbook is well suited for literacy and post-literacy programmes, and village libraries. It has been developed as reading and information material for formal & informal Practical Literacy Programmes. One of the great benefits of reading skills is to access knowledge. This can help people improve their living standard by using techniques which: - use & enhance local resources - increase & diversify production - decrease cost of production in terms of time, land & labour
Strong Economies
A strong economy is build from the base - it grows like a tree. A healthy natural resource base and robust production at the small farm level means that local, district and national economies can grow sustainably, meeting the needs of the land and the people.
Many people would like to plant fruit trees, but often can't find good types. Sometimes the seedlings may cost too much, if you have limited income. But difficulty in finding good fruit trees shouldn't stop you trying to get them - the solution to the problem can be found. Raising rootstock seedlings in the nursery may take 2-3 years. After grafting, it will take a few more years before they bear fruit. So let's learn an even easier way to grow grafted fruit trees. This is called Top Grafting (or top working). Top grafting is a method of grafting cuttings (scion) from improved fruit trees onto appropriate types of wild trees which are already growing in the fields and forests, without needing a nursery. This method is very cheap and easy, and produces good quality fruit trees which give fruit quickly.
Inside the House
+ Hay Box
The Farmers' Handbook
CONTENTS
This Volume's Authors : Ms Hom Maya Gurung, Mr Bipin Vaidhya, Mr Laxman Rana, Mr Chris Evans Translated from Nepali by Chris Evans Edited, Designed & Produced by: Chris Evans & Jakob Jespersen Proof reading: thanks to Mike Feingold, Margaret Evans, Ted Albins, Rupert Greville, Jakob Jespersen, Andy Langford, Looby Macnamara Photos: Jakob Jespersen, Chris Evans Addional photo credits are given in Volume Five Cover illustration: Mr Motilal Phauja Typing: Chris Evans Computer Coordination: Graphics Edge, Kathmandu Published by: Chris Evans, Jakob Jespersen...... Distributors: .......... (see p.8 for address) Printed by: Format Printing Press, Kathmandu...... First Edition (Nepali) printed June 2001, 7500 copies This Edition......... Farmers' Handbook, ISBN 99933-615-0-X This Volume One: ISBN 99933-615-1-8 The Farmers' Handbook is about techniques for sustainable farming, and this is the first of 5 volumes. There are 4 techniques presented here. In five volumes there are a total of 44 techniques and approaches. This Farmers' Handbook is meant for education and awareness raising as well as practical gardening uses. It is permitted to photocopy for such purposes, but please remember that photocopying can cause pollution to the environment, is expensive, and does not give a good quality.
Subject
Chapter No:
Introduction to this Volume Diet & Nutrition
.................
1 2 3 4
.............................. Household Hygiene ..........................

Improved Stove
...............................
Hay Box Stove ............................................... 5
Chapters are separated by a yellow page
The Farmers' Handbook this Volume's Introduction

This is the first of five volumes in the Farmers' Handbook. In all there are forty techniques and approaches shown, of whch three are in this first volume. Here, we introduce you to some technologies used inside the house. The titles of these are given on the previous contents page. This Farmers' Handbook provides information about sustainable farming methods, and can also be used as a resource to run literacy programmes. Information about these, and how the Handbook can be used, is provided in volume five. A list of new and/or difficult words and their explanation is also provided in volume five.
Aims
The main aim of this handbook is to help farmers make their own farms more successful. This is done by providing information about using simple methods which strengthen, rather than damage the environment, and help to create sustainable livelihoods for future generations.
Background
The techniques described in the handbook are the results of research made by the farmers of Surkhet and Jajarkot districts of Mid-Western Nepal. We believe these methods will also work well for farmers of other countries. However,around the world there are diverse climates and soils, and so we expect that small changes will need to be made in the techniques according to this diversity. Similarly, it may be necessary to change plant species according to climatic region, but their function will remain the same. For example, the chapter on the Living Fence describes the use of thorny plants as a barrier. In the low altitude, hot Tarai of southern Nepal, "Babool" (Acacia nilotica) is suitable for this. But this does not grow in the higher elevations. Here, species such as wild pear, wild blackberry and Sea Buckthorn make a good living fence.
Evaluation & Feedback

Comments and questions about the techniques and approaches described in this handbook will be most welcome. Suggestions for improvement will be used for future editions of this handbook and other similar publications.
Structure of the Handbook

Inside the handbook each method is descibed in a separate chapter, or chapter. All methods are descibed in the same way:-
Techniques
2. Diet & Nutrition
"What is?" - the method is defined and described. "Why?" - the benefits of using this method are then
described. The main part is then "How to?" make or do the method; In the "How To" section the centre pages show colour pictures about the method. After describing how to create the method, how to maintain, care for, manage and/or operate it is described. After this, there is an interview with an experienced farmer who has built and used the method. Finally, information is given about other chapters in the Handbook which are directly connected to this method. There are minor changes to this structure as necessary.
3. Household Hygiene
4. Improved Stove
5. Hay Box Stove
Appropriate Technology Asia P.O. Box 8975 EPC 849 Kathmandu Nepal tel: +977 1 5549774 nepal@arasia.org.uk www.atasia.org.uk
Permanent Publications The Sustainability Centre East MeonHampshire GU32 1HR tel: +44 1730 823311 info@permaculture.co.uk www.permaculture.co.uk
Permaculture Association UK BCM Permaculture Association London WC1N 3XX Tel: +44 845 4581805 office@permacuture.org.uk www.permaculture.org.uk
Distributor and main contact addresses
Nepal Permaculture Group P.O.Box 8132, Kathmandu, Nepal Tel: +977-1- 252597
email:- npg@earthcare.wlink.com.np
Funding Support
Support for the production and printing of The Farmers' Handbook has come from Methodist Relief & Development Fund (UK), ActionAidNepal, MSNepal, GTZ Food for Work, Helvetas Nepal, Hill Agriculture Research Project (HARP), ICIMOD.
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "Inside The House", Chapter 2 - Diet & Nutrition
Diet and Nutrition ?
In order to live, grow and to protect us from various diseases we need a good, nutritious diet. Nutrition is found in various types of food. Everyone wishes for themselves and their family to remain in good health. A healthy family also makes a healthy and strong homestead. Besides this, you can also help others to be strong. If the family is sick it needs constant expense and can cause much worry. A good, nutritious and balanced diet helps to protect and release the family from sickness. A nutritious diet is not just available from expensive foods. We can also obtain and prepare a nutritious diet from easily available local and even wild foods. This chapter gives information about what foods are needed for our bodies, where these foods are available, and simple ways of increasing the quality of our diets.
Why
Do we need nutrition ?
Common problems of poor diet in the home and village

If people do not get the needed amounts of the necessary foods they can suffer from malnutrition and anaemia. Babies under five years, children, pregnant women and lactating mothers are especially at risk from poor nutrition. 1. Malnutrition. There are several symptoms of malnutrition, for example: Crying - continuously crying and lack of appetite Wounds - cuts, boils, etc. spread on the skin and are difficult to heal. Marasmus swollen face, hands, feet
From the time we are in the mother's womb, for our whole life long, we need a nutritious diet. To give strength, for growing, and to protect or help cure us from illness and disease, there are many types of nutritious elements needed in the body. If any of these elements are deficient in the body, we can become weak and sick. Nutritious foods provide us with energy, help to build and maintain muscle and organs, and help our bodies to produce other important elements which we need to keep us healthy.
Nutritious food, in brief, helps us to remain healthy helps to protect us from disease helps our bodies to grow helps us to build a strong household The Authors of this Chapter
Ms Hom Maya Gurung
Health Technician, Himalayan Permaculture Group, Surkhet, Nepal
Kwashiorkor thin, emaciated
Mr Bipin Vaidya,
Nutrition Programme, U.M.N., Kathamndu, Nepal
The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House"
2. Anaemia - lethargic; poor skin colour; yellowish skin, tongue and nails; poor skin texture
Chapter 2 - Diet & Nutrition
3. Vitamin "A" Deficiency

Vitamin A is essential for eyesight. There are several symptoms of this deficiency: Night Blindness - unable to see in half light Eyes dry out A pale, spongy-like spot in the eye (Whit's spot) Blindness One leaf of Colocasia ("Taro") can provide three children with their daily needs for vitamin A
How
to get nutrition ?
For Health through nutrition we need to pay attention to three things: 1. We need to have the right foods Foods are best if crops are grown using sustainable agriculture methods. Crops grown without chemicals are more nutritious. 2. We need the knowledge to select the right foods What to eat and how much to eat ? We need to know how much of what type of food different people need. Who has special needs ? For example, pregnant and lactating mothers, or sick people should have extra of some foods. 3. We need to know how to prepare and serve the right foods It's not enough to have the right foods, we need to know how to prepare and cook them. Without this knowledge, we can sometimes loose many nutrients in preparation.
4. Iodine Defficiency Goiter - swelling on the throat Cretinism - mentally handicapped, poor limb use, etc.
Cretinism
Goiter
To and EnerTo be Clever and Energetic use Iodized Salt

4
To get health from nutrition we need both knowledge and resources.

Types of Food
Just as farming can be divided into various types of crop. such as livestock, grain crops and orchards, so nutrition can be divided into three types of food, according to function. In vegetables and meat there are various nutrients. The most important nutrients of our diet can be divided into these groups:
In this chapter, information is given first about the function of different foods. After that, from page 20 to 22 more detailed information on nutrition is given. The centre colour pages show examples of the different foods in each group.
1. Foods Which give Energy (Carbohydrates)

When there is much physical work, before and after childbirth, and when sick people are recovering, the body needs more energy. At this time, if nutritious food is not available people can become weak and and catch other diseases more easily. Malnourished children also need more energy foods.
Food for the body's growth
Food to protect the body (fruits)
Food to protect the body (vegetables)
2. Foods Which Help the Body to Grow (Proteins)

Healthy babies grow fast But if food for growth is not available, babies become weak, and this can cause them many problems in the future. Growth foods are called Proteins.
Food for Energy
3. Foods which Protect the Body(Vitamins & Minerals)

The body always needs protection from damaging things. When recovering after being ill, energy foods (carbohydrates) help to get better, while vitamins and minerals help protect the body from disease. These vitamins and minerals are found in fruit and vegetables.
A Mixed Diet
A mixed diet means many different kinds of food are eaten together. Because there are many types of nutritious elements in a mixed diet it is well balanced. It is not enough for the body eating just to stop hunger, or to enjoy the taste. A balanced diet is always needed. Pregnant women, suckling mothers and babies are in special need of a balanced diet. Relatively expensive foods like fish and meat are not essential for a balanced diet. It is also possible to make a balanced diet from foods common in the villages, such as grains, pulses, green vegetables, spices and fruit.
Free Nutrition from the Forest

Community and private forest provides many types of direct and indirect benefits. These include nutritious food available from the wild. Mushrooms, ferns, watercress, bamboo shoots and wild yams are examples of some vegetables that can be found in the forest. Similarly, fruits like berberis, blackberry, amla, chestnut, hazel, walnut, etc. are also available. It is also possible to grow many of these on the edges of farmers' fields to increase the supply, without needing lots of extra work.
What, is this Poor People's Food ?

There are many nutritious types of food for good health available in the villages. Nettles, buckwheat, millet, watercress, ferns, pumpkin shoots, etc. are all very nutritious. But many cultures regard these as "poor people's food" and so eat them less. If you eat such foods, firstly they are cheap or even free of cost, and also these foods can provide many types of essential nutrients for the body - often more than highly bred "developed" vegetables. 8
Watercress
Amla for sale collected from the forest
How to Preserve Nutrients in Food During Cooking Cooking potatoes with their skins and in
peices as large as possible will save vitamin C. Don't scrub rice before cooking it as this prevents vitamin B from being washed away When cooking rice, don't add too much water which otherwise you'd have to throw it away, along with vitamin B. Unprocessed wheat flour has more nutrients than processed white rice flour
Sprouted pulses are very high in nutrients. Pulses can increase their content of vitamins A and C by up to 10 times when sprouted. Vitamin B also increases, and iron and calcium minerals which are in food can be more easily absorbed by the body. For this increase, only a little water and time is needed but the benefits are huge. Why not use easy methods like this? Soak pulses for a day in water, then wash and drain them every day. After 4-5 days the sprouted pulses are ready to eat.
6f_
Rice de-husked by hand or pre-boiled

contains more vitamin B than rice dehusked in a mill.
Millet contains more calcium than

most other grains.
When eaten together, grain and

pulses provide the same benefits as eating meat
There are more vitamins in rice which has been de-husked less
This is like getting free increase in benefits! There are many types of vitamins which provide more or less nutrients according to the time. In the spring, vegetables or fruit are less available, so at this time vitamin deficiency symptoms are common. But sprouted pulses can be made at any time and so can solve deficiency problems.
Pulses
10
Grains
More Benefits
If you wash green leaf vegetables after they have been cut, nutrients can be lost. Always wash before cutting. 11
! 1 Energy Foods
Grains - millet, rice, wheat, maize, buckwheat, barley, etc. Sweet Foods - sweet potato, sugar, sugar cane, honey. Oily Foods - Ghee, vegetable oil, but3 ter, cream, fat. Roots - potato, taro, yam, sweet potato, etc.
@ 2
For a Balanced Diet

you need to eat food from these 3 groups
3 # 3 Foods
to Protect the Body
Green Leaves - nettle, taro, broad leaf mustard, cress, fenugreek, mustard, radish leaf, pumpkin shoot, amaranth, lambs quarters, spinach, etc. Fruit - mango, amla, orange, lemon, guava, pineapple, apricot, peach, plum, raspberry, berberis, lichi, papaya. Vegetables - pumpkin, cauliflower, sweet pepper, ladies finger, beans, carrot, tomato, etc.
2 Foods for the

Body's Growth
Animal ProdSalt ucts - meat, fish, eggs. Dairy Products milk, yoghurt, buttermilk, cheese, etc. Seeds - peanut, pumpkin seeds, sesame, walnut, etc. Pulses - soya, beans, grams, chick peas, peas, mung bean, etc. 12
! 1
13
Partially fermented vegetables increase the amount of iron and calcium available, which improves digestion of grains.
Additions to the Normal Diet

Sometimes it is necessary to eat more than the recommended daily diet. For example, a normally active pregnant women should eat an extra handful of grain, half a handful of pulses, a handful of green leaf vegetables, and at least one extra piece of fruit per day more than her daily diet. A pregnant women who has a heavier workload should eat an extra one and a half handfuls of grain, and if she is malnourished she should also eat an extra one and a half handfuls of grain. A woman who has just given birth should eat an extra handful of grain, half a handful of pulses, a handful of green leaf vegetables, and at least one extra piece of fruit per day more than her usual diet. Six months after childbirth the mother should eat an extra one and a half handfuls of grains and an extra one handful of pulses. One to two years after childbirth (still suckling) the mother should be eating an extra one and a half handfuls of grains and an extra half handful of pulses. At this stage she should also be eating one extra handful of green leaf vegetables and one extra piece of fruit.
Leafy vegetables can be dried in the

shade to keep their nutrition and colour.
Making pickles means vegetables can

be kept for a long time and increases their nutrition. In places where there is a long dry season without irrigation, then a monsoon, many vegetables can be grown in only a short time. Making pickles and oils allows these vegetables to be stored and eaten all year round, e.g. cucumber, tomatoes, radish, leaf vegetables, etc.
when cooking leaf vegetables add a

little oil, keep the pan covered and don't over cook. This prevents loss of vitamin A, and absorbtion of oil improves digestability.
Good Food and a Healthy Family

14
Whose responsibility ?
15
After childbirth a mother should drink 5 teaspoons of

"Jwano" (Trachyspernum ammie) each day.
Similarly, old people cannot digest

much food at one time and only eat a little. So they need a mixed meal 34 times a day. Without nutritious food it's not possible to keep healthy
While a mother is pregnant, and just

after childbirth should eat at least 3-4 times a day. For example, 2 full meals and 2 snack meals.
The best milk for suckling infants is

the mother's own milk. If this is not given, it can lead to many problems in the future. So it is much better to feed mothers' milk rather than powdered milk.
Once a baby stops drinking its mother's milk it should be

given extra food.
Drumstick Leaves
In sub-tropical areas the Drumstick (Moringa) tree is found [this may have other names in your area]. This tree has many benefits. It's leaves are good for livestock fooder and the flowers are good for bees. Its seed helps to purify water. It can be grown easily and quickly from cuttings. Its flowers, pods and newly sprouted, young leaves can all be used as vegetables. The leaves are especially nutritious and can be dried and made into a powder. One teaspoon of this leaf powder provides daily vitamin needs for one person. In cooler, upland areas where drumstick isn't found, you can store and use the powder made in the lowlands.
Always feed a malnourished child extra food. A baby with diarroea should be fed more liquids. An oral
rehydration mixture of salt, sugar and water should be given. It is even better to give the water skimmed off washed or cooking rice.
It is better to feed a child little and often. Never stop feeding a sick child. Pursuade it to drink more liquids. A malnourished child should be given a spoonful of honey or sugar a day. This provides more energy. Also, a malnourished child should be fed a banana every day. 16
17
Super Flour
Maize Wheat
one part Soya bean
one part
two parts
Maize, wheat and soya bean flour mixed into super flour gives a balanced and nutritious meal. It gives nutrients for energy, growth and protection together
Clean the maize, wheat and soya bean
Then grind the baked grains and pulses separately.
4
Store the flour in an airtight vessel. Then you can use the processed super flour for several days. Make the superflour into a porridge and feed to children above the age of 6 months.
6
Bake each of them separately Once they're used to it, they'll eat it themselves.
18
19
The various types of food and nutrients needed for good health are given below. Information about the function of different elements, effects of deficiency and which foods provide them is also given. Food type What does it do? Deficiency Symptoms malnourishment (crying, Marasmus, Kwashiorkor What is it found in ? wheat, maize, barley, millet, rice, yam, sugar, cane extract, potatoes (all energy foods exept oils) cow pea, fava bean, soya bean, amaranth, peas, fish, meat, eggs, milk, peanuts, pumpkin seeds, walnuts, etc. (all growth foods)
Food type
What does it do? keeps eyes healthy
Deficiency Symptoms
What is it found in ?
Carbohydrate (energy)
gives the body strength & vigour maintain a balanced body temperature assists growth & development used for growth & development growth & maintenance of muscle making hormones, red blood cells, digestive juices helps to make up energy needs if lacking in other foods
Vitamin A
keeps skin soft helps to prevent disease from spreading
eye disease green leaf veg(night blindness, etable & yellow dry eyes) fruit or vegetables, e.g. ripe disease spreads papaya, pumpbetween nose, kin, persimmon, carrot, ear & throat spinach, radish less ability to leaf, mustard fight off disease leaf, coriander leaf, beans, watercress, etc. loss of appetite tingling feet burning sensation on soles of feet sore on tongue sore in corners of mouth bleeding gums; infected gums slow healing of wounds & sores unhusked grain and its flour, liver, pulses, green leaf vegetables, kidney, fish, meat amla, lemons, guava, oranges, raspberries, berberis, fresh green leaf vegetables, potatoes, sprouted grains & pulses 21
Protein (growth)
anaemia, lack of digestive juices
Vitamin B group Vitamin C
malnourishment (crying, Marasmus, Kwashiorkor, etc.)
increases appetite helps nerve growth & function helps digestion of carbohydrates joining muscle fibres helps wounds heal helps uptake of iron and calcium
gives energy rough skin helps in the body's take up of Vit. A helps in cell formation
vegetable oils, ghee (purified butter), butter, fatty meat, fish, peanuts, soyabean
20
Oil/Fat
Food type
What does it do?
Defficiency Symptoms
What is it found in ?
Iron (a mineral)
making blood, keeping muscle healthy protection against disease
anaemia green leaf veg dizzyness, etables, pulses, weakness, lazi- millet, beaten ness, breathless- rice, fermented ness vegetables, retarded liver, meat, growth of babies eggs, fish, miscarriage, sprouted pulses, still birth food cooked in iron pots goitre cretinism, spasticism mental disorders, dull lack of body's growth paralysis seafood, fish, iodized salt
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Lalitpur district, Burunchuli VDC, Champi village Mrs Thuli Dhimnan's son Sano Babu was malnourished as a baby. Now let's hear her story.
Mrs Thuli Dhimnan
Iodine (a mineral)
helps body's growth helps brain & nervous system gives heat from energy use
At two and a half years of age Sano Babu was nothing but skin and bone. At that time he wouldn't eat and Mrs Thuli Dhimnan could hardly even walk. It was so hard to feed him at that time. Then I started to feed him superflour porridge with his other food. After only a few days he started to gain weight. After that Sano Babu's two younger brothers were also born but they didn't have the same problems as their older brother. This is how Sano Babu's life improved with a mother's love & care, and good, nutritious food. Sano Babu at two and a half year old, malnourished Sano Babu at twelve years old, with his mother and 2 younger brothers
calcium (a mineral)
helps bone, teeth formation & growth prevents muscle contraction & wasting helps blood clotting
poor bone/ teeth formation; crumbling bones
milk & milk products, green leaf vegetables, fermented vegetables, grains, millet, lamb's quarters, pulses, fish
22
23
Subjects Related to Nutrition

Good benefits can be had from the information in this book about nutrition. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice other related chapters. Improved Stove Chapter In Nepal 95% of households use firewood for cooking food. Everyone knows the effects of too much smoke in the kitchen but what to do ? Now let's learn about an easy and successful method. Hygiene Inside the House Chapter Improved health isn't only about good food. If the kitchen and house is dirty, many diseases can strike. In this chapter information is given about easy methods to keep the house clean. Fruit Related Chapters Information on how to produce and grow improved fruit species at home is given in these chapters about the fruit nursery, grafting, budding, top grafting, stone grafting, air layering, fruit seedling planting and integrated fruit orchards. Kitchen Garden and Polyculture Vegetable Growing Chapters These chapters give information about how to produce good vegetables with less work.
Grihasthi Communications
Read On !
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "Inside The House", Chapter 3 - House Hygiene
House Hygiene ?
The house shelters us from the sun, wind and rain. The house is also where we keep food, pots, pans and clothes necessary for our lives. Often, farm tools such as hooks, spades, ropes, and water containers are kept in the home. The home is also our place to live and sleep. So all members of the household should know about how to keep the house clean. There should be a custom of sweeping and plastering. After The text on the wall says "Always using any tools or cover the lid of the water pot". equipment it's very important that they are cleaned and stored in their right place. And everyone needs to cooperate to make a good, clean household which is enjoyable and hygienic to live in.
Why
Keep the House Clean ?
Eating stale (old) food :- it's important to eat clean and

fresh food to stay healthy. So when cooking, cook just the right amount and don't leave food to be eaten later. Old food can upset the stomach.
Problems leading to not keeping the house clean Dirty Kitchen :- flies and invisible bacteria like to live in
dirty places. So disease can start in the kitchen and on the food there. If there's dirt on the floor it can spread to where the plates, food, water, etc. are. Going to the toilet :- it's wrong to use just any place as a toilet. Wherever this is done becomes dirty. This attracts flies which carry the dirt to our food. Allowing dogs to eat babies' faeces :- dogs shouldn't be allowed to eat babies' faeces because it's possible that the dog can then go and lick food plates.
Pathways of spreading disease
flies
dogs dirty hands dust
Dogs licking plates :- after eating waste meat, bones or

even excrement, dogs can come and lick plates in the house. Many diseases can come from this.
On the right side the child is sick and the bacteria are present in the faeces. On the left side the bacteria get into the other child's plate and food, and the disease is spread. In this way dysentery, gastro-enteritis, worms, typhoid, stomach ache, colds and flu can spread.
Eating food without washing hands :- we do most work

with our hands. Doing this work makes our hands dirty. So before preparing food and eating it we should always wash our hands well with soap, ash or oil seed cake. The Authors of this Chapter
Ms Hom Maya Gurung Health Technician, Himalayan Permaculture Group, Surkhet, Nepal Mr Lal Bahadur Budhathoki Rural Livestock Health Programme
How do Flies Eat ?

1 Flies vomit up the remains of their last meal onto our food. This starts to digest their new meal 2 Then the fly eats the old remains and the new food. So, if the previous meal for the fly was faeces, it is mixed with the food on our plate for the fly to eat it. Can we stay healthy by eating that food ?
Chapter 3 - House Hygiene
2 1
The picture below shows how bacteria can enter our bodies. In the upper part of the picture are small drawings of where the food comes from. From here arrows point lead to the person's mouth. The numbers given to the pictures below correspond to descriptions on the next page. Read these as you see the pictures.
Milk :- milk is clean inside the cow's udder but if the person milking has dirty hands this will make the milk dirty. The hands and udder should be washed along with the milk bucket. The milk should be boiled and put in a clean container with a clean lid. Use clean water if making buttermilk or other dairy products, and the container these are put in must also be very clean.
1
1 !
How bacteria can move in the kitchen

3 4 5
Water :- if possible do not use water from streams or rivers. Use water from wells, springs or drinking water taps. It's not enough just to use clean water. The containers it is put in must also be clean and have a good fitting lid. Finally, the cups, glasses, plates, etc. to drink from must also be clean. Fruit :- fruit is clean on the tree but as soon as we pick it, it quickly becomes dirty. Before eating, hands should be clean, and fruit should be washed or peeled . Grains and Pulses :- cooked grains and pulses etc. will become dirty if left uncovered. Dirty utensils used to transfer or serve food will also make the food dirty. Keep utensils off the ground. Vegetables :- just like 4 & 5 above, vegetables can become dirty. If chemicals are used in the garden vegetables should be washed well in water. Vegetables such as radishes, carrot and coriander are often eaten raw, so must be washed in clean water. Plates, bowls etc. used for eating should also be very clean. Grinding stones used for making pickles should be kept clean (see page 13).
6 4 5 3
Bacteria
Bacteria are tiny organisms that the eye cannot see. These micro-organisms can be beneficial or harmful. In the soil, without micro-organisms there would be no humus made, while in the stomach, if there were no micro-organisms we could not digest our food. Usually, beneficial bacteria live off dead things, breaking them up and rotting them down, and helping in uptake (digestion) by plants' roots. As for harmful bacteria, they usually live on living tissues, and often damage them. If harmful bacteria get into wounds, or into our stomach, they can make us very sick. Bacteria Bacteria enjoy dirty, dark and moist seen places so if we want to be protected from possible harm, kitchen pots, pans, clothes, close up bedding, etc. should be kept clean, dry and as well aired as possible. Before and after any preparation, cooking or eating of food, hands should be clean. Hands should be washed after touching hair, animals (livestock/pets), soil, etc. and before touching food or food containers. Food should remain covered when not in use and old food should not be eaten, except by the chickens! If the hands have a wound then use soap to wash and keep it covered when preparing, cooking or eating food. No spitting in the kitchen, or if possible, anywhere in the house or courtyard. If attention is paid to all these things, then harmful bacteria can't enter and harm our bodies. 6 The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House"
Let's see
How to keep the house clean

How many mistakes can you see in this picture?
In a well managed house keeping the pots and the kitchen clean is easy
In a clean, dry and light kitchen there is less fear of disease
Water containers should always be covered. The text on the wall says "Always cover the lid of the water pot" in Nepali.
A basket for keeping pots made from local resources.
The grinding stone should be covered when not in use.
Then, this is the way to pour water
Dirt can also get into the milling stone so this should also be covered
The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House" Chapter 3 - House Hygiene
In a well managed House:

Pots and pans are cleaned and put away in the right place Food is covered and put away
How
to clean the House ?
Cleaning and managing inside the house isn't difficult. Below are some things to pay attention to for cleaning the house well. 1. Putting away pots, pans, etc. :- pots, pans, plates, etc. should be stored in a cupboard, rack or woven basket in a corner of the kitchen. Water containers should also be kept in a clean and easily usable place in or near the kitchen. The opening of the water container should always be covered with a clean lid. The grinding stone should be cleaned and put away after use. 2. Putting away cutting hooks, digging tools, ropes, etc. :cutting hooks, digging tools, ropes, etc. should be stored in a place easy to see and access by all the family (except babies). Farm tools used every day are also kept clean and in the right place 3. Putting away clothes, etc. :clothes and bedding should be stored away from the kitchen otherwise dust and smoke can make them dirty. Also, to prevent dust getting from clothes or bedding into the food these should be kept in a separate place, in a rack or cupboard.
The grinding stone is covered and put away The floor is kept clean and freshly plastered or swept
10
11
Water Containers
Drinking water should always be kept clean. If water is dirty it can cause all sorts of diseases such as diarrhea, stomach aches, colds and flu, worms, etc. Many types of dirt can get into the uncovered drinking water container. While sweeping the house, dust can blow into drinking water containers, and drinking that dirty water can then cause sickness. Being aware of some simple things can help to protect us from these diseases. For example, the water container should always be covered. The water container's lid can be home made. For this, first measure the lid of the water container, and make a lid from wood or thick tree bark to fit the opening. Make a string to tie the lid to the container. Another method is to use a small plate or bowl to cover the lid. The lid of the container should never be put on the floor otherwise it could get covered in dirt, which could then get into the water inside the container. 12
The Grinding Stone

The grinding stone is a tool used many times a day in the kitchen. After it has been used, it should be washed and stored in a clean place. After the grinding stone has been used, for example to grind spices for pickle, and if it is left uncovered, then while sweeping or doing other work dirt can get onto it. We may bring dirt into the house from outside. This dirt can contain harmful bacteria. If the grinding stone is left out unwashed then these bacteria can then get into the spices etc. we are grinding on the stone. This can then cause illness such as diarrhea, dysentery, worms, and other types of illness. So we should get into the habit of always washing the grinding stone before use. After use, again wash the stone with clean water, dry it and store it covered or upright against the wall of the kitchen. If this is not possible (for example, if it is too big), then the stone should be kept covered by a large lid or bowl, plastic bag, clean cloth or even a plate made of leaves. If we pay attention to the small ideas given above, we can protect ourselves from big diseases.
13
Other things to pay attention to

During the monsoon there is much more rain, it gets very muddy everywhere and it's a much busier time for farmers, so everywhere gets much more dirty. So we should pay much more attention to hygiene at this time, compared to other times of the year.
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi VDC, Ratadada village and a member of "Hariyali" women's group, Mrs Atimaya Sunuwar has seen the benefits of good house hygiene. Now let's read about what she says
Mrs Atimaya Sunuwar
It's easier and cheaper to prevent disease than to cure it. Let's pay attention to this !!
If we don't keep the house clean we can cause many types of health problems. If we can stay healthy all household work is easier. But if we are always sick, how can we run a good household ? 14
Mrs Atimaya Sunuwar In 1998, I became a member of the local Women's Group and learned a lot, but first I started keeping the house clean. I use a bowl to keep the drinking water container covered, and clean it each day. I keep the pots and pans clean and covered, so they can't get dirty. I always wash the grinding stone. These things are easy, and they only seem difficult if you don't have the habit of doing them. It's the same for cleaning and putting away farming tools such as the cutting hook and digging tools. I put the dust swept out of the house into a sweepings pit. Apart from keeping the house clean, this makes good compost too. There's lots of benefits when we keep the house clean. If we can't keep ourselves clean, then what other work will we be able to do ?
15
Subjects Related to House Hygiene

Improved Stove Chapter In Nepal 95% of households use firewood for cooking food. Everyone knows the effects of too much smoke in the kitchen but what to do ? Now let's learn about an easy and successful method. Diet and Nutrition Chapter Many diseases can be prevented by a healthy diet, In this chapter, information is given about the benefits provided by different types of food. Waste Water Chapter This chapter gives information on how to get irrigation for the garden from domestic waste water. Sweepings Chapter Information about making good compost from sweeping the house and yard is given in this chapter. Pit Latrine Chapter Everyone has a responsibility to use a proper toilet. Information about building and correct use of the pit latrine is given in this chapter.
Read On !
What is an
The Farmers' Handbook - "Inside The House", Chapter 4 - Improved Stove
Improved Stove ?
Mrs Chitramaya GhartiMagar's improved stove, Surkhet district, Nepal The stove is the heart of the household. The stove turns our hard-earned farming produce into tasty and wholesome food. A well managed stove helps in other work also. If the stove isn't good, smoke in the kitchen will cause health problems and a lot of firewood will be used. In this chapter, a useful method is given to help solve these problems, which can bring big improvements in the kitchen, and from there to the household. This method is called the improved stove. The improved stove can be cheaply made from local resources, and helps to remove smoke from the kitchen, while using less firewood.
There are some disadvantages of the improved stove. These are :-
Why
make an Improved Stove ?

Improved Stove 1. Uses less firewood 2. Food cooks quickly 3. Can cook 2 items at a time 4. Don't need tripod 5. Smoke goes outside 6. No harm to health 7. Doesn't make kitchen dirty 8. No fear of small children falling in fire 9. Pots kept cleaner during cooking
1. Large pieces of firewood can't be used; 2. The stove gives less light and direct heat in the kitchen; 3. The stove needs good maintenance, and from time to time you need to let the smoke into the kitchen (see page 22 for more information).
Differences between traditional and improved stoves Traditional Stove or Tripod 1. Uses a lot of firewood 2. Food cooks slowly 3. Can only cook one item at a time 4. Cost of tripod 5. Smoke stays in kitchen 6. Smoke damages health 7. Makes kitchen utensils dirty with soot 8. Small children can fall in the fire 9. Cooking makes the pots black with soot
Other methods to reduce firewood use

While cooking, keeping the lid on pots helps to reduce firewood use. This also helps to conserve nutrients in the food. Another method of conserving fuelwood is called the "Haybox". This can be made in a basket or box filled with tightly packed straw, as in the picture below, As soon as food (rice, pulses, vegetables, etc.) is brought to the boil on a normal stove, the pan is removed and placed in the hay box, and covered well. Here, there is no fire, but the food slowly keeps cooking, due to the conserved heat in the box. This takes 20-30 minutes longer than on a stove. After a while, take out the pan and the food is ready to eat. covered by a lid straw cloth lid of the pot food inside (just boiled) straw basket or box
Chapter 4 - Improved Stove
10. Wind can make the fire jump 10. Stove not affected by wind 11. Can't make tripod from local resources 12. Food cools quickly 2 11. Stove made from local resources 12. Food stays hot longer
How

To make an improved stove ?
Making the Improved Stove

An improved stove uses a chimney to pass the smoke out of the kitchen. There are 2 ways of making a chimney to do this :1. Making bricks using mud "pancakes" 2. Making bricks using a wooden form or mould
Things to consider when making an improved stove

get all the materials and tools ready first; map out the height of the kitchen's wall; map out the stove according to the needs of the family; allow for a place to clean the stove; the hole to allow smoke out should be out of the wind.
Materials needed to make an improved stove

bowl brick making form (see p.8) cooking pans stones digging tools soil straw or husk
On this stove unleavened flat bread can be made over the mouth of the firebox, as well as smoke going outside
string
1. Making bricks using mud "pancakes"

In this method only clay, straw or rice husk, water and a small bowl are needed. First mix the clay and the husk, or straw cut into 2 inch lengths, with water to make a stiff texture, like dough. see the pictures on the next page
This Chapter's Author:
Mr Laxman Rana
Community Service Group, Dahachaur 4, Surkhet, Nepal 4
Making bricks from clay "pancakes"

1
The pancakes should be 8 inches in diameter
8i
2. Making a chimney using a wooden form or mould

nc he s
One village will need only one of these forms
Materials needed to make the form

2
The bowl should be 4 inches in diameter
measuring tape One 3inch nail Eighteen 2 inch nails round piece of wood hammer saw timber
Place the bowl upside down on the pancake and press down, like this
3
length 4-5 feet, width 7 inches, thickness half to one inch The upturned bowl will cut the clay
4
make 30-35 pancakes like this This will make a hole the same shape and size as the bowl
5
le 7 ngt in h ch es
Cut the timber into pieces as shown here
w 7 in c i d t h hes
one piece
2 pieces of length 7 inches and width 4 inches

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House" Chapter 4 - Improved Stove
Join the 3 pieces of wood with nails, like this
Now put the round piece of wood in the form
diameter 4 inches length 3 inches
Saw 2 pieces of wood as shown below length 15 inches, width 4 inches
On the underside of the form make an 'X' between the 4 corners to find the centre
Holding the round piece of wood on the other side, nail in the long nail to hold it in place
Making bricks in the Form

Join the pieces with nails, as shown here
mix the clay, husk or straw and water wash the form well scatter a little husk or straw in the form so it sticks to
the wet wood
Now put the clay mix into the Form
Scrape off the excess clay to make level
Let's see
1
How to make an improved stove
Turn the form upside down and tap gently
The form used to make the chimney
Leaving the clay brick on the ground, gently lift the form off
2
To make the chimney, 12-13 bricks like this are needed Make 2 bricks looking like this
Rice husk, or chopped straw
Make 1 brick without a hole for the top of the chimney
3
Husk or straw mixed to a thick paste
10
11
Cleaning the Form
Starting to build the stove
Pressing the clay/straw mix into the form
Smoke leaves here
Bridging stone over the firebox hole Build up the stove, leaving holes for pots and a path for smoke
;pf fn 6
Chimney brick after removing from the form 12-13 of these bricks
Bridging stones
Red arrows show pathway for smoke Yellow lines show empty spaces left inside the stove
2 bricks like this

12
1 brick without a hole

13
Holes for pots
Hole for smoke
9
Cooking area prepared
In the below pictures is the process of building the stove in drawings

First, estimate the best place for the stove, and map out with the types of pots to be used and a chimney brick If using the clay pancakes for the chimney, use them to measure
Put firewood here Now start to build the chimney with bricks made with the form (or clay pancakes)
10
11
Mark out according to the measurements
After plastering, the stove is allowed to dry out and can then be used
14
Mark out the areas and pathways for firewood, fire and smoke
15
Start to build the walls according to the measurements
Cooking area finished
Inside the stove looks like this
Iron rod
Below the second pot-hole a small hump is made. This sends the flames right up to the base of the pot
Between the hump and base of the pot a 1.5 inch gap
Use an iron rod if available. This sits inside the pot's hole and allows smaller pots to rest on it
This shows the inside when a fire is burning
smoke going out
Continue to build up the walls

fire burning in clay hump the stove Note: the pots should sit down in the hole (see page 22)
16
17
Now use a string to measure the hole going outside
After placing 1213 of these bricks the level of the hole is reached
First chimney brick
Place the chimney bricks like this
This is the way the top 3 bricks are placed (see p.20)
After placing the top 3 bricks, the hole from the chimney and the hole going outside should fit exactly 3
2 1
If using the clay pancake bricks they look like this 18

19
The method to place the top 3 bricks is shown below Brick 3 seen close up Brick 3
Brick 1 seen close up
Brick 1
Hole to the outside Finally, plaster the stove, and allow it to dry out. Then it is ready to use
Brick 2
Brick 2 seen close up 20

21
Things to pay attention to when using the stove

In this picture the stove is being used correctly - the pot is low in the hole where more flames reach the base, and smoke can escape. In this picture the stove is not used well - because the pot does not sit low in the hole, the flames do not reach close. In this way food cooks slowly. This is due to using the wrong size pots for the hole. If the pots are the wrong size for the hole then, as in the diagram, put 3 small stones under the pot to draw the flames up where they heat the base of the pot. But this allows more smoke into the kitchen.
stones or clay
Cleaning the Improved Stove

watch if smoke is passing or not watch if food is cooking fast or slow clean the chimney every week or 2 (see below) plaster the stove daily (do not use dung) measure how much firewood is used Once every 2 weeks wrap cloth on the end of a stick to 1 clean the chimney 2
stick with cloth 3
Open the stove to remove the dirt and soot 4
A well made stove, used correctly, will not let smoke out into the kitchen. But this can cause another problem in that the smoke helps to control various pests which otherwise can damage timber, stored grain and seed. Smoke, protects the timbers from these pests. Therefore, every few days smoke needs to be let into the house. 22 The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House"
Re plaster
Clean from the outside also
23
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Dahachaur - 4, and member of "Ritu Laligurans" and "Hariyali" women's group Mrs Chitramaya Gharti Magar has made an improved stove. Now let's read about what she says. Because smoke affects our health it's important to make the smoke go outside. In the imMrs Chitramaya proved stove less firewood is also Gharti Magar used, so time is saved collecting fuel as well as helping to protect the forest. To make this stove stone, clay, rice husk and a form to make the chimney is all that's needed. We didn't have a form in our village, so I used a bowl to make 35-36 clay pancakes. The form also uses more clay. Making the pancakes needs less clay and you don't need the form, so I made up this method. There's no smoke from my stove, and it uses less firewood. Once cooked, the food stays warm a long time left on the stove. There are no flies and the food can't burn. Also, the pans don't get so black with soot. Now, I want teach others in the village how to make the stove.
Farmers' Experience
Mrs Chitramaya Gharti Magar
What is a
Hay Box?
The need of today is to conserve, recycle and use resources efficiently, and to save waste. To do this many types of stove have been developed and taught around the world, in order to save fuel in cooking. One method of cooking while saving fuel is called the Hay Box. Food such as rice, pulses andvegetables are brought to the boil on a traditional stove, and then immediately placed in a box packed with straw, and covered. The food continues to cook even though it is not on a stove, because the heat in the pan is enough to keep cooking the food, while the box and straw stop the heat from escaping. After some time the pan is removed and the food is ready to eat. In this booklet we describe how to make and use a hay box out A pan of cooked rice of locally available resources, to taken out of a hay box conserve fuel use in the home.
Farmers Handbook, Inside the House, Booklet 5, Hay Box
Why
Advantages of using the Hay Box
Use a Hay Box?
How
to make a Hay Box ?
Food can be cooked with less fuel (wood, kerosene, gas, electric, etc.) Because food is not boiled for a long time, many vitamins are saved Because pots are in the flames less, they last longer Less time is spent cooking, so there is more time for other activities The hay box can be made from local resources It doesnt require much skill to make and use. Once the traditional stove has brought the food to the boil, the packing of the hay box (hay, straw, wool, cottoon, etc) keeps the heat in and this is enough to keep the food cooking. This may take 10-20 minutes longer than if using a direct flame. In this way, for example, rice is brought to the boil, packed in the hay box and covered. It will continue to cook itself and will be ready in about 20 minutes longer than on a normal fire. This booklets author Chris Evans, advisor, Himalayan Permaculture Group, Nepal www.designedvisions.com 2
The Farmers Handbook Inside the House
You can make a Hay Box in your own home for your own use. Theres no need for any special skill. In this booklet we show how to use a traditional bamboo basket to make the box. But instead, a wooden box, cardboard box or even an old fridge or drum can be used. The size of the box should be about 4-6 inches wider than the width of the pot. Because in Nepal the bamboo basket is available everywhere, we find this easiest to use.
Materials needed to make a Hay Box
Lid for box Bamboo basket ("box")
Straw/hay (or wool, cotton)
Cooking pots
Towel or blanket
Booklet 5 - Hay Box
Method
Straw, hay etc. is packed tightly into whatever type of box or container is available. While packing, leave enough space for the size of pot you will be using. Keep some straw aside to cover the pot later. Keep a towel or blanket ready. The box is now ready for use. Instead of straw, dried grass, wool or cotton can also be used. Once the box is ready, the cooking can begin in the kitchen. Start to cook your usual food, such as rice, vegetables, etc., on your traditional stove, as you would normally do.
Lets see
Pack straw tightly into the bamboo basket. Instead of straw, dried grass, wool or cotton can also be used.
How to make the Hay Box
In the pictures on the next 4 pages we use the example of cooking rice in the hay box. But whatever food you are cooking, use the stove just to bring it to the boil. As soon as the food is boiling it is removed from the stove and placed in the hay box. 4
While packing, leave enough space in the basket for the pot to be placed.
3
Booklet 5 - Hay Box
In the kitchen, start to cook your usual food in the usual way.
Place the wrapped pot in the middle of the packed straw.
In a few minutes the food will start to boil. Then, cover the pot and remove it from the stove.
Pack more straw on top to completely fill the box.
Then completely wrap the pot in a blanket or towel.

Cover it all with sacking or a blanket.
9
Booklet 5 - Hay Box
10
Finally, place a rock or heavy object to weigh down the lid.
Maintenance
11
How to use the Hay Box
After a short while the food in the pot will start to boil. Then, cover the pot and take it off the stove. Then, completely wrap the pot in a thick towel or blanket. Put the pot in the middle of the packed straw. Cover it with more packed straw to completely fill the box. Cover the box with a lid, and finally place a weight on the lid.
In 20-30 minutes the food in the pot will finish cooking by itself. After this, you can remove the food whenever you are ready to eat.
lid of the box straw/hay etc. blanket lid of pot food just boiled straw/hay etc. basket or box
12
Here the rice is cooked perfectly.
The food will cook by itself inside the box in 20-30 minutes. After this, you can remove the food to eat, or you can leave it there for 3-4 hours or until you are ready to eat, and it will stay warm.
Booklet 5 - Hay Box
Inside the box with its lid and tightly packed straw, food cooks and stays warm for a long time. It works in the same way that freshly boiled tea is kept hot for a long time inside a thermos flask. Another benefit of using the hay box is that because the food is not boiled for a long time, vitamins are not lost in over-cooking, so the food is more nutritious.
Farmers' Mrs Shivakala Experience Rokaya

From Humla district capital Simikot Mrs Shivakala Rokaya is a member of Jolimungra Vegetable Growers Group. She's made and used a hay box let's read about her experience.
Another way of saving fuel in cooking

Just by keeping the lid on the pot while cooking saves a lot of fuel. Nutrients in the food are also saved.
Good Food & Healthy Family
Whose Responsibility ?
I find this hay box really easy to use and very benefiMrs Shivakala Rokaya cial. I can start cooking then go off to the fields or the forest and just at the time when I start to feel hungry come home and the food is ready, hot and fresh in the hay box. I boil the rice in the pot and skim off the excess water, then wrap the whole pot with rice and lid in a thick cloth and place inside the hay box, and it's cooked in just half an hour. I reckon that it saves about the same amount of fuelwood that I'd use to cook the vegetables each meal. I really like methods like this, that can make our lives easier as well as helping to protect the environment
10
Booklet 5 - Hay Box
11
Read On !
Subjects Related to the Hay Box
Good benefits can be had from the information in this book about the hay box. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits lets read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
Hay Box Chapter

Improved Stove Chapter

In Nepal 95% of households use firewood for cooking food. Everyone knows the effects of too much smoke in the kitchen but what to do ? Now lets learn about an easy and successful method.
Diet and Nutrition Chapter

Many diseases can be prevented by a healthy diet, In this chapter, information is given about the benefits provided by different types of food.
Near the House

Part One
CONTENTS
Subject
This Volume's Authors : Chris Evans, Mr Laxman Rana, Mr Bhuvan Khadka, Ms Hom Maya Gurung, Mrs Deu Maya Rana, Ms Bal Kumari Giri, Mr Narayan Acharya, Mrs Naomi Saville, Mr Satananda Upadhaya Edited, Designed & Produced by: Chris Evans & Jakob Jespersen Translated from Nepali by Chris Evans Proof reading: thanks to Mike Feingold, Margaret Evans, Ted Albins, Rupert Greville, Jakob Jespersen, Andy Langford, Looby Macnamara Photos: Jakob Jespersen, Chris Evans Addional photo credits are given in Volume Five Cover illustration: Mr Motilal Phauja Typing: Chris Evans Computer Coordination: Graphics Edge, Kathmandu Published by: Chris Evans, Jakob Jespersen...... Distributors: .......... (see p.8 for address) Printed by: Format Printing Press, Kathmandu...... First Edition (Nepali) printed June 2001, 7500 copies This Edition......... Farmers' Handbook, ISBN 99933-615-0-X....... This Volume : 99933-615-2-6...... The Farmers' Handbook is about techniques for sustainable farming, and this is the second of 5 volumes. There are 12 techniques presented here. In five volumes there area total of 44 techniques and approaches This Farmers' Handbook is meant for education and awareness raising as well as practical gardening uses. It is permitted to photocopy for such purposes, but please remember that photocopying can cause pollution to the environment, is expensive, & does not give a good quality.
Chapter No:
Introduction to this Volume .......................... 1 Waste Water Use ............................................ 2 Sweepings Pit ................................................ 3 Pit Latrine ..................................................... 4 Compost ......................................................... 5 Mulching ....................................................... 6 Double Digging ............................................. 7 Seed Saving ................................................... 8 Integrated Pest Management ....................... 9 Liquid Manure .............................................. 10 Livestock Management ................................. 11 Beekeeping .................................................... 12 Non-Cement Drinking Water ....................... 13

This is the second volume of a five volume production of the Farmers' Handbook. In all there are forty four techniques and approaches shown, of whch twelve are in this second volume. In this volume we introduce you to some of the methods used near the house (part one). The titles of these are given on the previous "Contents" page. This Farmers' Handbook provides information about sustainable farming methods, and can also be used as a resource for runnning literacy programmes. Information about these, and how the Handbook can be used, is provided in volume five. A list of new or difficult words and their explanation is also provided in volume five.
Aims
Background
The techniques described in the handbook are the results of research made by the farmers of Surkhet and Jajarkot districts of Mid-Western Nepal. We believe these methods will also work well for farmers of other countries. However, around the world there are diverse climates and soils, and so we expect that small changes will need to be made in the techniques according to this diversity. Similarly, it may be necessary to change plant species according to climatic region, but their function will remain the same. For example, the chapter on the Living Fence describes the use of thorny plants as a barrier. In the low altitude, hot Tarai of southern Nepal, "Babool" (Acacia nilotica) is suitable for this. But this does not grow in the higher elevations. Here, species such as wild pear, wild blackberry and Sea Buckthorn make a good living fence.

Comments and/or questions about the techniques and approaches described in this handbook will be most welcome. Suggestions for improvement will be used for future editions of this handbook and other similar publications.

2. Waste Water Use 3. Sweepings Pit 4. Pit Latrine
Techniques
5. Compost 6. Mulching 7. Double Digging 8. Seed Saving 9. Integrated Pest Management 10. Liquid Manure 11. Livestock Management 12. Beekeeping 13. Non-Cement Drinking Water
Appropriate Technology Asia P.O. Box 8975 EPC 849 Kathmandu Nepal tel: +977 1 5549774 nepal@arasia.org.uk www.atasia.org.uk
Funding Support
Support for the production and printing of The Farmers' Handbook has come from Methodist Relief & Development Fund (UK), ActionAidNepal, MSNepal, GTZ Food for Work, Helvetas Nepal, Hill Agriculture Research Project (HARP), ICIMOD.
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 2 - Waste Water Pit
Waste Water Use ?

There are many problems of water shortage in our homes and villages. Apart from needing water to irrigate nurseries and kitchen gardens, in many places it can be difficult to get water even for the essentials of daily life. It's not possible to carry water from far away to In Surkhet, Nepal, waste water is colput on the garden. lected from the taps to water vegetables In places where it isn't plentiful, waste water from washing dishes, hands, faces and bathing can be used to irrigate kitchen gardens. This is called Waste Water Use. Water that has already been used once is still a valuable resource to use again. There are many resources around us which can be easily and beneficially used . Problems come only when we don't know the methods to do this.
Why
use Waste Water ?
How
to use Waste Water ?
Benefits of Using Waste Water Water isn't wasted after

washing dishes and bathing
Where to Collect the Waste Water ?

On the edge of the courtyard around the house there should be a fixed place for washing hands, pots, etc. When the pit is made close to this, the waste water can be collected. When making a pit, it should be close to the household's kitchen garden or home nursery, so irrigation is easy.
We can use that water to

increase crop production
Increase resources for the

household
Waste resources are recycled Keeps the house and courtyard clean
Because ashes and other materials are used in the waste water, it is very fertile. So it gives nutrients to crops as well as irrigation. Plants grow really well with these extra nutrients. This is a good use of waste resources. This Chapter's Author:
? ??
When to Make it ?
Ways of collecting waste water can be made at any time. Waste water collection helps to keep the area clean all year round. It's especially useful for irrigation in the dry season.
Materials Needed to Make a Waste Water Pit

Bamboo or thin sticks
Digging Tools
Stones
Mr Laxman Rana
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 2 - Waste Water Use
There are different methods of collecting and using waste water. You can use the method which is best for you according to your own needs and resources. For any method, first all water should be collected at one point. Water can be collected into a pit and then a watering can be used to put it on the garden. Or a series of small canals can lead from the washing place directly to the where the water is needed in the garden.
Let's See
How to make a waste water pit
After collecting waste water like this, it can be used in the garden.
If water used in the house goes to waste it cannot help to grow crops, and also makes the courtyard dirty.
Even more water can be used this way if bathing and clothes washing are also done here. The pit should be kept clean, and the water used as quickly as possible, otherwise mosquito and other pests or diseases can collect.
A draining platform like this can be made to send the waste water straight to the garden
4
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1"
In the very same place with very little input, a good kitchen garden can be made
Chapter 2 - Waste Water Use
At the washing up place, on one side the clean pots are dried, and on the other the waste water is made to flow away.
Here is the washing place
Because the waste water is well managed to go to all the right places in the garden, this is enough for watering and fertilizing the vegetables in the beds.
Then the waste waster flows by itself onto the garden. In place, to send easily 6 this way the washing drying place and place the water away can be arranged.
From a community tap or well there is enough water for several kitchen gardens or nurseries.
Maintenance
Using waste water collected daily Here waste water from a community tap is collected in a canal.
How to Maintain the Waste Water Pit
Where to use the Waste Water ?

to water small kitchen gardens to water nurseries of fruit, fodder trees, fodder grass seedlings etc. for your own use or to sell or trade to raise vegetable seedlings for the kitchen garden Because nurseries or kitchen gardens are made near the house, livestock like chickens, goats and pigs mustn't be left to roam the area because they will destroy the plants there. They will also damage the pit or tank. If waste water is sometimes added to the compost pile, it will help it to rot down quicker.
Then the canal flows to a pond.
Gardens are then irrigated from the pond.
The pond seen close up.
Around the edges of the waste water pit perennial plants like lemon grass, comfrey, tree tomato and fruit trees can be planted. Because it is always moist, these plants will grow and produce well.
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 8, Pandit Kanla village, and a member of "Women Improve" women's group, Mrs Tilisara Gharti has made an waste water pit. Now let's hear about her experience.
Mrs Tilisara Gharti
Read On !
Subjects Related to Waste Water
Good benefits can be had from the information in this book about collecting and using waste water. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
Waste Water Pit Chapter

At first I didn't know about this method. All the water from washing up went to waste. Now, after learning about this method, a waste water pit has been made. From here, a small ditch carries water into the nursery and kitchen garden area. Now the washing area is better managed, a bamboo rack has been made, and water is collected into one place. From here it goes to the garden. A small amount of work has solved the water problem. Now waste water from our house is used for vegetables, and a fruit seedling nursery. This method is really easy and efficient. Now others are starting to use the same method in the village.
Mrs Tilisara Gharti
Chapters on how to make various Nurseries
Mulching Chapter
House Hygiene Chapter
Mulching Chapter
If water is to be used it must first be conserved. A mulch covers the soil and prevents water loss, so giving more water for the plants. In this chapter is information on how to do mulching.
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Kitchen Garden and Polyculture Vegetable Growing Chapters
11
Different types of plants need different types of management to grow them. Information on how to build and manage the home nursery, fruit nursery, air nursery, hot bed and leaf pots is given in these chapters.
Kitchen Garden and Polyculture Vegetable Growing Chapters

How to make and manage a home vegetable garden for permanence, ease and simplicity. Information on doing less work for more production while also being able to produce a wide range of fresh vegetables is given in these chapters.
House Hygiene Chapter

Don't think that health improvement comes only from eating a good diet. If the house and kitchen are dirty, even more diseases can spread. Information about easy techniques to keep the house clean are given in this chapter
Chapters on how to make various Nurseries
What is a
Sweepings Pit ?
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 3 - Sweepings Pit
Mrs Maiya Khatri is growing potatoes in her sweepings pit Dirt is the home of disease. If we don't pay attention to regular home cleaning we can suffer from various illnesses. It can be very expensive to be cured from these illnesses. Now let's think, how dirty are our homes and courtyard ? Yes, they're dirty, but there's an easy way to solve this. The dirt should be collected in one fixed place. Extra money or work isn't needed for this. The place to put the dirt is called a sweepings pit. The Sweepings pit is where dirt, leaves and other organic waste swept up from inside and outside the house is kept, and it is used to make compost as well as keeping the area clean and tidy .
Why

make a Sweepings Pit ?
How
How to make :Time to make :-
to make a Sweepings Pit ?
The Benefits of a Sweepings Pit

dirt is put in a fixed place this keeps the home and courtyard clean this helps to protect against illness the decomposed sweepings can be used as an extra source of compost
It's really easy to make a sweepings pit. It doesn't take much time and can last for a long while. The sweepings pit can be made at any time. It's good to start it after the monsoon, if you have one.
We sweep up daily and lots of sweepings are produced. If we use it right this becomes an important resource - it makes great compost.
Place to make it :The sweepings pit should be made at the edge of the courtyard.
Method of making a Sweepings Pit

There are 2 ways of making it :(a) digging a pit; (b) without digging a pit
Materials needed to build a Sweepings Pit

Small sticks or bamboo Crow bar
Hook (cutting tool)
This Chapter's Authors:

Ms Balkumari Giri Mr Bhuvan Khadka 2
Leaves, etc. (sweepings)
Broom
Chapter 3 - Sweepings
(a) Digging a pit

You can choose the best place on the edge of your courtyard to dig the pit. The depth and width of the pit is up to you - see how much you sweep up daily, and according to filling the pit once or twice a year, decide how big the pit should be. After making the pit, the collected sweepings are very good compost for fruit trees. In one farmer's experience, fruit trees given compost from sweepings fruited 2 years before those which didn't have it.
Sweepings put on the fruit tree
Let's See
How to make a sweepings pit
(b) Not digging a pit

Put 4 strong upright corner posts in the ground and in between put in smaller uprights. Weave bamboo or other small sticks to make a basket-type effect. This needs to be good and strong, to last a long time. Fill this with the daily sweepings, making sure they can't spill out. If sweepings can be kept for a long time this can be used as compost for your own field crops or kitchen garden. So it's good to make a pit or frame to hold as many sweepings as possible, for a long time. Like this you need to develop the habit of daily putting the sweepings into the pit. 4
The pit is made in the right place to collect the sweepings, on the edge of the courtyard
Put 3-5 seed potatoes onto fertile soil placed in the bottom
To make the heap, first put 4 upright sticks at the corners
A stick buried in the middle of the heap ( ) will help the sweepings to rot quicker
Then put smaller sticks in between
If potatoes are planted in the heap, you need to water from time to time
Sweeping into this from the house and courtyard every day will fill the heap and make compost
Vertical Potato Growing

There are many methods to give maximum production from a small area with minimum inputs. Of these, to get quick benefits from a small space potatoes can be grown using this method. This way of growing potatoes is done on an area about 1 metre square and one metre high. So from a square metre of land a small family doesn't have to buy potatoes.
After 4 months the potatoes are ready for harvesting. This is also called "vertical growing" When the heap is taken apart, both potatoes and compost can be removed
Using vertical growing on this much land, 12-15 kg of potatoes can be produced
Benefits of Vertical Potato Growing produce lots of potatoes on

Using bamboo in a pot, here strawberries are grown in the sweepings 8
minimum land minimum input gives more production don't need much seed don't need to dig or earth up makes use of waste biomass 9
one metre
Vertical Growing Method

Make a frame one metre square from upright sticks, and weave or tie horizontal sticks or bamboo up to a height of 1 metre. Put 2-4 inches of leaf litter and compost on the bottom. On top of this place 4-5 seed potatoes, spaced separately and evenly. Now cover the potatoes with 4 to 6 inches of leaf litter and sweepings. The potatoes will sprout, and after they sprout above the leaf litter, from time to time should be covered with more litter and sweepings, allowing just an inch of the tip sticking out. Keep on adding the sweepings daily. Keep covering like this for up to 3 months, then stop adding for one month until the potatoes start to flower at about 4 months. At this time, the heap can be taken down and potatoes harvested all at once, or as needed.
potatoes sweepings
Farmers' Experience
Mrs Rikali Gurung
one metre
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 3, Ratadada village, and a member of "Hariyali" women's group Mrs Rikali Gurung has made a sweepings pit. Now let's hear about her experience. At first I didn't know this method and sweepings were Mrs Rikali Gurung thrown away anywhere. But compost made from sweepings is really well rotted and fertile. Our corn grew much better using this compost compared to any other compost. Before, all the dirt from the house and yard went to waste. Now, in 5 months we get 15-16 baskets of compost. At first I put it on the corn, and by the time this is harvested another load is ready for the wheat. There's even some left for the kitchen garden. In this way, waste resources are well used and the house and yard are kept clean. This gives many benefits, and I'm going to keep using this method each year.
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11
Subjects Related to Sweepings

Good benefits can be had from the information in this book about the sweepings pit. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters. Chapters on how to make various Nurseries Different types of plants need different types of management to grow them. Information on how to build and manage the home nursery, fruit nursery, air nursery, hot bed and leaf pots is given in these chapters. House Hygiene chapter Don't think that health improvement comes ony from eating good food. If the house and kitchen are dirty, even more diseases can spread. Information about easy techniques to keep the house clean are given in this chapter Kitchen Garden and Mixed Vegetable Growing How to make and manage a home vegetable garden for permanence, ease and simplicity ? Information on doing less work for more production while also being able to produce a wide range of fresh vegetables is given in these chapters.
Read On !
What is a
Pit Latrine ?
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 4 - Pit Latrine
Vishnu Maya Siris's temporary pit latrine, Surkhet
When eating, people will take in and digest any food nutrients they need, and what is left is pushed out of the body - this is called excrement, or faeces. The proper place to dispose of this is in a toilet or latrine. Without toilets, excreting in just any place can lead to many problems of health and pollution. This chapter gives information on how to solve these problems, and at the same time getting more benefits from the toilet.
Why
What if we don't make a latrine ?

make a Pit Latrine ?

Where's the toilet?
How
to make a Pit Latrine ?
Where to make the temporary pit latrine ?

The pit latrine should be made on the edge of a field or terrace. Also, you can select a spot according to wherever you want to plant a fruit tree.
the environment is dirty many types of disease can spread there's no use for this local resource so the resource is wasted self esteem and dignity is lost
To avoid these problems, and to turn our waste into benefits for minimum expense, we can build temporary pit latrines.
Materials needed to build a Pit Latrine

Straw or grass
Dried leaves
Temporary Pit Latrine - how to get more benefits from the toilet
A pit latrine made from your own local resources is called a temporary pit latrine. When the pit of one latrine is full another pit latrine is dug in another place. By doing this you can plant a useful and valuable fruit tree in the fertile pit. Mixing soil and leaf litter with the excrement and urine as it is made means that it quickly rots down to make good compost. These are free nutrients for the fruit tree. This Chapter's Author:
Straw matting or sacking
Wooden planks
Flat stones Thin sticks Crowbar
Mr Laxman Rana
Dahachaur 4, Surkhet, Nepal 2
Digging and cutting tools

Chapter 4 - Pit Latrine
String 3
1. Digging the Pit

Dig a pit 1-1.5 metres deep and a metre wide. Fill the pit half-full with straw or leaf litter. Don't think the work of digging the pit goes to waste, as you can plant a fruit tree in the pit after it is full.
Let's See
1
how to make a pit latrine
2. The frame and lid

There needs to be strong timber over the pit to support the frame and the weight of a person using the latrine. At right angles to this put smaller sticks, leaving a space for the toilet hole. Fill in all the gaps using sticks and soil. Using planks is best as they join tightly and be kept clean easily. If you can't get planks, then sticks and soil will do. Make a raised footstep either side of the hole. This keeps the feet from getting wet. Finally, make a lid which fits and covers the hole well, keeps flies out, and can be moved easily.
First dig a pit 1-1.5m deep and 1 metre wide
3. Covering around the latrine

To surround the latrine so no one can see inside, use straw matting, sacking, cut sticks such as wormwood or morning glory, or even maize stalks. This should include a doorway to make getting in and out easy.
Now your pit latrine is ready to use

4
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 4 - Pit Latrine
Fill the pit half full with straw or leaf litter

5
3
Now put large timber over the top Fill in the smallest spaces with straw and mud
Leaving a hole in the centre, fill in the gaps with other sticks or planks
ches 10 in
6 in che s
Cover the top with a thick layer of soil
Put in stakes and surround the latrine with local materials
Maintenance
How to Maintain the Pit Latrine
Things to consider when using the pit latrine

Each time you have used the latrine, cover your deposit with soil and/or leaf litter. From time to time add ash which improves the rotting of the excrement. Always keep the lid on the hole. Putting soil, leaf litter and ash on the excrement prevents flies settling. This also helps micro-organisms to rot down the excrement quicker. This makes nutrients ready for trees planted in the pit. When the pit is full the contents will settle so add an extra foot or 2 of soil on top. If soil, leaf litter, ash, etc. is well mixed as the pit is filled then a seedling can be planted straight away. If these materials aren't mixed in, it takes the excrement a long time to rot down. This is how, with good use of a latrine's waste, excrement can be turned into a useful resource. A permanent toilet can cost $200 to build. Can we afford this? For us farmers the temporary pit latrine is cheaper AND more useful than an expensive toilet !
Make a well fitting lid and stones or wood to put the feet on
*
8
After going to the toilet cover it with soil or vegetation
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 5, Krishnagar, Mrs Chavi Gurung has made a pit latrine for her own household. Now let's hear about her experience.
Mrs Chavi Gurung
Always keep the lid when the latrine is not in use When you come out from the latrine wash your hands well with soap or ash
There are lots of benefits from making a pit latrine. Waste is made useful, and the house and yard is kept clean. Before making the latrine, first I dug a Mrs Chavi Gurung round pit After digging the pit I put planks over the top. I left a hole in the top, and made a lid to fit exactly over the hole. This all stopped the latrine from smelling. After going to the toilet, soil and leaf litter are put in. When this pit is nearly full, we start digging a new pit latrine. On the full pit we add more soil and can plant a mango seedling straight away. I'll be planting another mango in the new one when it's ready. It takes about a year to fill one pit. Now others have seen how easy it is, and are starting to make the same type.
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11
Subjects Related to Pit Latrine

In this book benefits can be had from the information about the pit latrine. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
Pit Latrine chapter

House Hygiene chapter

Building a pit latrine is good for the health. But dangers to health can come from many different places. Information on where dangers come from, and how can we protect ourselves from them is given in this chapter.
Fruit Tree Planting chapter

After raising good seedlings in the fruit nursery, if they're not planted well, all the work can go to waste. Information on more productive planting is given in this chapter.
Read On !
What is
Compost ?
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 5 - Compost
Mrs Saraswati Adhikari and her improved compost heap, Begnas VDC, Kaski district, Nepal
All farmers have experience of making compost. They also know very well how much compost is needed for their plants. But if the compost used on the fields is not well rotted down, it can cause more problems of pests and disease, rather than benefits. Like carrying fodder from the forest and tending livestock, carrying the compost is hard work, but it should also give good production. But if the compost is poor quality all the work can be wasted and result in loss for the farmer. So this chapter gives information on easy methods to produce good quality compost.
Why

make Compost ?
How
to make Compost ?
Things to consider when making compost

it is possible to produce compost quickly compost should be well-rotted and crumbly unrotted compost can cause pests and disease for crops it's easier to carry well rotted compost more benefits can be gained from smaller amounts of well-rotted compost
To improve the method of compost making, first it's necessary to understand how compost is made and what things it needs to make it.
Materials needed to rot animal manure and plant materials (biomass) : things to decompose :- leaf litter, grass, animal manure, etc.; decomposing agent :- micro-organisms break down biomass,
manure, etc. These micro-organisms are present in rotted compost and fertile soil; moisture :- micro-organisms need the Quick rotting correct moisture to work; compost needs air :- micro-organisms also need air to good managework; ment of the mi right temperature :- it shouldn't be cro-organisms too hot.
Materials needed to build a Compost Heap

soil or well rotted compost unrotted manure, leaf litter, straw, etc. from the livestock sheds
small twigs or branches
poles 3
Chapter 5 - Compost
How to make Compost ?

1 When making a compost heap first put a layer of thin
From time to time move the pole from side to side to keep the hole open layer of soil or rotted compost layer of fresh manure, straw, leaf litter, etc.
sticks and branches on the ground
2 Then put a layer of the material to be rotted - manure
and biomass from the livestock pens, leaves, etc.
3 Then put a thin (2 inch) layer of soil or fine, well
rotted compost. This layer should completely cover the one beneath so you can't see it. layer of thin sticks or branches
If there is a tradition of removing all the manure from the

livestock pens at once, just burying the poles without making layers will still improve the compost. Now bury a pole up4 removing it, continue On each 12-15inch right in the heap, and without to add layers as before. layer of manure, biomass, etc., add a thin layer of soil or compost. By doing this, the numbers of micro-organisms in the compost will increase. Then, they can decompose the manure and biomass quickly. There are most micro-organisms in the soil and rotted compost, so this does the same work as "seed" to help make more micro-organisms to rot the compost. The thin branches and the pole allow air into the heap.
Chapter 5 - Compost
Let's See
1
how to make Compost
Remove the pole to test the heap
4
oldest compost
3 month old compost newly made compost
If there's too little water in the heap a white fungus can be seen
fungus fungus
Compost made in separate heaps, with poles Shaking the pole from time to time quickly rots the compost
5
new compost heap This well rotted compost heap is being removed
Chapter 5 - Compost
Maintenance
How to maintain the Compost
If there is a bad small from the heap, and lots of flies, add
more straw or leaf litter. This can also be due to lack of micro-organisms and without them, the manure etc. will not rot down well. For this, add more soil or well rotted compost to increase micro-organisms.
In many villages there is a shortage of water. However, from time to time it's good to put waste washing up water down the holes in the compost heap.
When all these needs are met, compost will rot quickly, and you will have better compost to go onto the fields
If you can't make a heap with layers and it is all stacked in one place, you don't have to do anything else but make holes in the heap with the poles. Move these sticks around from time to time. Just doing this will improve the compost. Spreading compost on the fields
Symptoms of poorly rotting compost

If there is anything lacking in management of the compost heap, it will rot slowly or badly. But how to recognise what is wrong ?
If there is white fungus on the pole when taken out, perhaps there is not enough water in the heap. Pouring a little water from time to time will solve this problem.
If your hand is burned when you bury it in the heap, this is

a bad sign. Too much heat will also kill the micro-organisms. This will slow the decomposition process. This is probably due to not enough air circulation. Make more holes in the heap to solve this.
After taking compost to the fields, plough it in quickly, or the sun will dry it and reduce its quality 8
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 5 - Compost
Production
vegetables
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 3, Ratadada village, and a member of "Hariyali" women's group, Mrs Sita Bucha Magar has made improved compost. Now let's hear about her experience.
Mrs Sita Bucha Magar
Inputs and Outputs of Compost Making
the fields
orchard
grain
kitchen garden
fruit
forest
In 1994 I learned how to improve my compost from the Homestead Programme (JPP). Before this we would put out just partially rotted compost. We had a Mrs Sita Bucha Magar habit of heaping compost anywhere to rot. Now we make it with a pole for a chimney, and it rots much more quickly. Mixed grass, leaves and manure are stacked in layers with soil or old compost, and the pole buried in. It's an easy method. Before this the compost would be wet and sticky but now it's much better. It's more crumbly, and is also easier to carry, and to spread out on the fields. Now we always make compost like this. Twice a year we carry it to the fields. It's easy to make compost like this, you don't have to work hard. And because it's easy to do, it's easy to learn and to teach others as well. That's why there are many farmers using this method in the village nowadays.
leaf litter
water
small sticks & branches
fodder
Inputs
water
soil or well rotted compost
manure
air
10
Chapter 5 - Compost
11
Subjects Related to Compost

Soil Conservation and Improvement Chapter
What is soil? What does good soil need? What damages the soil? What methods are there to protect and improve soil? The answers to all these questions, and more information on soil, are given in this chapter.
Livestock Management Chapter

Livestock can be healthy and give good production from nutritious fodder grown close to the home. Information on this and other simple methods to manage livestock through health, diet, hygiene and breeding are given in this chapter
Agroforestry Chapter
Trees planted on the land produce many products to make compost for the soil, but you can't plant them anywhere. In this chapter, information is given about how to plant trees on farmland without decreasing farm productivity.
Read On !
What is
Mulching ?
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 6 - Mulching
Purna Bahadur Nepali's mulch bed
We farmers have to work hard for food to eat and clothes to wear. But when we can produce enough from this work, then we can live well. For farmers, the foundation of our wealth is the soil. If soil is washed away or becomes poor, how can we grow food to eat ? We farmers, who work and play with the soil, must also learn to love the soil. One method of loving, caring for and respecting the soil is called mulching. Mulching is a method of using cut leaves, straw, leaf litter etc. to cover the bare soil while still farming and growing crops on it.
Why
do Mulching ?
How
to do Mulching ?
Water Air Mulch
Sun
The main objective of mulching is to keep the soil covered while farming it. There are many types of mulch but they all share this objective. Mulch is usually made from biomass (leaves, straw, etc.) but where spare vegetation is uncommon, stones covering the soil have the same benefit.
There are 2 main types of mulching :-
Mulch
1. Temporary mulch 2. Permanent mulch 1. Temporary Mulch
Fresh green or dry leaves, any straw, stones, cardboard, etc. are all useful to use as mulch
Micro-organisms
There are various problems if soil is left bare. Rain will wash soil away, and the sun will dry it out. Wind will dry out and blow away the soil. The beneficial organisms living in the top soil will also be lost. All these reasons cause soil loss and damage, and to remake the fertility in the soil then takes extra work. So mulching is an important technique to prevent these problems happening from the start. 2
With temporary mulching, the ground is kept covered for some time only. Mulch made of green or dried leaf litter, straw, etc. can be put on the soil during the fallow period, or mixed with compost and ploughed in. After crops have been planted they can also be mulched. Potatoes, garlic, onions and various vegetables benefit from a mulch after planting. The mulch will rot as the crops ripen. Mix the mulch with the soil by ploughing or digging in, after the crop has been harvested.
Chapter 6 - Mulching
2. Permanent Mulch
For a permanent mulch, layers of well rotted compost, semi decomposed biomass, and a thick layer of fresh biomass are put on the soil, and seed and seedlings planted into this. In this method, after establishment new mulch (green biomass) is added only twice a year, and the soil never needs to be dug.
On top of this put 6 inches of fresh, green biomass e.g.

from weeding the field or trimming the hedge. Soak with water again. Now we can plant in the mulch bed b. Planting Seed and Seedlings
Making a Permanent Mulch

a. Preparing the mulch
Using a sharp stick make a hole down through the mulch

until the ground is reached. Move the stick to make the hole larger. Fill the hole half full with fertile soil. In this soil, plant seed or seedlings. Water the seedlings well.
If necessary, dig or plough the soil one last time. If the soil
is soft and fertile, this should not be necessary. Cover the soil with a thin layer of well rotted compost. On top of this put a 6 inch layer of dried or semi decomposed biomass, such as straw, leaf litter, etc. After putting down each layer soak with water if possible.
In the kitchen garden, a wormwood mulch makes good compost and also helps to repel pest insects
seedling
stones
seedling seedling
broadleaf mustard mulch

stones
Where there is no spare vegetation, stones can be used to mulch around apple seedlings 4
Best time to mulch

At the start of the rainy season the soil becomes wet and often heats up, causing the soil to let off steam. If a thick mulch is applied at this time the soil cannot breath properly and steam cannot escape. This can cause many types of pest and disease to occur. But if the mulch is put down and well watered 2-3 months before the rainy season, the soil and the mulch become balanced and these problems do not occur. The best time to start a mulch is near the end of the rainy season. By this time the steam in the earth has escaped but there is still moisture in the soil to help the mulch break down into the soil. This moisture will be conserved by the mulch, and be usefull for the crops for many weeks or even months.
Let's See
rotted compost
How to do mulching
half rotted biomass
green biomass
Materials needed for mulching
2 3
An inside view of a mulch bed

thickest layer of seedling planted green biomass in hole
seedling
thick layer of semi-rotted/ dry biomass 6
thin layer of rotted compost
hole is half filled with soil
hole made
Then spread a 6 inch layer of semi rotted biomass

First spread well rotted compost on the soil

7
4
Then, spread an even thicker layer of green biomass on top Half fill the hole with fertile soil.
Now the mulch is ready and can be planted
5n ;pf f
Then, seed or seedlings can be planted in the soil.
8 9
To plant, first make a hole down to the ground level.
:fn opf
Seedlings planted in a triangle. This saves space.

When seedlings are planted in a triangular pattern more seedlings can be planted in a smaller space
10
Maintenance
How to maintain the mulch
Maintenance of the Mulch water as necessary put on new green biomass about twice a year plant companion plants like lemon grass, comfrey, marigold, basil, wormwood, etc. around the bed having agroforestry or edge trees nearby makes it quicker to cut the new mulch mulch cut from the agroforestry
11
At first the bed should be well soaked with water
mulch cut from the outside
12
mulch cut from the edge of the bed
After 6 weeks the vegetables in the mulch bed are growing well
10
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 6 - Mulching
water 11
The Benefits of Mulching

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Mulching stops the sun drying out the soil; Mulching keeps the moisture in the soil so reduces the need to irrigate; Mulching improves as well as protects the soil; Mulching prevents weeds growing so reduces the need to weed; Mulching keeps a balanced temperature in the soil. "Balanced" means not too hot nor too cold, and regular. This is good for plants' roots; Mulching helps to prevent spread of pests and diseases. If water splashes on the soil, it can carry naturally occuring diseases in the soil onto the underside of leaves, where the diseases can cause damage; Mulching feeds and protects the organisms in the soil (earthworms, bacteria, etc.); Mulching also fertilises the soil; Mulching prevents root crops such as potatoes, radishes, etc. from turning green;
11. Mulching reduces the need to dig and plough; 12. Mulching works with the principles of nature and ecology; 13. Mulching is beneficial for later crops in a rotation; 14. Mulching saves time because digging, weeding and irrigation are reduced or not needed.
See the comparison between mulched and un-mulched farming
6.
7. 8. 9.
10. Mulching makes use of waste resources such as banana leaves, uprooted weeds, etc. by recycling them; 12
How is the How is the unmulched corn ? mulched corn ?

13
Farmers' Experience
Fertile Soil
Mr Purna Bahadur Nepali
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 4, and member of "Samaj Mukti" farmers' group MrPurna Bahadur Nepali has made mulch beds. Now let's hear about his experience.
1 Farmer brothers and sisters, lets make fertile soil, Let's keep green, Mother Nature's bare soil, Ha hey, Mother Nature's, Mother Nature's, Mother Nature's soil green 2 On the terraces the rice drips golden, On the bunds green fruit trees fruiting, Ha hey, fruit trees fruiting, fruit trees fruiting, Fruit trees fruiting, 3 Farmers are happy gathering the crops to fill stores, Relaxing in the homestead, if they left, where would they go, Ha hey, farmers, if they left, where would they go, if they left, where would they go? If they left, where would they go? 4 Farmers work in the fields, sweating from their brows, Without work, who will feed them, what will go to their stomachs? Ha hey, farmers, what will go to their stomachs, what will go to their stomachs? What will go to their stomachs?
Written by Krishna Panday
I learned mulching from the Homestead programme (Jajarkot Permaculture Programme, JPP). For vegetable Purna Bahadur Nepali gardening mulching is a really good method, and very easy. All the waste straw, weeds, leaves, sweepings, etc. are used on it. You don't have to do much weeding, the crops need less watering, and the soil becomes more fertile. Before starting I gave the field a good plough and then put down rotted compost. On the compost I put the mulch and made holes into it . I half filled the holes with fertile soil, planted the vegetables and watered well. Because I mixed many species of vegetable there were also less pest and disease problems. Whenever anyone has come come to see, I've been teaching them this method. 14
See how well the potatoes grow under the mulch
15
Subjects Related to Mulching

Mulching chapter

Mixed Vegetable Fruit Tree Planting Kitchen Garden Gardening chapter chapter chapter After planting fruit trees various companion plants can be planted around the base. Mulching is also useful. How these, and other techniques, give more benefits is explained in this chapter. Grow various types of vegetables with less weeding, watering and other work, and harvest from 3 weeks to 6 months after planting. Information on this easy technique is given in this chapter
Mulching is very useful in successful vegetable gardening. Information about this and other easy methods to home-produce healthy vegetable at low cost is given in this chapter
Read On !
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 7 - Double Digging
Double Digging ?
Beds made by double digging, AAA farm, Bhaktapur, Nepal Double digging is a method of deep digging for vegetable beds. It means we dig twice as deep than normal cultivation. This is so we can mix compost and biomass deeper into the soil, so plant roots grow deeper and can get more nutrients. In these beds production is much higher, and though there's more work at the beginning, the beds stay fertile for a long time, and we don't have to dig again for many years. Now let's learn about this method of how to work once to get good production for many years.
Why

do Double Digging ?
How
to do Double Digging ?
Benefits of Double Digging

makes the soil more fertile makes the soil able to absorb more water allows more air into the soil keeps the soil fertile for a long time allows plant roots to grow deeper into the soil keeps the soil light and soft for a long time dig once then do not have to dig again for 3-4 years Shown here are double dug beds with mixed vegetable crops in Bhaktapur district, Nepal.
With double digging at first there is more labour, but this can give up to 4 times the production of normal digging, so there is a good return on labour. Also, you don't have to dig again for 3-4 years afterwards. If double dug beds are mulched well and regularly, they may never have to be dug again. More information about this method is given in the chapter called Mulching.
Where to do Double Digging ?

where the soil is poor or shallow where roots can't grow deep in vegetable growing beds in very stony soil
Materials Needed for Double Digging

crow bar Digging tools Seed and seedlings pick axe
Basket This Chapter's Author: green biomass
Oil seed cake
Mr Laxman Rana
semi-decomposed well rotted compost biomas 3
Chapter 7 - Double Digging
When to do Double Digging ?

Beds can be dug any time. If you have a rainy season, near the end of this is best as there's still plenty of moisture in the ground and plenty of biomass available.
2. Filling in the bed After digging the soil, it is replaced in layers with biomass.
First put a 6 inch layer of green biomass on top of the

lower layer of dug soil.
How to make beds with Double Digging

1. Digging out the Beds
Then on top of this put a 3-4 inch layer of soil. Then put in a 6 inch layer of semi-decomposed biomass. Then put in another 3-4 inch layer of soil. Then put in a thin (2 inch) layer of well rotted compost. Finally, put all the remaining soil back on top, mixed with
well rotted compost, and raked to a fine bed. Mixing ash, oil seed cake, hair, bonemeal, etc. in with the layers of soil will increase the fertility even more. Because all this compost is mixed into the deep layers of soil, it will give nutrients to the plant roots for a long time. The method of planting seeds and seedlings in a double dug bed is continued on page 12.
Beds are 4 feet wide, and can be as long as you need

in the space that you have available.
First dig out 6-12 inches of soil and keep on the side
(the deeper the soil, the deeper you can dig).
Then dig the same depth again with the crow bar or
pick axe, but don't remove the soil, just leave it in the bed.
Vegetables planted in beds which are 4 feet wide
Cross Section through a Double Dug Bed

vegetable seedlings mulch comfrey lemon grass
Let's See
semi-rotted biomass rotted compost
How to do Double Digging
Materials needed for mattock Double Digging
green biomass
fertile soil
6-12 inches deep
rotted compost soil semi-rotted biomass soil green biomass
pick axe pick axe
6-12 inches deep
dug and softened soil
bed 4 feet wide 6

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 7 - Double Digging
Dig out 6-12 inches of soil and keep to the side

7
Use a pick axe or crow bar to dig another 6-12 inches, without removing the soil
Then put 6 in a inch layer of semi-rotted biomass
Then fill in. First put in 6 inches of green biomass, and cover with soil
Then another 3-4 inch layer of soil
Then add a 3-4 inch layer of soil
Then put in a 2 inch layer of well rotted compost

In the fertile soil of a double dug bed, plants are healthy and can protect themselves from many pests and diseases. In the bed, plant vegetables with a variety of colour, leaf shape and texture, and scent to protect against insect pests.
Finally, on top replace the remaining soil mixed with compost Then vegetable seeds and seedlings can be planted
After planting and sowing, add a light mulch to cover the soil
10
11
..... continued from page 5 3. Planting Seeds and Seedlings On the raised bed after the top soil has been raked fine, any type of seed or seedlings can be sown or planted. Water well after planting. Then add mulch, taking care to cover the soil but not the seedlings. Adding the mulch protects the soil from rain, wind and sun, and conserves moisture for a long time. The double dug bed is now complete. Apart from growing vegetables, this can also be used as a fruit nursery or for planting other types of crops.
Double digging can give 4 times the production of normal beds. The beds don't need to be dug again for 3-4 years
In Bhaktapur district, in the Kathmandu valley of Nepal, there are many farmers who practice double digging and earn good cash from selling vegetables in the nearby city 12
13
Maintenance
How to maintain Double Digging
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Bhaktapur district, Dadhikot - 4, Mrs Sarda Khadka and Mr Arjun Jangam have experience in double digging working at AAA farm. Now let's hear their story.
Mrs Sarda Khadka and Mr Arjun Jangam
On double dug beds, irrigation and weeding should be done as required. The more dense the vegetable seedlings and the mulch are, the less weeding needs to be done, and the more moisture remains in the soil. The chapters called Mulching and Mixed Vegetable Gardening give more information about this. Beds that are well dug and well composted don't need digging for 3-4 years. But if new mulch is added thickly twice each year, and compost or liquid manure added from time to time, then it is possible never to have to dig again. If we think about our work we can make many jobs easier and more productive. Let's use this method to make the soil more fertile and increase yield !
Sarda Khadka and Arjun Jangam
We started learning the double dig method in 1994. Beds are made by digging the soil 2 feet deep, and as long as you need. The soil is arranged in layers mixed with leaf litter and compost. We also added ash and oil seed cake to the layers of soil. In the double dug beds, we haven't had to dig again or add compost for at least 3 years, often more. The green biomass rots slowly and vegetables grow really well. We dig most of our own beds this way, and we also give training to farmers in the local villages. Then together we have a cooperative to sell the vegetables in the Kathmandu markets. Buyers say that vegetables produced in this way are also more nutritious and tasty.
14
15
Subjects Related to Double Digging

Integrated Pest Management chapter Farm production is reduced by many types of insect, disease, weed, etc. In this chapter information is given about using local resources to prevent these pests Fruit Nursery chapter In this chapter information is given about how to make a nursery for grafting or budding local fruit varieties Mulching chapter Mulch keeps the soil covered, keeps weeds down and conserves water. Information on how to mulch the soil is given in this chapter
Vegetable production, Kitchen Garden and Mixed Vegetable Growing chapters How to make and manage a home vegetable garden for permanence, ease and simplicity ? Information about how to produce many types of fresh vegetables with less work is given in these 2 chapters
Read On !
What is
Seed Saving ?
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 8 - Seed Saving
Farmers need to have many skills to manage both the soil and the homestead. Out of those skills, seed saving is probably one of the most important. By giving more attention to seed saving, farmers can improve the quality of their seed each year. This can then improve crop production. This can be done without having to increase inputs of fertiMrs Devi Khatri's Cauliflower lizer, irrigation or cultivation. So with a little extra care in seed production, farmers can easily increase their farm production. Although this chapter mainly uses examples of vegetable seed production, the principles it describes are relevant to any species whose seed we want to save.
Why
do Seed Saving ?
How
to do Seed Saving ?
Many farmers have problems of either losing or not being able to acquire good, pure seeds. It's important to keep local, traditional varieties of pure and good quality. Also, there may be a need to breed and increase new open pollinated species or varieties. To guarantee good quality seed, good methods are needed. But the main benefit of saving seed yourself is that you can stand on your own feet and be more self-reliant.
Things to pay attention to in seed saving

1 Choose healthy and disease-free plants to save seed from. 2 Select plants according to the qualities or characteristics you need. For example :-
Function Qualities or characteristics needed

Timber straight stems, strong, long lasting, etc dense foliage, nutritious, etc. tasty, disease & drought resistant, etc. bitter, strong, stores well, etc
Why save seed yourself, on your own land? so the seed required is available at
the right time; to save the cost of buying seed; to trust that the species or variety of seed is the one you need; to produce seed that is adapted to the local climate, soil, etc.; to increase income from local resources, and to improve local varieties and conserve bio-diversity.
Fodder Vegetables Medicine
3 Seed producing plants are adapted to the local climate. 4 Select seeds from as many plants of one variety as possible. Save from at least 10 plants, in order to maintain genetic diversity and strength. 5 Once a plant has been identified to save seed, don't pick its leaves, flowers, etc. But if any part is damaged or diseased, these should be removed and discarded.
Chapter 8 - Seed Saving
6 Select plants for seed saving as early as possible, and label them. 7 Give extra care to plants selected for seed saving. Provide water, nutrients, weed control, pest control, etc. according to the needs of the plant. Compost, liquid manure, ash, oil seed cake etc. can be used for this. 8 As plants mature they may fall over, so staking may be necessary.
RADISH
10 Different species which cross pollinate should not be allowed to flower at the same time. It is possible that some species will cross, so they should not flower in the same place, at the same time. To prevent cross pollination one of the following 2 methods should be used: a. Plants that cross should be far apart, so that insects or wind will not be able to cross pollinate; b. Plants which cross should be planted to flower at different times. For example, if a cauliflower grown for seed flowers in July, a cabbage also for seed should flower in August. This way the flowering time will be separate, and there is no danger of crossing.
9 Only allow the best plants to flower. For any variety, poorer plants should not be allowed to flower so they don't mix with the good plants, which will lower the quality of the seed. Leaving the plants for seed saving, all others should be pulled and eaten, composted or mulched before flowering.
Species which will cross pollinate

The species in the following families will cross pollinate Cauliflower family :cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, sprout, kale, kohl rabi all cross. Turnip family : turnip, chinese cabbage and chinese mustard all cross. Chard family : red and green chard will cross. Pepper family : chilli and sweet peppers will cross. Pumpkin family : zucchini, dwarf and climbing pumpkins will cross.
When attention is paid to all these points, good quality, pure seed can be produced. But if any one is ignored, then the quality of the seed cannot be guaranteed and the work and time can be wasted.
Let's See
1
good seed to save
How to do Seed Saving

On the left side the good seeds are all similar. On the right the rejected seeds are different colour, shape and size
See how many types of bean in a handful !
bad seed to reject bad seed to reject
pumpkin
climbing bean velvet bean
Different types of maize selected for seed
The best plants for seed are selected early and labelled
Select only the best plants for seed production. Here, cauliflower is shown with Man Bahadur
3
Seed producing plants should be given maximum care and attention. Here, Khamba Prasad has built a roof to protect his seed cauliflower from hail and frost Mrs Tulisara Gyami is picking the damaged leaves off her red Swiss Chard, grown for seed
Radish seed collected Ripe radish seed pods seen close-up
When put in water, any dead seeds will float on the top. These can be thrown away, leaving just the good seeds
Maintenance
What to do after Producing Seed
Things to consider when picking and storing seeds

Only pick seeds or pods when they are ripe. Only collect good seed or pods. Reject any seeds different in size, shape or colour from the average good seed. Dry the seeds well. Usually seeds are dried in the sun. Some types, like lemon, orange, etc. should be dried in the shade, for example above the fireplace.
The seeds are dried well in the sun
9 10
If seed is sun dried, be sure to allow them to cool before packing. If possible, pack seed in an airtight container, and try to fill the container full, without leaving excess air space. Add ash or baked rice, which help to keep seed dry. Put fresh, cool ash or baked rice in the bottom of the container. This absorbs water in the air, which helps to keep the seed dry. This can be placed on top of seed also (see drawing, page 12).
After drying, good storage is essential

10
11
Seed should be stored in a cool, dry, dark place. It is very important to protect seed from disease, insects and fungus. There are many local herbal remedies for doing this, for example mixing ash, powdered neem leaves, neem oil, powdered oil seed cake or wormwood. Another method is to store seeds of different sizes mixed together, such as wheat and mustard, or corn and millet, This is a traditional practice in many places. Check the seed regularly for pest damage. From time to time take the seed out and dry in the sun, or add fresh herbs.
Glass or plastic jar

tight fitting lid to stop air top layer of baked, cooled rice to fill the container stored radish seed
Farmers' Wealth Biodiversity various types of rice seed shown in an exhibition
Seed store made from traditional wisdom and local resources, Southern Nepal
paper
bottom layer of fresh, cooled ash 12
paper
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 8 - Seed Saving
13
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 3, Ratadada village, and a member of "Hariyali" women's group, Mrs Pavisara Shris has produced and saved her own seed. Now let's hear about her experience.
Mrs Pavisara Shris
Read On !
Subjects Related to Seed Saving
This book provides enough information to be able to save much of your own seed. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
Fruit Nursery chapter
Mixed Vegetable Gardening chapter
14
I first learned seed saving from the Homestead Mrs Pavisara Shris Programme (JPP). Even after saving seed for myself I have been able to sell a surplus for a few hundred rupees, which has been useful. It's no trouble to save seed. We always saved corn, wheat, mustard beans and the like anyway. And it's easy to learn more. I saved potato seed and after I kept what I needed, made 200 rupees. Timing is important, and not eating the seed, and you can save for ever. Now I've saved 40-day radish, tomato, lettuce, coriander, fenugreek and peas. I keep the seed plants separate, look after them well, and keep them labelled. Now I'll always save my own seeds, and want to learn how to save more varieties, and to teach others how to do it.
Kitchen Garden chapter
Agroforestry chapter
Seed Saving chapter
15
Related Subjects
Good seed is essential for successful vegetable gardening. Information about this, and other easy methods to home-produce healthy vegetables at low cost, is given in this chapter
When planning agroforestry seed production and collection are very important. Information about the importance and methods of agroforestry to increase production from less land is given in this chapter

In this chapter information is given about how to make a nursery for grafting or budding local fruit varieties

Grow various types of vegetables with less weeding, watering and other work, and harvest from 3 weeks to 6 months after planting. Information on this easy technique is given in this chapter
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 9 - Integrated Pest Management
Integrated Pest Management ?

The spider and its web helps to control lots of harmful insects
Farmers are always concerned about their crops. After the hard work of farming, it's their worst nightmare to lose them again. There are many creatures which can badly harm crop production. A creature which does this is called a pest. Bacteria, insects, fungi, birds, rats, weeds, etc. can all be harmful. Preventing, reducing or curing the harmful effects of pests can be done by management of the pest or the crop and its environment. To do this in a sustainable way often means using a range of methods together to prevent and control pests. Because these methods are all linked, the term Integrated Management of the pest is used. So this chapter gives information about Integrated Pest Management.
Why
do integrated pest management?

I have a right to clean and healthy food
Nowadays there is much use of poisonous chemicals to kill and control agricultural pests. But this has many harmful effects. For example :-
poisons used can remain in the environment for many

years, continuing to harm soil, water, vegetation and animals.
to get healthy food to reduce farm production
costs to increase production to protect the environment to reduce the need of harmful chemicals to prevent pests becoming resistant Poisonous chemito chemicals cals for pest to make sustainable farming systems control are often banned, but not in poor countries
Poisons used on fruit, vegetables, etc. can be eaten by

people. This can cause many diseases, genetic problems, and cause babies to be born handicapped.
Farmers often don't know how to use the poisons correctly, which results in them being affected by the poisons. This causes over 400,000 people to die each year in the world.
Poisons are used for protection of crops from harmful

pests, but often this also kills beneficial plants and animals which are helpful in controlling pests, building soil or pollinating plants.
Continuous use of chemical poisons can cause pests to

develop resistance to the chemicals. These resistant varieties will breed, and to kill them chemicals need to become stronger, or different types need to be used. This will increase the numbers and strength of chemicals used, and encourages dependency. Integrated pest management methods are important as the solution to this problem, and to the other problems mentioned above. 3 Chapter 9 - Integrated Pest Management
This Chapter's Author :

Chris Evans, advisor, Himalayan Permaculture Group, Nepal www.designedvisions.com 2 The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1"
How
to do integrated pest management ?
1. & 2. Healthy Soil and Healthy Plants Just like people are healthy with a nutritious and balanced
diet, the soil is also healthy with plenty of organic matter, nutrients, micro-organisms, etc. It then supports healthy plants, which can resist disease.
Integrated pest management can be divided into 2 main areas. Firstly, (a) how to prevent damage from pests, and secondly, (b) how to control or cure pest damage once it has already started to occur. In this chapter we start to look at group (a) on this page, while methods for group (b) start on page 16. Various techniques are described below. In integrated management one method may not be enough to stop a pest, so it is important to use as many methods as possible.
Unrotted compost can cause pests

and diseases in the soil, so always use well rotted compost.
Water is essential for the soil and

plants. Having the right amount of water at the right time helps plants to grow, stay healthy and resist pests and disease.
(a) How to Prevent Pests ?

Need 1. Healthy Soil Methods used compost, mulch, irrigation, rotations, green manures, etc.
Crops attract certain types of pest and disease. Always

planting the same crops in the same place causes those pests to increase and damage the crops. This is why crop rotations are beneficial. For example, potatoes and their relatives - tomato, aubergine, sweet pepper, etc. shouldn't be planted in sequence on the same piece of land for up to 2 years. The rotation helps to break the pest and disease cycle so they will not harm the next crop. After crops that attract many diseases are harvested, such as potatoes and other vegetables, planting onions or garlic for a season helps to clean the soil of the many pests and diseases attracted by the previous crop.
2. Healthy plants compost, irrigation, weeding, species selection, green manures, etc. 3. Fencing 4. Diversity 5. Companion Planting living fences mixed cropping and rotations mix aromatic/smelly plants e.g. coriander, fennel, marigold, lemon grass, basil, onion, garlic etc.
6. Decoy planting providing alternative plants for pests to attack 7. Helping pest predators 4 providing habitat and food for beneficial pest predators
8. *= Repelling pests liquid manure, herbal controls

Chapter 9 - Integrated Pest Management
3. Fencing
Without a fence, many types of pest can get on to the land and damage crops. So a fence is very important. The most beneficial type of fence is a living or green fence, or hedge. This is not just a barrier, but can give other benefits as well. For example, a barrier of lemon grass around the vegetable bed will help to protect against weeds and other pests, and also can be cut as mulch to put on the bed. Similarly, carrot is affected by a root eating insect - the carrot root fly - which flies at about knee height. So a barrier of plants that are at least knee high around the carrot bed can help to protect against this pest, and give other benefits such as food, mulch, nectar, etc.
4. Diversity
Continuous monoculture planting of the same crop will always suffer more from pest attack. For example, if only cauliflower is planted, a fungus or insect which feeds on cauliflower can destroy the whole crop in a very short time, and is difficult to control. This why it's good to plant a variety of crops together, called mixed cropping. It's possible to plant many types of vegetable in the kitchen garden. For example, cauliflower, Swiss chard, radish, carrot, peas, broad bean, lettuce, turnip, coriander, fennel, dill, kohl rabi, spinach etc. can all be planted together. If any one of these is attacked by a pest, there are all the others that will still give production. The chapter Mixed Vegetable Gardening gives detailed information on this technique.
garlic garlic red red mustard mustard
radish radish lettuce
green green mustard mustard Oy ! those vegetables look tasty, but how can we get to them ? 6
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 9 - Integrated Pest Management
coriander coriander
5. Companion Planting
Plants give each other various types of support. For example, the scent of garlic helps repel many types of pest. Marigold gives a chemical from its roots which helps to repel soil nematodes which otherwise eat plant roots. The flowers of marigold also give a strong smell which help to repel insect pests. Some insects recognise the smell of the plants they eat, so strong smelling repellent plants help to protect these vegetables. Legumes such as peas and beans help to provide extra nitrogen to other plants. Mixing these plants with grains, vegatables, fruits or any type of crop to help protect them is called companion planting. Marigold, mint, basil, lemon grass, wormwood, garlic, onion, coriander, fennel, dill, nasturtium, tansy, etc. are all companion plants and it is beneficial to mix them with and around other crops.
Let's See
How to do Integrated Pest Management

The fence around a kitchen garden can be made of local resources.
Home made pens to keep chickens in the right place. These can be moved around.
In fertile soil, plants are healthy and can resist many pests and diseases themselves. continued on p.13 8
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 9 - Integrated Pest Management
Red coloured vegetables have less pests
Surya Adhikari from Begnas, Nepal, brought a nest of red ants from the forest and hung it in his orange tree. These ants protect the oranges from any type of pest
A variety of colour, leaf texture and scent help to protect vegetables from insect pests
The tree is protected for free, and the ants also get free meals !
Marigolds planted around the vegetable bed help to protect against some harmful insect pests 10
The smell of liquid manure on the vegetables helps prevent and repel pests
This hoverfly visits coriander and similar aromatic plants for nectar, and lays its eggs inside harmful catepillars, which kills them.
11
kite
praying mantis
6. Attracting Predator Insects and Animals

Ninety five percent of insects are useful, and only five percent cause damage to crops. There are many insects and other animals which will attack harmful pests. These are called predator insects or animals. Predator animals are farmers' friends. The more they are present on farms, the more they can help controlling pests.
mayfly
ladybird
These are all farmers' friends which eat harmful pests. For their important help, they don't need wages, just food and good places to live is enough !
hoverfly
lizard
frog spider
12
How to help predator animals ? If there is the right habitat, they will arrive and stay themselves. Their food are the pests on the crops. Many types of predator insects feed on nectar from flowers. They like flowers of marigold, fennel, dill, coriander, basil, carrot, etc. If these are planted mixed with the crops, or in the fence, the predators will come themselves and do their work. Also, if leaf litter and weeds are piled on the edge of the cropland or beds, many predators use this as habitat. Also rocks perch and stones are good habitat for lizards, which eat insects. Frogs also eat lots of insects. Frogs like ponds to live and breed in. Bats also eat insects. By weeds providing a perch to sit on, birds of prey can catch rats living and feeding in the crops. flowers leaf litter water rocks Chapter 9 - Integrated Pest Management 13
7. Decoy Planting
Harmful insect pests will eat other plants as well as the crops farmers plant. So if these are added to fences around the crops, or even mixed in with the plants, these will be attacked instead of the crops. This is called decoy planting. For example, an insect that attacks cotton plants also eats the castor oil plant. So by planting castor around the cotton plants, the cotton can be saved. Like this, nettles will attract caterpillars, which prevent them eating vegetable crops. nettle castor
Experience from the Philippines

Mr Sesinando Masajo farms 28 hectares of rice paddy in the Philippines. Before 1973 he used lots of chemicals on his rice. He would apply chemicals 5-6 Sesinando Masajo times on each crop. But he observed that the rice was suffering from more and more pests. Because the pests were in different stages of their life cycle, it became very difficult to control them with chemicals. He thought that the poisons were also killing the beneficial predator insects, and so the pests were able to increase in numbers. After 1973, Mr Masajo stopped using poisons, and he saw that his rice production started to increase. At that time he was getting 5.2 tonnes per hectare rice production. In 1993, that had increased to 9.6 tonnes. Mr Masajo has now taught these methods to his neighbours. Because of this, by 1996 there were 550 local farmers who had stopped using poisons. All these farmers experienced an increase in rice yield, and at the same time they found the quality of the grain had also improved. Women farmers from Nepal visit farmers in Indonesia to see and learn about integrated pest control in rice
8. Liquid Medicine
Wormwood, neem, persian lilac, chilli, garlic, onion skins, marigold leaves, cow dung, ash, oil seed cake, khirro, Adhatura vasica and tobacco are examples of plants which can be used to make a medicine which repels pests and also acts as a fertilizer. Information on how to make this is given in the Liquid Manure chapter. Adhatoda chilli vasica neem or Persian lilac marigold wormwood garlic 14 Artemisia indica Wrightia arborea
15
(b) What to do once pests start to attack ?

It may be that even after using all the techniques given above, pests still attack the crops. Below are examples of methods used after problems have started :-
Appropriate Agricultural Alternatives (AAA) farm from Bhaktapur District in Nepal have the following experience :
Make a strong tea from ground mint leaves

and spray on brassicas to repel butterflies, which produce harmful catepillars.
Liquid Pest Repellent (see page 14) Cow's Urine :- mix one part fresh cow's urine
with 3 parts water and spray to control various insect pests.
Mix together 1 kg oil seed cake, 5 kg wood

ash and 1 kg mint leaves and soak the soil to a 2 inch depth. This helps to control stem cutting insects.
Neem Oil :- mix one part neem oil with 3 parts

water to make a strong pest repellent. Add soap to help the neem to stick to leaves. Kerosene can also be added.
Grind 250g of wild basil and mix with 1 litre

of water and boil to reduce the liquid . Spray this to repel leaf eating pests.
Wood Ash :- adding ash to the soil surface

helps to protect against many insects, and also provides fertilizer.
When stem borers have attacked and made

holes in fruit trees, use wire or a needle to push cotton wool soaked with kerosene into the hole to kill them.
Oil Seed Cake :- mix one part oil seed cake with
3 parts soil to protect against red ants.
Tobacco Juice :- boil a handful of tobacco leaves

in 2 litres of water like making tea. Sieve, and spray the tea onto the pest, which will kill them. Only spray when there are not any beneficial insects on the plants, otherwise they will also be killed. Beware: tobacco juice is very poisonous ! The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" 16
Healthy and protected vegetable beds at AAA Farm
17
From Kavre District in Nepal, INSAN'S Model Farmer Mrs Jipmaya Tamang has this experience : Take equal quantities of wormwood,
Adhatoda vasica and nettle, soak in cow's urine and spray on plants every other day. For small plants, dilute with 10 parts of water and spray. For large plants, dilute with 6 parts water. This protects plants against sucking and eating insects.
Farmers' Experience
Mr Ramesh Khadka
Mix 1 part chilli pepper, 2 parts kerosene and 10 parts wood ash and apply on the soil. This protects against red ants and other insects which live in the soil. If you know of other remedies like this, please send us the information.
From Nepal, Bhaktapur district, Dadhikot VDC, Gamcha, and manager of Appropriate Agriculture Alternatives (AAA) farm, Mr Ramesh Khadka has experience of integrated pest management. Now let's hear his story. On this farm no chemicals Ramesh Khadka or poisons are used at all. Everything used is made from organic material. We use vegetable compost, goat manure, bonemeal, oil seed cake, chicken manure and rabbit manure. We also use liquid manure against pests. For this we use various types of strong smelling plants, like Wrightia arborea, wormwood, Persian lilac, etc. squashed into a container to partially decompose, then we use the liquid that comes from this. It helps to repel many pests. Most problems disappear when you have good, fertile soil. We also use mixed vegetable cropping to prevent pests, and teach the local farmers the methods we use. All our vegetables are sold at organic markets in Kathmandu.
Observation
The most important work in integrated pest management is observation. Which pests are harmful, to which crops, at what time ? Where do they come from ? How do they breed ? What can be done to prevent them coming ? By understanding these things, the life cycle of the pest can be understood and so can be interrupted to prevent the pest becoming a pest. In this way pests can be prevented early on from being harmful to our crops. The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" 18
19
Read On !
Subjects Related to Integrated Pest Management
Living Fence chapter In this chapter see how to plant not just a fence but also produce fodder, fuelwood, mulch and other benefits Fruit Tree Planting chapter Information on how to plant and manage valuable fruit trees for best production is given in this chapter Kitchen Garden and Mixed Vegetable Growing Information on great vegetables produced for less work is given in these 2 chapters Integrated Fruit Orchard chapter Fruit trees can be mixed with other types of tree to make an integrated orchard more productive. Find out how in this chapter Liquid Manure chapter Use local plants to make a liquid for fertilizer and pest control from information in this chapter Compost chapter Information on how to make good compost quickly is given in this chapter
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 10 - Liquid Manure
Liquid Manure ?
Nowadays, the use of poisonous chemicals to control pests and diseases on crops is very common. These chemicals don't only kill pests, they can harm us as well. To protect us and the environment from this harm, we can use locally available herbs for pest control instead. This doesn't cost anything, we just need to learn the Janga Bahadur sprays liquid manure method. In this chapter, liquids made from local herbs are called liquid manures. Liquid manure can work as a pest control, and also provides nutrients for the plants.
Why
make Liquid Manure ?

The benefits of this
How
to make Liquid Manure ?
Why use liquid manure ?
to protect crops to prevent pests and diseases to avoid using harmful, manufactured chemicals to provide nutrients to provide irrigation
uses local resources saves cost protects beneficial insects uses local knowledge protects the environment helps us to be self reliant improves the soil saves our health by reducing use of harmful chemicals. This says "Medicine for pests made from local aromatic plants".
The elements listed below are all useful for making liquid manure. Out of these, some are good for pest control and soil fertility, but some work just to provide fertility and are not pest medicines. You can use many more plants and local substances, according to what's availailable in your area.
local resource
neem wormwood garlic Adhatoda vasica Wrightia arborea Persian lilac Artemisia indica marigold chilli Xanthoxylum nettle lemon grass morning glory papaya comfrey
quality
bitter bitter smell bitter poisonous bitter bitter + smell smell hot hot fertile scent fertile fertile fertile
function
medicine + nutrients medicine + nutrients medicine + nutrients medicine + nutrients medicine + nutrients medicine + nutrients medicine + nutrients medicine + nutrients medicine + nutrients medicine + nutrients medicine + nutrients nutrients nutrients nutrients nutrients
This Chapter's Author:
Mr Laxman Rana
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 10 - Liquid Manure
Materials Needed to make Liquid Manure

Various plants, fresh cow dung, ash jute sacking
When the mix starts to smell, it is ready to use When the weather is hot, the preparation will be ready in 5
days, or in 2-3 weeks if it is colder.
cutting tool
water
This is how to cut the plants into small pieces
For more information on these ingredients see pages 5, 6 & 7
large container or drum
Put the ash and cow dung on a piece of cloth or sack
How to make it Collect as many plants as you need, or will fit in the container available. Cut the plants into small pieces and fill the container. Add water to fill up to the top. Add ash, and the cow dung wrapped in a sack. This helps to produce micro-organisms. 4
Tie the cloth up with string and suspend in the container with the water and other materials
Chapter 10 - Liquid Manure
Ingredients to make Liquid Manure

On the opposite page is a photo of some ingredients which can be used to make liquid manure. Below is a copy of that photo with numbers to identify the different ingredients
Let's See
1
How to make Liquid Manure
2 1
3 4
6 7 10 9 8 13 14 15 12 11
16 18
17
1 nettle 2 lemon grass 3 neem or Persian lilac 4 fresh cow dung 5 wood ash 6 marigold 7 Lucaena (ipil ipil) 8 wormwood 9 Xanthoxylem 10 Cassia 11 comfrey 12 onion 13 chilli 14 Artemisia indica 15 garlic 16 wild basil 17 Adhatoda vasica 18 Wrightia arborea
Ingredients to make liquid manure. Are these resources local, or do they need to be purchaced from overseas ??
Liquid manure made in a plastic drum. The sack containing cow dung can be seen at the top.
Enough liquid manure for 10-15 households can be made in one big drum.
Pipe which drains the liquid from the drum into a bucket below. Pour one part of prepared liquid manure into a bucket. cut up plants
An easier way - line a pit with plastic and make the liquid manure in this. A small thatch can be made to give shade.
An air nursery can also be made above the liquid manure.
Then mix 5 to 12 parts of water. Now the liquid manure is ready to use.
6
8
7
Liquid manure can be sprayed with a broom like this .....
Maintenance
Using Liquid Manure
1. How to use on young plants
How to use Liquid Manure
Newly made liquid manure is very strong so it needs diluting with more water. When the liquid is used up, water is added again to the biomass in the container, which becomes less strong each time water is added.
The first time, mix one

part liquid manure with 12 parts water to spray.
The second time, mix

one part liquid with 8 parts water to spray.
The third time, mix one

..... or from a spray tank, like this part liquid with 4 parts water to spray.
The fourth time, mix

one part liquid with 1 part water to spray. 10
11
2. Using liquid manure on older plants

When they are bigger and more mature, plants can stand stronger liquid manure. Insects are often stronger as well. Liquid manure helps to repel these insects. Plants can take in nutrients from liquid manures through their leaves. On the soil, liquid manure also acts as irrigation. The first time, mix one part liquid with 8 parts water to spray.
When to spray liquid manure

Mix in a suitable container according to 1. and 2. above and spray the liquid manure. Spray whenever pests are present, or before they are expected to arrive. Our objective is to repel, not to kill. The pests may come again, so liquid manure needs to be re-applied from time to time. Pests are repelled because of the various smells and tastes. And the plants get some food as well as water. Beneficial insects Don't use liquid manure when there are useful insects present otherwise they may be harmed.
The second time, mix one part liquid with 4 parts water to spray.
Time to eat
The third time, mix one part liquid with 1 part water to spray. Vegetables, fruits, etc. can be eaten at any time, but you need to wash them well in water.
Do your own research

There are many plants which are useful for making liquid manure. Farmers can experiment and find out by trying themselves. Plants that are soft and rot quickly, and make good mulch can be good for making liquid manure. Plants which are bitter and aromatic or smell, or are not eaten by livestock may be good to make liquid manure for repelling pests.
Harmful insects
12
13
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 5, Ratadada village, and a member of "Protect the Forest" women's group, Mrs Durgi Gharti has made and used liquid manure. Now let's hear about her experience.
Mrs Durgi Gharti
Read On !
Subjects Related to Liquid Manure
Good benefits can be had from the information in this book about making and using liquid manure. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
Kitchen Garden and Mixed Vegetable Growing chapters

Compost chapter
14
I learned how to make liquid manure from Mrs Durgi Gharti the homestead programme (JPP). It's been very useful for me. Various types of local species are used, such as wormwood, neem, Adhatoda vasica, etc., which are cut up small and put in a container with cow dung and water. After 5 days it's diluted with water and sprayed on the plants with a broom. You can use it on greens in the kitchen garden. We had a greenfly attack, so I sprayed the plants, and they never came back ! Liquid manure is easy to use, making it is light work, and it doesn't cost anything. It's easy to learn about, and also easy to teach others. I made it last year, and again this year, and I'll continue to make it and show others how.
Integrated Pest Management chapter
Five chapters on how to make various Nurseries
Liquid Manure chapter
15

There are many types of pest and disease which affect farm crops. In this chapter information is given about preventing these problems using local resources.
Five chapters on how to make various Nurseries

Different types of plants need different types of management to grow them, but all will benefit from using liquid manures . Information on how to build and manage the home nursery, fruit nursery, air nursery, hot bed and leaf pots is given in these chapters.
Kitchen Garden and Mixed Vegetable Growing chapters

How to make and manage a home vegetable garden for permanence, ease and simplicity ? Information on doing less work for more production while also being able to produce a wide range of fresh vegetables is given in these chapters.
Compost chapter
As well as liquid manure, animal compost is also useful for plant food, but needs to be produced in a well-managed way. Information is given in this chapter about fast and good quality compost production.
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 11 - Livestock Management
Livestock Management ?
Healthy livestock makes life on the farm easier and more productive
People do various types of work to sustain themselves. Within farming and the homestead, a major work is keeping livestock. Often, more work and expense goes into livestock than any other task. Cutting and feeding fodder, watering, mucking out, maintaning the stalls and taking out to graze all takes a lot of farmers' time. Often it means there is no time to do other work, or learn, or play. With livestock, we can't say "leave it until tomorrow" for any work. But compared to all the time, work and cost farmers put into their livestock, the production is often too small. And there's often no time to grow vegetables, fruit, crops, keep bees, etc. In this chapter, we will tell you of simple improvements to traditional livestock management, which can be made by every farmer.
Why
manage livestock ?
How
to manage livestock ?
Nowadays there are many problems with livestock management. Livestock are more sick. There's no fodder on the farm. The people get more sick. But they still have to send their children to school. So in order to get the benefits from livestock, we need to pay attention to this. This chapter offers some suggestions as to how to make livestock management easier and more productive.
In order to keep our livestock healthy and gain more benefits from less work, there are 3 areas to pay attention to. These 3 areas are :-
1. Stall Management............ page 3 2. Diet and nutrition ............ page 4 3. Breed Imrovement ........... page 12
Reasons for lack of benefits from livestock

lack of healthy forests lack of good grazing land sickness and disease poor stall and feeding management poor quality breeding stock lack of attention to livestock management lack of nutritious fodder well suited to the livestock
1. Stall Management
Like people, livestock need dry, clean, light but shaded, and airy places to live. How many farmers keep their livestock in dark, damp, airless sheds ? If the sheds are like this, without sunlight, and dirty, of course livestock will be weaker, and get more disease. If livestock are not happy in their place then this can lead to many problems, some of them big ones. So to get benefits from the livestock, their sheds must be built and managed to be cool in the summer, warm in the winter, dry, airy and clean. The stalls need cleaning every day, and the muck collected properly in one place to make good compost. More information about this is given in the Compost chapter.
Chapter 11 - Livestock Management
This Chapter's Authors :Bhuvan Khadka Lal Bahadur Budhathoki

Rural Livestock Health Programme, Jajarkot & Surkhet, Nepal
2. Diet and Nutrition

(a) The importance of fodder
A balanced diet of grains and fodder is important for livestock. Livestock are more healthy and resist disease better with a mixed diet of grain and fodder, and will be more productive. What fodder to feed ? There are many types of fodder. Legume and non legume, tree leaf fodder, and fodder grasses, etc. are the main types. These are best mixed together. Especially, never feed just legume fodder, but mix it with other types so there is not more than 30% legume. How to feed ? Straw or dried grass is best cut into short lengths about 2 inches long. This makes it easier to digest for the livestock, so they use less energy. So, less fodder gives the same benefits, or the same amount of fodder gives more benefits. In this way 2 loads of fodder can give the same benefits as 3 loads. Dried, cut straw etc. should be mixed with green fodder and a little salt to feed to livestock. This mix should be fed in a trough (manger) made of wood or another suitable material. This way the fodder doesn't spill on the floor and go to waste, the livestock eats it all, and it doesn't mix with dirt and muck on the floor. See also the pictures on page 8 for more information. 4
(b) Balanced Grains

Livestock need nutritous food to grow well, stay healthy and stay productive. To obtain these nutrients they need the right quantities of mixed grains, or balanced grains. rice bran Why feed mixed grains ?
to increase output of eggs, milk, meat, etc. for healthy bones and hair to heal wounds and bruises quickly to give energy for working animals grain pulp to protect from disease and stay healthy for healthy pregnancy and birth of young for the young animals to grow well
How to prepare ? Balanced grains can be made at home. They can be prepared in the following way :-
2 parts rice bran 1 part corn, millet, wheat or
1 part oil seed cake or pulses
barley flour 1 part oil seed cake or pulses (lentils, soya, etc.) mix the ingredients together
In this picture balanced grains made at home are fed to the pigs in a wooden trough
Let's See
How to manage livestock
How much to feed ? For cows, buffalos, sheep, goats or pigs the more you can feed mixed grains, the quicker they will grow to give benefits. But of course it's not enough just to give grains - leaf and straw fodder should also be provided.
Goats fed by hanging fodder near their shed Livestock should be checked regularly for signs of illness, wounds, etc. If found, these should be treated as soon as possible. If treatment is delayed, the cost will increase.
cows and buffalos producing milk, or about to calve,

should be fed 2 to 4 kilos of balanced grains a day. sheep and goats should be fed half to one kilo of balanced grains per day. pigs should be fed 1 to 2 kilos of grain per day. Things to remember :-
oil seed cake should be baked and ground to a powder

before mixing with grains. prepared balanced grains should be stored in a dry place in an air tight container if there is fungus in the grains, or they have formed lumps, they should not be used. 6
Health problems can result from livestock being fed off the floor.
When fodder is cut into short pieces, less amount gives more benefits.
If fodder is fed from the floor, it may contain dung. If the dung is from diseased livestock, the disease will spread. Goats fed in a manger
For communities, it's worth investing in a large fodder cutting machine
Disease can be prevented if fodder is given in a clean trough, free from dung, mud and dust
8
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 11 - Livestock Management
Here the compost pit is dug close to the livestock to make removing the muck easy. And it keeps the place clean.
9
Salt Lick
1 Grinding salt to a powder to make a salt lick. This can be mixed with garlic. 2
(c) Salt Lick

Like people, livestock need to eat salt. It's often traditional to feed salt once a week or even once a month, so livestock cannot eat salt as they want it. The health of livestock can be seriously affected if they are not able to eat salt when they need it. They will start to eat less fodder and grains, and drink less water. They become thin, and as a result of being weak can suffer from diseases, and have less strength. Females do not seek males to mate with, and other problems can start to appear. But too much salt can also cause problems. This is why it is good to make a salt lick. How to make ? Take half a kilo of clay, half a kilo of salt, 5 egg shells, and grind to a powder. Add a little water and mix well. When the mixture is like stiff dough, make into a ball around a stick. Dry in the shade for 2 days and then in the sun for 7 days. When it is well dried, hang the ball in a place where the livestock can reach it easily. They may need to be taught to use it at first, but when they develop the habit, they will lick it whenever they need salt. The salt lick helps to keep the livestock healthy and free from disease.
Add the salt to powdered clay, add water and mix well
3 Make a ball around a stick and allow to dry for several days
10
4
Hung in the stalls, the salt lick can be used any time it is needed
11
3. Breed Improvement
What is it ? To produce better offspring of any species, a male and female with very qood qualities are mated together. This method of increasing output through the production of better offspring can be called breed improvement.
Qualities of a good female :

have a strong, vibrant and healthy body. goats or pigs should have the ability to bear many young. the right weight and height according to age and breed. for cows/buffalos, the blood vessels should be large; in pigs there should be many teats. thin skin and fine hair. broad pelvises and rear end. the habit of seeking males at regular times.
Qualities of the male : the right weight and height according to

age and breed. must have the characteristics of the species or variety. have a strong, vibrant and healthy body. a male goat is best chosen from a mother which has had many kids. In Pokhora village, Jajarkot district of West Nepal, the local Farmers' Leader Tek B. Khadka with his improved bull
Ways of Breed Improvement

(a) cross-breeding between relatives Breeding between male and females which are close relatives (within 6 generations) is called interbreeding. For example, breeding between brothers & sisters of the same mother, or crossing father and sons with mothers and daughters. This is not good breeding because :-

12
Bad characteristics can be passed on and increased. Strength, stamina and ability to resist disease is reduced. Breeding ability is reduced. Offspring can be deformed or mutated. Production, such as milk, will gradually decrease. 13
(b) breeding between non-relatives within a variety It is better to breed between males and females which are not related. For example, breeds that are the same but which have no relations over several generations. With this method, there are no disadvantages, but often there is little breed improvement. (c) breeding between different varieties This is when a local variety is crossed with a different, often improved variety, for example crossing a local cow with a Jersey bull, or a crossing a local goat with an improved billy. Benefits of crossing between male and female of different varieties : the offspring can have the best characteristics of the parents. resistance to disease increases. a low productivity variety can gradually improve its production
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Lekh Pharsa -2, Purano Gaun village, and a member of "Creative Women's Group" Mrs Dhanmaya Gyami has learnt improved methods to manage her livestock . Now let's hear about her experience.
Mrs Dhanmaya Gyami
An improved buffalo bull mated with a local buffalo cow
At first we had to go to the forest a lot. We had to go to watch the grazing livestock. Mrs Dhanmaya Gyami There was no time to do the work at home. The livestock (our cows, buffalo, sheep and goats) were also not so strong. Also, we didn't give the livestock regular check-ups. And we had to go far to bring fodder. Now, the fodder from trees in the fields is enough. There's much more spare time than before and we have started to attend non-formal education classes. We check the livestock regularly, and now they are fat, strong and healthy. I also teach others that they should check regularly and treat their animals quickly if they are sick. It's better to spend a little on this to prevent disease rather than being greedy over 10-20 rupees, then find you lose a buffalo worth 10,000 rupees. The people in our village now have good experience about this.
14
15
Subjects Related to Livestock Management

Good benefits can be had from the information in this book about livestock management. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
Fodder is a very important resource for livestock. This chapter gives information on how to create good tree fodder and leaf litter production close to the home.
Compost chapter
Livestock eat at one end, and at the other produce compost. Information is given in this chapter about how to make good quality compost quickly and easily.
Living Fence chapter

By planting a fence made of trees producing fodder and bedding for livestock, these essential resources can be increased locally. This chapter gives information about this.
Read On !
What is
Beekeeping ?
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 12 - Beekeeping
A woman trainer examines the Jumla Top Bar Hive
Bees live naturally in hollow tree trunks, under branches and on rocky outcrops in the jungle. By copying the natural needs of bees, people have kept bees in hives at home for centuries. There are direct and indirect benefits from beekeeping. Honey, wax, pollen, medicine, etc. are direct benefits. By pollinating crops bees also help increase farm production. In the jungle, bees help to maintain biodiversity by pollinating many wild tree species. These are all indirect benefits. With small improvements to traditional beekeeping, production can be increased and diversified. This chapter provides information about how these low cost improvements can be made to traditional beekeeping.
Why
improve Beekeeping ?
How
to improve Beekeeping ?
In this chapter improvements are described in 3 areas of traditional beekeeping :- 1. bee management, 2. honey extraction, and 3. processing of bee products (honey, wax, etc.). With better bee management, bee populations increase, and bees are more healthy and productive. Improvements to honey extraction mean better quality and quantity of honey & other products. Improvements to processing also means increasing the quantity and quality of bee products. Pure honey, wax and pollen have natural nutritional and medicinal qualities. Having more, healthier bees also improves pollination and so helps the environment. The 3 diagrams below illustrate the 3 areas of improvement.
Anyone can easily keep bees. For this you don't need lots of land or big investment. To improve the quality and quantity of bee products it's important to pay attention to bees' protection, health, hygeine and diet. Just small improvements to management can give many benefits.
Important things to consider in Beekeeping

1. Choice of beehive 3. Problems with bees 2. Caring for bees 4. Product management
1. Management
Increase in hives, bees, bee health & production
2. Extraction
Better and more honey, wax, etc.
3. Processing
Better production & use of bee products
clean honey pollen salves
Materials Needed for Beekeeping

queen gate hive with bees smoker veil or swarm bag queen box
Pollination of fruit, oil crops & wild trees
J better honey J more fruit J more wax & pollen J better health for people
herbal medicines bee food

Chapter 12 - Beekeeping
all for home production and selling 2

knife
bucket 3
1. Choice of Beehive
When choosing a hive, the timber liked by bees, a cheap and easy method of making the hive, and its durability are all important. There are 2 main types of hive: traditional, and improved. In the traditional hive the combs can't be taken out to look at, while in the improved hive the combs can be removed and replaced without damage. In Jumla district of Nepal, farmers have improved their traditional hives by making top bars to which combs are attached. These can be removed for inspecting combs and replaced again. This is a good example of local hives which are improved appropriately. turned on old log its side so hive it opens from top top bar top bar ledge cut to hold top bar how the comb is removed lid comb
from the centre of one comb to the centre of the next is equal to the width of the top bar. 1 distance between midribs of 2 combs is the same as 2 width of top bar
2 1
close up view of middle of comb

27mm Examples (actual size) from Nepali topbars for valley Apis cerana. 29mm 32mm
hill
x
mountain
The base of the top bar is pointed. This helps the bees to build straight combs. Hive adapted from local hive by turning it on its side and adding top bars
comb
The width of the top bar must be exactly fitting with the width of the comb, and there must be room between combs for 2 bees to move up and down. The size of bees may change according to altitude (the higher, the larger), bee species and variety, so the width of the top bar should also change accordingly. Examples of different sizes of top-bars in Nepal are given in the following diagram. In nature, the distance 4 The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1"
top bar A Jumla farmer inspecting the top bar hive. This doesn't trouble the bees.
2. Caring for Bees

Swarming
Swarming is the natural way for bees to reproduce. It happens when the number of bees in the hive becomes large and a new queen is made. When the new queen hatches, half the colony will leave along with a queen. The old queen goes with the first swarm. When bees are about to swarm you will see more males flying outside the hive. A cluster of bees may be seen hanging near the entrance to the hive. Inside the hive the combs contain many male bees and queen cells. If the tips of the queen cells are a brown colour then bees may swarm within 2-3 days. 2 A worker 1 A hive of bees and bee and its their young developing cell
Putting a swarm of bees in the hive

It is traditional knowledge to spray swarming bees with water or ash. Improvements to traditional practices are suggested below. Use walnut, citrus or lemon grass leaves to clean the old hive. Wipe with honey and wax. plaster any holes or cracks in the hive Put the queen in a box if she can be found. When the bees are all in the hive, place a queen gate over the entrance and let the queen mix with the other bees in the hive. A swarm bag or Be careful not to damage the queen. Put the swarm into the hive in the evening. veil can be used to capture a Feed in the evening only. swarm If the queen is new, don't add the queen gate because she must fly outside to mate. Watch the hive from 10am to 2pm for about 5 days to check that they don't fly away. If bees are seen bringing pollen this means they are settled, and it is safe to take the queen gate off, or to stop queen box watching the bees in the daytime. There may be a tradition of clipping the wings of a new queen, but this should not be done because the queen may not have mated. The queen mates with the male bees outside the hive while flying. If she queen gate can't fly, she can't mate or lay eggs, and the colony may slowly die out. Chapter 12 - Beekeeping 7
4 4 A queen
3 3 Male bees. Their cells are
and queen cells shown. If the tip is brown a queen wil emerge soon 6
slightly raised like a hat

4 3
Worker bees
Uniting bee colonies

Beekeepers like as many hives as they can keep. But it's not just the number of hives that's important, there must be plenty of bees inside also. It is better to unite 2 weak colonies to make one big one, because : by uniting 2 weak colonies neither die uniting increases honey production it takes less to feed a united hive a stronger colony is less susceptible to disease a bigger colony has a more balanced temperature if one colony has no queen, it can be saved.
Robbing
One problem is that bees from different colonies sometimes fight each other. Why ?
food is spilt outside or given outside honey is spilt during harvesting there is no food and bees are hungry food is given in the daytime, and the hive is mishandled the colony is weak Preventing robbing how to stop spray water on the hive a swarm never feed outside the hive take steps to strengthen the hive (feeding, uniting with a stronger hive, etc.)
How to unite colonies

To unite 2 small or weak colonies place the 2 hives close to each other. Put the frames of the weaker hive in the stronger hive and smoke the weaker hive to remove all the bees and drive them into the stronger hive. By doing this, the stronger queen will kill the weaker queen - you don't need to do it. It's best to unite colonies at the start of winter, or the start of the monsoon, or when there is no queen in the colony. If bees start to fight, give more smoke. a stronger hive
Absconding
Signs that bees are ready to abscond bees stop bringing pollen bee traffic at the hive entrance slows down greatly bees may form a ball hanging at the entrance the queen stops laying there are no or very few eggs or larvae - only adult bees are found in the hive bees usually abscond between 10am and 2pm
Reasons for absconding lack of food too hot or too cold too much disturbance smoke, bad smells or water getting into the hive opening, moving or disturbing the hive too much robbing (bee fighting) attack by predators or disease 9
a weaker hive
bees will mix after smoking
Feeding Bees
Why Feed Bees ? It's very important to feed bees. To get good benefits from bees, it's necessary to feed them according to their needs. Although it costs to feed bees, the honey production payback makes it worthwhile. As a result of feeding, the bees can increase in number and be strong to resist diseases. Bees must be fed when flowers are unavailable, or if the colony becomes too weak to collect enough food. What can Bees be fed ? The best foods for bees are honey, sugar water or candy (sugar, honey and water solid food). However if these are not available in your area other sweet substances can be used. Sweet pumpkin or buckwheat pancake can be mixed with honey, or pear or apple jam can be given. Food should always by given inside the hive in the evening, and taken out in the morning. Sugar water is made by mixing one part boiled water to 1-2 parts sugar. Don't give food if older than 2 days. Photo 17 on p.14 shows feeding technique. To judge the colony's condition and see what management is needed, check the hive regularly.
1
A good healthy colony

2
In a good hive, bees will cover all the combs
After giving smoke, brood and honey combs look like this
3
capped honey pollen young bees free of disease
Signs of a Healthy Colony

Seeing single eggs in comb cells is a sign that the queen is active. If open brood (larvae) and capped brood (pupae) are both visible, the colony is in a good condition (page 11, photo 4 ). Bees flying in and out & moving quickly is a good sign. Bees bringing plenty of pollen means they are busy raising young - this is a good sign. Bees being light in colour is a sign of good health. Lots of male bees is a sign of potential swarming 10
capped brood cells of worker bee pupae

4
cells with eggs to be worker bees uncapped (open brood) cells of worker bee larvae
11
A diseased, unhealthy colony

In an unhealthy colony bees cannot cover all the combs
6 10
On a diseased comb there are few capped brood cells. Un-capped cells with dead larvae are seen. Combs may have a sour smell and bees are angry.
7
Wax moths occupy combs not covered by bees, and eat holes in them, leaving silky threads as they go. Later, the comb looks like a spiders' web. Wax moth's larvae look like maggots.
11
Combs with European Foul Brood disease seen close up show dead larvae. These dry up and stick to the base of the cell. When seen close up, bee pupae with Thai Sac Brood disease look like a sharp tipped bag
This tiny red insect on the bee's body is called a Varroa mite. This sticks to larvae and adult bees and is harmful to them.
12
Compare the diseased combs (6&7) with this healthy one, where many capped pupae are seen and healthy larvae are white and fat. The Farmers' Handbook, 12
In a colony without a queen, several eggs are seen laid by the workers bees in each cell. The colony should be mixed with another, or a new queen added
"Near The House - 1" Chapter 12 - Beekeeping
13
Herbs for bees
half a handful of Horsetail 13
7 Jasmine flowers
a handful of wormwood
3. Problems with Bees

Symptoms of bee problems are also shown on colour pages 12 and 13 Symptoms that bees are in bad health (photos 5 to 12 ) Bees leave combs uncovered Because of lack of food, combs are dry and empty of Bees are angry honey. If starved, bees are Bees move slowly seen dead with their heads If bees are dark and shiny they buried in the comb cells. may be diseased or queenless
raw, ground tumeric a handful of persian lilac or neem leaves water to mix
"Brood" Diseases of young bees

14
seive the cooked mixture

15
Like people, bees suffer from a variety of diseases. In Nepal there are 2 main diseases. These are called European Foul Brood and Thai Sac Brood. These effect young bees while still in their cells. Nowadays these are common diseases. Symptoms of European Foul Brood : (photos 6 and 9 ) Tiny white lines (the tracheal beathing tubes of the bees) can be seen on uncapped larvae Too much water is seen around the larvae Twisted, dead larvae are seen Very few capped cells are seen Dead larvae form scales which are brown and stuck to the base of the cells Symptoms of Thai Sac Brood : (photo 7 ) This disease effects the pupae stage and young uncapped larvae are less affected Capped brood cells may have jagged holes In the capped brood cells pupae look pointed and sometimes discoloured The head of these pointed pupae turns black and dries out Chapter 12 - Beekeeping 15
16
2 parts sugar and one part cooked medicine dissolve the sugar in the medicine
17
place straw, grass etc. in the liquid to prevent bees drowning and place INSIDE the hive The Farmers' Handbook, 14
"Near The House - 1"
When taken out, these pointed pupae look like a tiny plastic bag filled with water Worker bees are seen throwing the diseased larvae out of the hive. It may look like they carry grains of cooked rice.
Diseases of Adult Bees
Worker, male and queen bees suffer from various diseases such as acarine, nosema, amoeba and paralysis. These are caused mainly by lack of hygiene, old sugar water, lack of food and being too hot or cold. Prevention of these diseases is the same as for preventing disease in young bees. If the disease spreads, infected combs should be removed.
This is a bees' friend. It eats lice found on bees' bodies, but doesn't harm them.
Preventing Disease
Keep combs strong and prevent too much swarming Unite weak colonies with stronger ones If hives are hot, make small holes to allow air flow If the weather is cold, cover the hive with pine needles, moss, sacking, or other insulation Clean out dirt from the hives every month Take out old, black combs Dispose of these carefully (use for wax extraction) Take out combs not covered by bees Process the cut combs and keep covered away from wax moths Provide food if not available Curing disease after it has struck Take out uncovered combs Give food and herbal medicine continuously for at least a week
Preventing ants with bowls filled with water
Transfer the diseased colony to a location where there are no other beehives to avoid spread of the disease Take out combs with diseased young, and burn them to prevent the disease spreading As cutting out diseased brood comb can cause the colony to abscond, put a queen gate on the entrance Mix and cook chopped Persian Lilac or Neem, horsetail, Jasmine flowers and raw tumeric with water, strain and mix with 2 parts sugar until dissolved. Feed in the evening of every other day for at least 10 days (5 doses). This is shown on page 14. Preventing Wax Moth Keep the inside of the hive clean. Take out uncovered, old combs. Dispose of them carefully and never throw them around the apiary. Process the wax quickly. Store re-usable combs and processed wax well, in sealed containers. Maintain strong colonies by feeding, uniting etc. Preventing Hornets plastic bottle cut off lid and invert
Put fruit with water in the bottle, and invert the top so it points down. Hornets can get in but not out How to tell if bees have been poisoned Many bees die in a short time Bees can be seen dead around the hive Bees die with their tongues sticking out Poisoned live bees walk around in circles Fewer bees arrive at the hive
16
17
How to prevent poisoning ? Use local herbs for pest control instead of toxic chemicals Don't use poisons when plants are flowering If it is essential to use chemicals, first inform beekeepers and only use in the evenings or at night. If signs of poisoning are seen, close the hive immediately and keep the bees in the hive for at least 24 hours, providing air flow and feeding regularly.
Separate capped, uncapped, pollen and empty comb

1
Carefully brush bees off the comb
2 1 On the edge of the comb un-
4. Processing Bee Products

Things to consider when extracting honey Never allow honey or cut combs to touch water (not even small drops) as this will increase the water in the honey and make it spoil. Wash any utensils (buckets, knife, etc.) with hot water and soap or ash, and make sure washed utensils are well dried. Extract honey in the evenings but before dark Slowly give smoke from the edge of the colony Once bees have moved away from the smoke, gently cut the combs from the edge Look closely and only cut combs with honey, don't cut combs with brood Gently brush any bees off the cut combs, but don't use water on the brush Put the cut comb in a clean, dry bowl or bucket, and cover well to prevent bees getting into it Combs, or parts of combs containing capped ("ripe") and uncapped ("raw") honey should be separated because uncapped honey will ferment quickly. Use uncapped honey first. 18
capped (raw) honey can be seen 2 White, capped cells contain well ripened, mature honey
1 2
empty brood cells
yellow pollen filled cells
What to do after extracing the honey Because uncapped honey has a higher moisture content, it shouldn't be mixed with capped honey. This means they shouldn't be processed together, and uncapped honey should be used quickly because it soon ferments due to the water content. Cut the capped combs into small pieces and keep in a deep, air tight container for up to a week. skim off wax pieces & debris that rise to the surface
19
After 7 days the honey has sunk and the wax rises to the top. Skim the wax off the surface. Seive the honey through a fine, clean cloth. Only use clean, dry hands to squeeze through the seive. The wax mixed with honey that is skimmed from the surface can also be squeezed for home use, or fed to the bees. Put the seived honey into clean and dry containers as needed. These can be glass, clay, wood or good plastic containers that are airtight. If airtight containers are not available, seal the lids with wax. Honey should not be cooked because this destroys its nutritious and medicinal qualities. There is no value in cooked honey. Extracted honey seived into a clean, dry bowl
Cook old, black combs and wax left after honey extraction over a low fire
Squeeze the cooked wax in a bag between two sticks. The molten wax looks like oil. Allow to cool slowly and remove the hardened wax from the liquid. Scrape off any dirt that is attached underneath the wax cake.
Remaining comb with pollen should be cut into small pieces, covered with liquid honey and stored in the same way as honey in an airtight jar. This is very nutritious. Feed one piece once a day as needed to pregnant or suckling mothers, babies over 6 months, old or sick people. It may be difficult to digest at first so feed small pieces until used to it. Pure honey can also be used as a medicine. It is useful for burns, cuts, sores, ulcers (including gastric), indigestion, stomach ache, urinary tract infections, tonsilitis, infected eyes and ears (for eyes and ears dissolve honey in a drop of boiled, warm water and seive well before using). 20
Beeswax Wax is produced from glands on the underside of 12-18 day old worker bees. Bees use it to build their combs. Some Nepali beekeepers believe that a tiny scorpion-like red insect makes wax, but this is untrue (but this is a useful insect, see p.16) as bees make it themselves. Many beekeepers also carelessly discard old combs. This wastes the wax and attracts the wax moth. Better to process the wax to make ointments, candles or polish.
21
Processing Wax Soak old, dark combs or wax from honey processing in water for a day. Then, put the old combs or wax in fresh water and heat slowly. When wax melts and becomes like oil on the water surface, pour the wax and debris mixture into a cloth bag and squeeze it between 2 sticks to seive it into another container. Let it cool and harden without disturbing. Take the clean wax, break into small pieces and put in a steel or aluminium pot. Boil water in another pot and place the pot of wax in this to melt. When melted, seive through a clean cloth. This wax can be used to make cream, candles, polish, etc. To make cream, add one part wax to 3-4 part vegetable oil. The method to make candles is shown in the diagram below.
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Jumla district, Chandanath - 4, Dandakot village, Mr Karnabir Sunar keeps bees in his improved Jumla Top Bar Hive. Now let's hear about his experience.
Mr Karnabir Sunar
Make a mould from bamboo for making wax candles

1
Tie a piece of string on a thin stick down the centre of the mould
3
Make a small hole in the bamboo to hold the string in place 22
Stand the moulds upright in wet clay to pour

I've been keeping bees since 1995. In our culture, lower castes like me aren't supposed to keep bees, so the Karnabir Sunar custom goes, but I've been keeping them successfully. There are good benefits in beekeeping, especially with the Top Bar hive. To make the hive I upturned the old log hive and put top bars on without any cost at all. With this hive I can inspect the bees easily, watch for diseases, feed the bees, and extract honey without harming the bees. I can sell the honey and wax because it's good quality. Before I kept bees I hadn't been able to have children. After keeping bees and eating honey and pollen my strength increased and my wife had a son, and I fed him with honey from when he was only 8 months old ! Now, I have 9 hives. The work's easy and low cost, and so I plan to have more in the future.
23
Read On !
Subjects Related to Beekeeping
Chapters related to Fruit :- how to create, grow and manage improved fruit trees with practical information on fruit nurseries, grafting, budding, stone grafting, top grafting, air layering, planting fruit trees and orchard management. Seed Saving chapter :- information on methods to produce and store various quality seeds at home. Nutrition chapter :- information about needs and sources of a healthy diet for all the family. Agroforestry chapter :- information about how to plant and manage trees on farmland without decreasing farm yield. This Chapter's Authors : Mr Narayan P. Acharya
Surya Social Service Society (4S), Jumla
Dr Naomi Saville, Advisor to

Wax Processing Centre, Jumla
Mr Satananda Upadhyaya,
Simkhada, Chandanath-4, Jumla
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 13 - Non-Cement Drinking Water
Non-Cement Drinking Water ?
Making an intake tank without cement, Jajarkot, Nepal It is so important to have clean drinking water for a healthy life. Because of modern development and population increase, forest is decreasing and water springs are drying up. Problems have been seen of cement-made drinking water tanks causing the springs below to dry up. Also, if the cement cracks, all the water in the tank leaks away, and this is too expensive to fix. So as an alternative to this, we describe in this chapter a way to build drinking water systems without using cement. Instead, they use local resources and skills to make systems which are safe, cheap to build, and long-lasting.
Why
make Non-Cement Drinking Water ?
How
to make Non-Cement Drinking Water ?
Many people think that beneficial development can only come by importing and using resources from far-away foreign countries. Few people believe that it's posssible to build a drinking water system for a village without using cement. But since 1991 in Jajarkot and Surkhet districts of Western Nepal, the Jajarkot Permaculture Programme (JPP) has made many such village systems to provide safe drinking water, and all are being maintained and still running to this day.
Drinking water systems can be made from springs near to the villages without using cement. It's best to build these during the winter when farmers have more free time. At this time, springs are also low due to lack of rain, so it is easier to measure the flow. There are 3 steps to building the non-cement drinking water system :1. Building and managing the spring intake tank; 2. Laying the pipe to the village, and tanks in between, if any; 3. Building the tapstands in the village.
Benefits of building drinking water systems without cement

to build clean drinking water systems to do this without damaging other springs to build cheaper drinking water systems these use less time and labour resources to build local people can build and maintain these systems this means that everyone in the village can be involved in building and maintaining their own drinking water system this helps the local economy This Chapter's Author:
Materials Needed to make a Non -Cement Drinking Water system

G.I. pipe and fittings wrench gate nails taps polythene pipe river moss rocks clay digging tools timber saw chisel
Mr Bhuvan Khadka
Himalayan Permaculture Group, Surkhet, Nepal 2
Chapter 13 - Non-Cement Drinking Water
1. Intake Tank
To collect the water at the spring, a tank needs to be built. If it is not possible to build a tank at the spring, the spring water needs to be diverted to the nearest suitable place for a tank.
First of all dig a pit for the tank. Because of not using cement, this needs to be dug into the ground.
Make small holes in the intake pipe to prevent leaves, etc. from getting in
Then build a rock lining to the tank, just as you would build
a stone wall. But as well as using mud in between the rocks, use a layer of moss which grows in water. make the top of the tank from rocks and clay
First learn about cutting and joining galvanised iron (G.I.) pipe, polythene pipe, fittings, taps, etc. Often this can be learned from the hardware store
Dig a trench above the tank. This protects from water flowing in from above
As the tank is being built, leave a hole for a drainage pipe at

the bottom to empty the tank for cleaning. Just above this level is the hole for the pipe carrying water to the village (delivery pipe). Near the top of the tank, leave a space for the overflow pipe.
lid of the tank
The tank can be made

circular or square. The size of the tank depends on the water needs of the village and the size of the water pipe to drain source at the tank the (cleaning pipe) spring. pipe to the village (delivery pipe) 4
overflow pipe moss moss stone, mud and moss wall
here compact the soil around the pipes

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 13 - Non-Cement Drinking Water
stone and clay base 5
When the wall is built up,

leave a hole big enough for a person to get into the tank. If the pipes become blocked, it may be needed to clean the tank.
Let's See
How to make NonCement Drinking Water

In Dharnasi village, Jajarkot, an intake tank is being built.
Make a strong frame to

cover and close the tank with timber or rocks.
When the tank is finished

join a gate valve to the pipe taking water to the village (delivery pipe) and to the cleaning pipe at a suitable place outside the tank. This means the water supply can be cut off if the pipeline needs maintenance at any place. Instead of a gate valve, a wooden bung can be used to block the pipe from the inside of the tank
Between the rocks in the wall the moss can be seen.
After this work is finished, the area around the tank needs protection. If possible, prevent livestock from walking in the area, and prevent people from cutting trees there. If the area is bare, a tree plantation should be made. 6
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1" Chapter 13 - Non-Cement Drinking Water
Starting to make the top after the tank has been built.
For protection and maintenance, a well fitting wooden door is made.
Leaving a hole big enough for a person to fit in, the lid is made.
9 5
1
Showing the position of a tank in the forest.
2 1 2
Overflow pipe
6
An intake tank with a stone lid.
8
intake tank overflow pipe
3 cleaning pipe 4 3 4
delivery pipe
9
Making a drinking water tap in the village
10
don't uncoil pipe like this, it will develop kinks and may split
uncoil pipe like this
Dig a trench to bury the pipe from the tank to the taps in the village. The pipe should be buried 3 feet deep. In the bottom of the trench first put loose pipe soil and stones. Use G.I. pipe where there are rocks and so a soil and trench cannot be dug. stones
11
Waste water from the tap used to irrigate kitchen gardens. It can also be used for nurseries and orchards
10
If there is a steep or long drop from the intake to the village, a "check" tank can be built in between. This is built the same intake way as the intake tank. If there are tank only rocks where this tank is then cement may be needed check tank to build the tank above the ground.
tap
overflow pipe delivery pipe pipe from spring 11
Making the Tapstand

After the site for the tapstand has been prepared, make a smooth wooden post. On the back of this post, to the height that the tap will be, chisel a groove in the centre of the post in which to hold the pipe. At the top, make a hole big enough to hold the tap. Measure the distances cut in the wooden post, and cut the pipe according to this. Bury the post so it is upright and strong in the ground. Join the pipe and fittings and fit into the groove on the back of the post, Only the people in with the tap coming the village responout of the hole. Then build up a sible for maintenance of the strong wall any drinking water shape you like system should be around the tap allowed to use the stand. gate valve Making a tapstand in the villages
Use nails to hold the pipe in the groove on the back of the post
The oldest noncement drinking water system still working in Jajarkot, Sirpachaur village (built 1991)
Take advice from those skilled in joining pipe like this 12

Make a design to use the waste water from a tap stand for kitchen gardens or a community nursery
13
Maintenance
How to maintain Non-Cement Drinking Water
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 9, Ghuyalpani village, Mr Bir Bahadur Khatri is a member of "Shiva Shakti" group. His village has made a non-cement drinking water system. Now let's hear about their experience.
Mr Bir Bahadur Khatri
The tanks may leak a little but as the moss grows it will block all the holes. The older the system is, the stronger it gets and the less it leaks. The tanks should be cleaned if leaves or mud get in. Any leaking or split pipes should be repaired and re-sealed immediately. To help to maintain and run the drinking water system in a sustainable way the village committee should set up a fund according to the number of households. If a community nursery is made, this can generate income from seedlings distributed which can go into the fund. The fund can be used to replace any fittings which may break, such as a tap, gate valve, pipe, etc. If the forest is protected around and above the spring, the flow of water will increase. This is because the forest catches the rain and allows it to soak into the soil instead of running off the land.
Protect the forests Protect the springs !
Our village is on a high ridge. Though there are water resources it Bir Bahadur Khatri was very difficult to get them to the village. With the help of the Homestead Programme (JPP) we made an intake tank. This uses moss instead of cement. With cement, the tank will crack and water will leak out, but with moss this covers all the cracks. Because the system's made out of local resources we could build it ourselves, and up until now we haven't had to repair it. But if this is needed, we can do it ourselves. There are 5 small springs feeding 7 taps, and they're all working very well. JPP's Drinking Water Engineers:- Janga B. Gharti (left) and Ammar B. Nepal (right) have made more than 20 noncement systems in Nepal's villages since 1991.
14
15
Subjects Related to Non-Cement Drinking Water

This book provides enough information to be able to build your own drinking water system. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
Waste Water Chapter

Information in this chapter about how to make use of household and tapstand waste water for irrigation.
House Hygeine Chapter

Don't think that health improvement comes ony from drinking clean water. If the house and kitchen are dirty, even more diseases can spread. Information about easy methods to keep the house clean are given in this chapter
Kitchen Garden and Mixed Vegetable Growing Chapters

How to make and manage a home vegetable garden for permanence, ease and simplicity ? Information on doing less work for more production while also being able to produce a wide range of fresh vegetables is given in these chapters.
Read On !
Near the House

Part Two
CONTENTS
Subject Booklet No:
This Volume's Authors : Chris Evans, Belmaya Rana, Bhuvan Khadka Edited, Designed & Produced by: Chris Evans & Jakob Jespersen Translated from Nepali by Chris Evans Proof reading: thanks to Mike Feingold, Margaret Evans, Ted Albins, Rupert Greville, Jakob Jespersen, Andy Langford, Looby Macnamara Photos: Jakob Jespersen, Chris Evans Addional photo credits are given in Volume Five Cover illustration: Mr Motilal Phauja Typing: Chris Evans Computer Coordination: Graphics Edge, Kathmandu Published by: Chris Evans, Jakob Jespersen...... Distributors: .......... (see p.8 for address) Printed by: Format Printing Press, Kathmandu...... First Edition (Nepali) printed June 2001, 7500 copies This Edition......... Farmers' Handbook, ISBN 99933-615-0-X....... This Volume : 99933-615-3-4........ The Farmers' Handbook is about techniques for sustainable farming and this is the third of 5 volumes. There are 13 techniques presented here. In five volumes there are 44 techniques and approaches in total.
Introduction to this Volume .......................... 1 Kitchen Garden ............................................. 2 Mixed Vegetable Gardening ......................... 3 Off-Season Onion Growing .......................... 4 Growing Herbs .............................................. 5 Home Nursery ............................................... 6 Hot Bed.......................................................... 7 Air Nursery.................................................... 8 Leaf Pots........................................................ 9 Introduction to Fruit Production ................. 10
This Farmers' Handbook is meant for education and awareness raising as well as practical gardening uses. It is permitted to photocopy for such purposes, but please remember that photocopying can cause pollution to the environment, is expensive & does not give a good quality.
Fruit Nursery ................................................ 11 Grafting ......................................................... 12 Budding ......................................................... 13 Stone Grafting ............................................... 14
Booklets are separated by a yellow page

This is the third volume of a five volume production of the Farmers' Handbook. In all there are forty four techniques and approaches shown, of which thirteen are in this third volume. In this volume we introduce you to some more of the methods used near the house (part two). The titles of these are given on the previous contents page. This Farmers' Handbook has been prepared to provide information about sustainable farming methods as well as being a resource to run literacy programmes. Information about such programmes and how the Handbook can be used is provided in the fifth volume. As well as technical information, a glossary of new or difficult words is also provided in the fifth volume.
Aims
Background

Comments and/or questions about the techniques and approaches described in this handbook will be most welcome. Suggestions for improvement will be used for future editions of this handbook and other similar publications.

Kitchen Garden 2 Mixed Vegetable Gardening 3 Off-Season Onion Growing 4
Techniques
Information About Herbs 5 Home Nursery 6 Hot Bed 7 Air Nursery 8 Leaf Pots 9 Introduction to Fruit Production 10 Fruit Nursery 11 Grafting 12 Budding 13 Stone Grafting 14
Distributor and Appropriate Technology Asia P.O. Box 8975 EPC 849 main contact Kathmandu addresses Nepal tel: +977 1 5549774 Permanent Publications nepal@arasia.org.uk The Sustainability Centre www.atasia.org.uk East MeonHampshire GU32 1HR tel: +44 1730 823311 info@permaculture.co.uk www.permaculture.co.uk
Himalayan Permaculture Group, P.O. Box 19121, Kathmandu, Nepal
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Funding Support
Support for the production and printing of The Farmers' Handbook has come from ActionAid Nepal, MSNepal, Methodist Relief & Development Fund (UK), GTZ Food for Work, Hill Agriculture Research Project (HARP), ICIMOD. In this volume, the chapter on "Grafting "has been supported by Helvetas Nepal
What is a
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 2 - Kitchen Garden
Kitchen Garden ?
Farmers from Mulsam in Jajarkot, Nepal, display vegetables from their kitchen gardens
A kitchen garden is where herbs and vegetables are grown around the house for household use. Since early times a small plot near to the house has been used for growing a variety of vegetables according to the season. Local varieties such as radish, broad leaf mustard, chilli, beans, pumpkins etc. are all grown in the kitchen garden. In this chapter we provide information on how to establish and manage kitchen gardens with minimum input for maximum output, and show how to produce varied and nutritious crops of herbs and vegetables for use in the kitchen.
Why
make a Kitchen Garden ?
How
to make a Kitchen Garden ?
For people to stay healthy it's very important to have a healthy diet. A healthy diet means a balanced mix of rice, bread, pulses, vegetables, herbs, fruit etc. Vegetables are a very important part of a good diet as they contain various nutrients for many body functions. For growing, energy and protection against disease, vegetables play an essential role. Vegetables are especially important for the young, and for pregnant and nursing women.
Benefits of the Kitchen Garden to grow healthy, fresh vegetables yourself; to save the cost of buying vegetables and herbs; waste resources such as sweepings, kitchen scraps and
dirty water can be recycled onto the garden; wasteland around the house can be made productive.
Because there's often no tradition of kitchen gardens, many people can't grow the vegetables they need for a good diet. Or they spend lots of money on vegetables, or their health suffers from lack of vegetables. It may be that you haven't been able to make a kitchen garden. There are several reasons why it may be difficult to make a kitchen garden, or if you have made one, it is not successful. For example: pests, diseases or livestock have destroyed the crop; no good seed or seedlings; lack of space; These vegetables lack of water; have wilted because of lack of lack of fertility; water no spare time; lack of the right skills. In this chapter easy methods are described to solve these sorts of problems, and so help the family to be able to grow good produce from their kitchen garden.
Chapter 2 - Kitchen Garden
This Booklet's Author :

Chris Evans, advisor, Himalayan Permaculture Group, Nepal www.designedvisions.com 2
Beneficial Connections in the Kitchen Garden

a collecting waste water c home nursery (hot bed, fruit nursery, etc.) e living fence g vegetable beds i livestock stall b d f h sweepings pit air nursery fence (not living) liquid manure
Working relationships in the Kitchen Garden
How to make the work easier in the Kitchen Garden

1 domestic waste water collection 3 seeds from the garden to house and from house to garden 2 ash, water, hair, etc. composting resources from the house to the land
1 2 3 a b 10 g 9 e f 5 7 h d c 6 8 4 8
4 sweepings from the house and courtyard 5 waste water used for irriga- 6 use of compost tion in the kitchen garden 8 fodder from the land and live fence, and 7 liquid manure also used to compost returned to control pests and disease the land mulch material from the 9 10 vegetables etc. from live fence and edges the kitchen garden to the house 4
Things to pay attention to

To make and manage a kitchen garden easily, and to give best production, the following things are important :1. Site selection 3. Water management 5. Seed & seedlings 2. Protection 4. Fertility 6. Design of the garden
2. Protection
The kitchen garden area needs protection from the very start. It should not be possible for livestock to enter the area. A permanent fence should be made. Thorny plants can be cut and used to make a fence, but the best method is to plant a living fence to protect the garden.
Good management of the garden needs knowledge of all these. Then we can make our kitchen garden more successful.
1. Site selection
If you already have a kitchen garden you may not need to choose a new site, it's enough to improve the old site. If you are making a new garden, there are many factors to consider. For example : how to protect from livestock ? how can you bring water to the site and distribute it ? how is the soil ? How can the fertility needs be managed ? where is the sunlight coming from ? how can the area be accessed easily from the house ? When these issues are considered, the best site can be chosen and the work of making the garden will be easier. 6
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 2 - Kitchen Garden
Then, the crops within the garden will also need protection from damage by many types of pest and disease. There are many ways to do this. Mixed cropping, rotations, liquid manure, etc. are all ways of protecting crops. There is more information about crop protection in the chapter Integrated Pest Management.
3. Water Mangement
It is important to provide enough moisture for the kitchen garden. There are many ways of conserving and increasing the moisture available. For example : Mulching : prevents the wind and sun drying the bare soil; Green Manures : also cover the soil, and so help in conserving water; Windbreak : wind will dry out the soil, so stopping the wind helps to conserve soil moisture; wind
Irrigation : if there is no irrigation for main food crops, it is likely that there is also not enough water to irrigate the kitchen garden. But if the above methods are used, then more water is conserved and so less is needed. Collecting and using waste water from the kitchen can be enough to water the garden. Also, direct water from communal tapstands can be used on kitchen gardens.
Guidelines for Irrigation

By only putting a little water over a wide area, only the surface will be kept moist. This can cause roots to stay near the soil surface and in strong sun they can dry out very easily. So it's much better to irrigate less area with more water, so the moisture goes deeper in the soil. Then this area will not need watering again for a long time. In the hot season, irrigate in the evening or at night, and not in the daytime. Deep watering is better for deep rooting, and irrigation is needed less often. Shallow watering means roots stay at the surface and will soon dry out.
Provide shade : in the hot season trees can provide shade to the kitchen garden. A few small trees, such as Lucaena, mulberry, Moringa (drumsunshine stick), Persian lilac, or even fruit trees in the fence or within the garden can be used for this. As well as giving shade, these trees can also provide other benefits, such as firewood, fodder or mulch material. Mist collection : mist collects on the leaves of trees around and within the kitchen garden, and drips onto the soil to provide extra moisture. 8
Let's See
How to make a Kitchen Garden

Kitchen garden protected inside a woven bamboo fence. Even chickens can't get through this fence made from wormwood stalks.
Planting mixed vegetables helps to protect them from pests and diseases.
Edge plants provide useful mulch close to the garden beds where they are needed.
passion fruit passion fruit
Near the house many types of food plants can be grown in the same place.
chilli
broad bean coriander

In mixed vegetable planting, no space is wasted and the soil is always covered.
10
11
4. Fertility
All farmers know that without fertility in the soil, crops won't grow. But fertility can be as limited as water. If there isn't enough compost for the field crops, it can't be taken and used for the kitchen garden. So our kitchen garden needs to be self reliant for fertility. Suggestions for sources of fertility are given below : Sweepings pit :- by collecting everyday sweepings from the house and yard in one place, you can make enough compost for the kitchen garden. Liquid manure :- liquid manure made in a pit or a drum gives nutrients to the plants as well as protecting them from pests and diseases.
Legumes :- planting legumes such as peas, beans, Sesbania, sun hemp, etc., provides extra nitrogen to the soil which is good for other crops
Other sources :- ash, oil seed cake, hair etc. are all resources which can be added to the soil to increase fertility, as well as helping to prevent pests and disease.
5. Seeds and Seedlings

A kitchen garden can provide very good food from local, traditional vegetables, and it's important not to lose these local varieties. However, sometimes farmers are also interested to try new varieties. So it's very important to save and protect any good seed - this is the farmer's responsibility. Information about seed saving is given in the Seed Saving chapter. From good seed, it is important to be able to raise good, healthy seedlings for transplanting into the kitchen garden. Nursery techniques are described in the Home Nursery, Air nursery, Hot bed and Leaf Pots chapters. 13 Chapter 2 - Kitchen Garden
Mulching :- putting a thick layer of biomass mixed with compost on the soil helps to increase fertility.
Green manures :- sowing seeds of green manure helps to protect the soil and gives extra fertility for more production 12
6. Garden Design
More production in a small place Planting lots of varieties can give good production in a small area
4 13 3 5 6 7 9 10 12 8 11
If seeds and seedlings are planted too wide apart, much of the space in between goes to waste, where weeds will grow. Weeds use precious water and compost, and cause extra work to keep clear. You also have to work harder to replace the water and compost which are lost to the weeds. This is why it's best to plant vegetables densely. But if only one type of vegetable is planted densely, it will compete with itself for space above and below ground, and so not be a good crop. So it's better to plant a mix of small and large types, to make different layers of crops on the same bed. These will also have different layers of roots in the soil. This means many plants can be grown in a small space, but there is no competition between crops for space, water and nutrients.
Succession
As smaller vegetables are harvested for food, this makes space for the longer lasting vegetables, while in between new seedlings can be planted.
Succession
3 onion tomato 6 coriander Swiss chard 9 beetroot 7 cauliflower garlic 10 carrot 12 comfrey marigold 13 new seedlings - see "succession" on the next page 2 5 8 11 1 broad bean 4 peas
Newly planted cauliflower seedlings Previously planted broad leaf mustard seedlings
Species not shown, but also possible to plant

Vegetables :- cabbage, kale, radish, turnip, kohl rabi, chilli, broad leaf mustard, spinach, lettuce, aubergine, beans, etc. Vegetable or herb companion plants :- fennel, dill, basil, tansy, etc. 14
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 2 - Kitchen Garden
15
Edge Planting
It's not only the making of the kitchen garden, we must also be able to maintain it easily. It can be fun to create and plant a garden, but having to work every day to maintain it may soon become difficult, and so the garden gets neglected. Edge planting helps to make maintenance work easy in the kitchen garden. "Edge planting" means the growing of support crops, or companion plants, in the edges around the garden and its beds. These plants help support the garden by providing mulch, protection from weeds, windbreaks, repelling pests, and producing other useful resources. Plants such as wormwood, Adhatoda vasica, marigold, comfrey, lemon grass, nettles, Lucaena, mulberry, basil, tansy, and many others are good for edge planting. Benefits of Edge Planting Edge planting helps with protecting the garden and also producing fodder, fuel, nectar for bees, herbs for medicines, soil conservation (terrace stabilisation), habitat for pest predators, etc. Edge plants take nutrients from deep in the soil and cycle them to the surface, where they are used as mulch, and then returned to the soil. 16
Beneficial predator insects take nectar from the flowers. Then they attack pest insects.
The smell of marigold flowers and leaves help to repel many types of pest insect. They also produce a substance from their roots which repels damaging soil nematodes.
Where to plant ? in fences in agro-forestry on terrace edges on the edges of vegetable beds on path edges around the edge of the courtyard on the edge of the compost heap, waste water pit, sweepings pit, path, etc.
17
Farmers' Experience
Mr Shyam Shrestha
Read On !
Subjects Related to Kitchen Garden
This book provides enough information to be able to make and manage your own kitchen garden. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from these related chapters. Mixed Vegetable Gardening chapter Mulching chapter Home Nursery chapter Liquid Manure chapter Seed Saving chapter
Mr Shyam Shrestha owns Sunrise Farm in Sita Paila4, Kathmandu, Nepal. He has experience making kitchen gardens, so let's hear his story. At first I used to farm the traditional way but doing this, one type of vegetable was grown all together so there Shyam Shrestha were more pest problems, and more maintenance was needed as well. I've been collecting waste water from the kitchen for irrigation. For compost, I collect the rubbish around the house and cow shed into a sweepings pit. When I plant various types of vegetables mixed together, there are less pest problems. There's less weeding too, because they're planted so closely, and I mulch where I can. When I harvest, I clear whatever weeds there are and mulch them back on the beds that's more compost. I collect seed from the best plants of everything. With this method, I plant once and then need very little work or maintenance - just harvesting, and eating. Nowadays, others are starting to learn these methods here for vegetable gardening themselves.
Sweepings Chapter
Nutrition chapter Waste Water chapter Green Manures chapter 19
18
Compost chapter
Mixed Vegetable Gardening :- how to grow lots of vegetables easily by planting many varieties at one time Mulching chapter :- how to grow more crops with less work while keeping the soil covered Integrated Pest Management chapter :- how to use local resources and knowledge in many different methods of controlling pests and diseases Seed Saving chapter :- information on methods to produce and store various quality seeds at home. Sweepings chapter :- how to make good compost from sweeping the house and yard. Waste Water chapter :- how to get irrigation for the garden from domestic waste water. Green Manures chapter :- sow a green manure seeds to add fertility to the soil and produce more crops Compost chapter :- information on how to make good compost quickly is given in this chapter Liquid Manure chapter :- how to use local plants to make a liquid for fertilizer and pest control Nutrition chapter :- information about needs and sources of a healthy diet for all the family. Living Fence chapter :- how to plant not just a fence but also produce fodder, fuelwood, mulch and other benefits Home Nursery chapter :- make nurseries from local resources to grow many types of plants at home
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 3 - Mixed VEgetable Gardening
Mixed Vegetable Gardening ?

Mixed vegetable gardening means planting lots of different types of plants together. In A mixed vegetable garden, Begnas, Nepal conventional gardening, different varieties of vegetable are usually planted in different areas of the garden. So cabbage, onion, lettuce, radish, pea, etc. are all in their separate places. However, there are beneficial relationships between many types of vegetable and herb plants, which help them to grow. When plants grow separately, these benefits are lost to the system. This is one reason why various problems can start to affect the vegetables. To solve these problems farmers must then work harder at weeding, pest control, irrigation, etc. Without this extra work, production can be lost. Mixing different species together helps the different crops. So in this chapter information is provided on how to plant and maintain a mixed vegetable garden.
Why
plant a Mixed Vegetable Garden ?
How
to plant a Mixed Vegetable Garden ?
Many problems can affect the success of vegetable gardening. For example : lack of seed & seedlings lack of water lack of time lack of knowledge lack of fertility lack of space pests & disease or being eaten by livestock These problems can make vegetable production seem very difficult. They can cause the garden to fail, or productivity to be less, even with high inputs.
If you have your own good method of growing vegetables, don't stop all at once to try mixed vegetable gardening. Try it out on a small area of your vegetable garden and see. If it works well, you can increase it next year.
Materials needed
seed :- mustard, buckwheat, fenugreek, broad leaf mustard, lettuce, chard, beetroot, coriander, fennel, radish, turnip, kohl rabi, spinach, pea, broad bean, carrot, kale, chinese cabbage, pak choy, basil, garlic, parsnip, onion (seedlings or starts), etc. seedlings :- cauliflower, cabbage, brocolli, onion, leek, marigold, etc. compost fertile soil light (fine) mulch ash, oil seed cake parsnip
Benefits of Mixed Vegetable Gardening

less pest and disease leek less weeding less need to irrigate many types of vegetable in the same place no space is wasted vegetables can be harvested over a longer time high production in a small area
Time to plant
low-lying tropical or sub tropical - after the monsoon (Autumn) high altitude or temperate areas - in the early spring beetroot
Chapter 3 - Mixed Vegetable Gardening

Preparing the garden

The more fertile the soil is, the less preparation is needed. Dig the area, mix in compost and make the soil fine. Make garden beds according to your needs and the shape and slope of the land. If the width of the beds is 4 feet then the centre of the bed can be reached without treading on the soil.
Planting Seedlings
The soil should be fertile and fine to plant seedlings. Plant cabbages, cauliflower, etc. at their normal distance of 12-18 inches. In between and on the edges of the beds plant onion seedlings or starts, and garlic bulbs at 4 - 6 inch intervals.
Sowing Seeds
First sow the large seeds :- pea, radish, broad (fava) bean, climbing or dwarf beans, etc. are planted at intervals of 6 inches. Make a smale hole with your finger, plant the seed, and cover. Then, thinly sow all other vegetable or herb seed except the mustard, buckwheat or fenugreek. Lastly, after planting the seedlings and sowing the seed, thickly sow the mustard, buckwheat and/or fenugreek. If you don't have all of these 3, any one or two of them will do. On the edge of the beds it's good to plant or sow companion plants, such as lemon grass, marigold, basil, wormwood, comfrey, etc
kale
lettuce
cabbage
Materials Needed to plant a Mixed Vegetable Garden

various types of seedling mulch material various types of seed digging tools
well rotted compost
Different types of vegetables are good for our health

Covering the soil
sprout
After planting everything, sprinkle ash on top. Then cover with fine, fertile soil - enough to cover all the seed and ash. Finally, taking care not to cover the seedlings, add a thin mulch to cover all the soil, and water well. Now your mixed vegetable bed is complete, and all you have to do is harvest !
Let's See
1
How to make a Mixed Vegetable Garden
cauliflower
broadleaf mustard
onion
radish
After 3 weeks all types have germinated. Broad bean, buckwheat, Swiss chard and kohl rabi can also be seen.
One week after sowing, mustard, fenugreek, radish and onion bulbs have started to germinate. Cauliflower seedlings have also been planted
This vegetable garden looks good, but all the species are separate, so it takes more work.
6
Now lets see how much work it takes to look after a mixed vegetable garden
garlic
3
radish red mustard lettuce broadleaf mustard
coriander
Seen close, various types of vegetable
6
radish broadleaf mustard
6 weeks after sowing, production is good and bare soil can't be seen
Chinese mustard
red mustard
broad bean
Because of different types of leaf shape, leaf texture and colour, there are less pest problems
How many types of vegetable can you count ?

8
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 3 - Mixed Vegetable Gardening
Maintenance
How to maintain a Mixed Vegetable Garden
After eating from the garden for 4 months there are still lots of vegetables, and still no bare soil.
This farmer has sown 9 types of vegetable together on his large field.
By making the bed in this way, less maintenance is needed later on. Weeding and watering may still be needed according to site, but the mulch, and the density of plants help to conserve moisture and keep weeds down. In a bed planted like this, first the mustard will germinate. It will be followed by broad leaf mustard, radish, fenugreek, buckwheat, and so on. The mustard, fenugreek and buckwheat will grow very densely, and help prevent weeds from growing to leave minimum weeding. From 2-3 weeks, production starts with mustard leaves being picked as a greenleaf vegetable. Shortly after, buckwheat and fenugreek can be picked for the same use. Picking of these can continue over the next 2-3 weeks, until they are all gone (except for seed plants). By this time, other vegeables will start to be ready. Broadleaf mustard, radish leaves, small radishes, lettuce, etc. can be harvested from 1 month after sowing. Fast growing leaf vegetables are picked to make space for slower, longer living species. So maintenance of the mixed vegetable bed is really just harvesting. If this doesn't happen, the vegetables will grow too thick and the system will lose productivity. The space left by a harvested plant is quickly taken up by another. In this way, the bed never has any empty spaces or bare soil.
10
11
When can you harvest the fruits of your labour ?

Before 3 weeks 1 month 2 months 3 months mustard greens mustard greens (continued); fenugreek, buckwheat greens; radish greens. radish, broadleaf mustard, lettuce, Chinese mustard. radish, broadleaf mustard, lettuce, chard, coriander leaves, kohl rabi, turnip, beetroot, etc. broadleaf mustard, chard, turnip, radish, carrot, coriander, peas, chinese cabbage, kohl rabi, beetroot, kale, etc. chard, carrot, peas, broad bean, kale, cabbage, etc. chard, cauliflower, carrot, peas, broad beans, cabbage, onions, garlic, etc. cabbage, sprout, onion, garlic, coriander seed, fennel seed, leek, brocolli, etc.
After all plants are harvested

Using this method, vegetables can be easily harvested and eaten for up to 7 months. Finally, after everything has been eaten, add compost and dig the bed ready for the next season. If the monsoon or summer is next, maize, beans, squash, chillies, etc. can be sown. Or a crop of green manures can be grown, or the garden mulched thickly and left fallow. It's up to you, your seasons, your crops and your needs. When the right season starts again, the cycle is complete and the process of mixed vegetable growing can be repeated.
4 months
5 months 6 months 7 months
5 months after sowing, radish, broad bean, coriander, etc. produce seed. The soil is still completely covered.
12
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 3 - Mixed Vegetable Gardening
13
Farmers' Experience
Mrs Ekmaya Shris
Read On !
Subjects Related to Mixed Vegetable Gardening
Kitchen Garden chapter Mulching chapter Liquid Manure chapter Seed Saving chapter
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 5, Ratadada village, and a member of "Haryali" women's group, Mrs Ekmaya Shris has planted her own mixed vegetable garden. Now let's hear about her experience. I learnt about mixed vegetable gardening from the homestead programme (JPP) so I could grow Mrs Ekmaya Shris vegetables better. I planted greens, radish, garlic, broad beans, cabbage, coriander and others all at the same time. The beans were good young, and used for lentils when they were older. It's a good method to protect against pests as well, and by planting lots of types, if one doesn't do well the others will still produce food. After planting, there was always food to harvest, but no work for a whole 5 months. We start in September after the monsoon, and there's enough to eat continuously until April. Weeding isn't needed either even though we only put a light mulch around the plants. This is a great method. Now I can teach what I've learned to others, and I'm still learning more about what I don't know. 14
Sweepings Chapter Integrated Pest Management chapter
Nutrition chapter Waste Water chapter Compost Green chapter Manures chapter
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Integrated Pest Management chapter :how to use local resources and knowledge in many different methods of controlling pests and diseases
15
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Compost chapter :- information on how to make good compost quickly is given in this chapter
Nutrition chapter :- information about needs and sources of a healthy diet for all the family Liquid Manure chapter :- use local plants to make a liquid for fertilizer and pest control Waste Water chapter :- how to get irrigation for the garden from domestic waste water Sweepings chapter :- how to make good compost from sweeping the house and yard Mulching chapter :- how to grow more crops with less work while keeping the soil covered Kitchen Garden chapter :- design your garden to produce healthy vegetables at low cost Green Manures chapter :- use green manures to add fertility to the soil and produce more crops Seed Saving chapter :- information on methods to produce and store various quality seeds at home
Living Fence chapter :- how to plant not just a fence but also produce fodder, fuelwood, mulch and other benefits
What are
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Booklet 4 - Growing Off-Season Onions
Off-Season Onions ?
Onion seedlings ready for off-season planting
In Nepal, farmers usually start planting onions from seed in October, and transplant in November. This means that when April comes the crop is ready, and for a short period the bazaar is full of onions. And that means at this time, the price of onions is low. As a result, it's more difficult for farmers to gain a good income from selling onions. However, before and after this time, the price of onions is 2 or 3 times higher. Then, onions need to be imported from outside the country. How fine it would be for farmers to get such good prices for their crops. One way of making more from onion growing is by off-season onion production. This booklet gives information on how to grow onions to sell over an extended period. Note that months are described for the northern hemisphere, and need to be adapted for the southern hemisphere.
Why
grow offseason Onions ?
How
to grow offseason Onions ?
Benefits of growing off-season onions

when onions are less available, they can be sold at higher prices; by growing onions out of season, you save having to buy them at higher prices; onions are a nutritious vegetable, and it's good to eat them from time to time. By growing them out of season, you can eat onions more regularly; in the off-season method, onion bulbs are planted at the end of the monsoon when there is still moisture in the soil. This means that poorer farmers without irrigation can benefit more from producing off-season onions,
New types of seed aren't needed to grow off-season onions. You can use whatever types you are used to planting, or are locally available. 1. When ? Onion seed is planted between October and December. Use the same method to plant seed as in normal onion growing. You can also start a little earlier, in September. 2. Where ? Firstly you need a nursery to sow the onion seed in. Choose a place where the seedlings can be protected and cared for easily. The onion seedlings can be transplanted into the kitchen garden. If grown on a large scale, a transplant bed is also needed, according to the needs of the farmer.
Materials Needed to grow off-season onions onion seed This Booklet's Author :
digging tools
compost
Booklet 4 - Growing Off-Season Onions
3. Sowing the seed

Before sowing onion seed, soaking it in water helps to speed up germination. Change the water twice daily and after 2-3 days a tiny white root will appear. As soon as this happens, sow the seed in the nusery. After sowing, cover the seed with fine, fertile soil. Mixing ash and ground oil seed cake with the soil provides fertility, and also helps to protect against pests in the soil. Then, cover the soil with a fine mulch. As the onion seedlings grow, irrigate and weed as needed.
Let's See
How to grow offseason onions
4. Transplanting the seedlings

After about a month in the nursery, the seedlings are transplanted so they are a distance of about 2 inches apart. The seedlings will be about 3-6 inches tall. The nursery bed can also be used by leaving seedlings at the required distance after transplanting the others.
2 inches
These seedlings will grow in the transplant nursery for a further 2 months, and need to be weeded and watered as required. 4
Shown here is the onion seed germinating. In the lower photo the seedlings are ready for transplanting
After transplanting, the onions grow until the bulbs are the size of a thumbnail.
The plaited strings of onions are hung up in a dry, airy and shaded place
They can be left like this for 4-5 months Then the bulbs are lifted and plaited together as shown
At the end of the monsoon the bulbs are planted again. A shoot quickly grows and looks like this after a week.
5. When the onion bulbs are the size of a thumbnail, they are ready to lift (uproot). The bulb should be firm. After lifting, plait the leaves together to make a long string of bulbs 18-24 inches long. There may be 5060 bulbs in a string. The string is hung in a shaded, dry and well-aired place. 6. The string can be left hanging for the whole of the monsoon. At the end of the monsoon unplait the string and plant the bulbs separately in the vegetable garden. The off-season onions can be mixed with other vegetable varieties in the garden. More information about this is given in the booklets Mixed Vegetable Gardening and Kitchen Garden. Planting the bulbs in September means the onions will be fully grown in November. This is the time when onions are not easily available so the market price is higher
As in normal onion growing, bending over the leaves helps to produce bigger onions bulbs.
8
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Booklet 4 - Growing Off-Season Onions
Occasional irrigation is needed to grow onion seedlings. But by planting at the end of the monsoon there is still plenty of moisture left in the soil. If there is a lack of irrigation, groups of farmers can get together to grow seedlings in one place where water is available, such as below a community tap stand. Then, the bulbs are distributed among the farmers for storage individually. After the monsoon, everyone can then plant onion bulbs and produce a good crop without the need for irrigation. It's also easy to produce seed from onions grown in this way. Simply select the best plants, and let them grow to seed.
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 2, Shera village, Mr Bal Bahadur Regmi has produced his own off-season onions. Now let's hear about his experience.
Mr Bal Bahadur Regmi
There's more benefits for farmers by selling onions on the bazaar out of season
I've grown off-season onions since 1997 and I like the method very much. After sowing the seed in December, I leave the seedlings to grow into firm bulbs the size of my Bal Bahadur Regmi thumbnail, then lift them and hang them plaited together in a shaded and airy place. Then in September I make beds and plant the bulbs again. At that time, the soil is moist from the monsoon, so I don't need to irrigate. The onions are then ready to eat and sell in November. This method is really easy and I can eat onions when there's normally none available. And because there are no other onions available, they're more expensive. You can also save seed using this method. Nowadays others in the village have started to use this method. We produce seedlings on our farm, and distribute the bulbs to other farmers to continue the method of planting the bulbs on their own land.
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Booklet 4 - Growing Off-Season Onions
10
11
Subjects Related to Growing Off-Season Onions

Good benefits can be had from the information in this book about growing off-season onions. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related booklets. Kitchen Garden and Mixed Vegetable Growing booklets How to make and manage a home vegetable garden for permanence, ease and simplicity ? These booklets give information on how to do less work for more production, while also being able to produce a wide range of fresh vegetables.
Home Nursery booklet Different plant species have different ways of propagation. This booklet tells how to easily grow many types of plant for home use.
Seed Saving booklet This booklet gives information on methods to produce and store various quality seeds at home.
Read On !
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Booklet 5 - Information About Growing Herbs
Information About Growing Herbs

In our diets, we eat not only grains, bread, vegetables and pulses but also different types of herbs. Herbs make food more tasty and can also help digestion, and act as medicines. So it's a good idea to learn how to grow appropriate new types of herb. In this booklet we learn about some new types of herb, and how to grow and use them for more benefits in our diet and garden.
How to read the information on new herb varieties ?

1. The herb's name
2. Its drawing
6. Its functions and benefits
3. Its height
4. Its age
5. How to plant its seed or seedling
Species
Balm
Basil
Borage
Chamomile
Lavender
Drawing of the Plant
Height Age Planting Method
1 metre perennial sow direct, or raise in a nursery and transplant medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant mulch material
50 cm annual sow direct, or raise in a nursery and transplant mix with vegetables medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant liquid manure
50 cm annual sow direct, or raise in a nursery and transplant mix with vegetables medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant liquid manure mulch material
50 cm perennial sow direct, or raise in a nursery and transplant medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant mulch material
50 cm perennial raise in a nursery and transplant medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant
Function
Booklet 5 - Information About Growing Herbs
raise and
Species
Marjoram
Rosemary
Sage
Tansy
Thyme
so raise and
50 cm annual sow seed or plant cutting in a nursery, and transplant mix with vegetables medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant
50 cm perennial sow seed or plant cutting in a nursery, and transplant mix with vegetables medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant
up to 1 metre perennial sow seed or plant cutting in a nursery, and transplant medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant liquid manure
1 metre annual sow seed or plant cutting in a nursery, and transplant medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant liquid manure mulch material
Function
Species
Oregano
Nasturtium
Lemon Bergamot
Sorrel
Comfrey
Flower
up to 1 metre perennial sow direct or raise cuttings in a nursery, and transplant mix with vegetables medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant
1 metre perennial sow seed in a nursery and transplant
25 cm perennial sow direct, or raise in a nursery and transplant
50 cm perennial from root cuttings
Function
tea mix with vegetables medicine medicine companion planting edge plant bee food (nectar) edge plant liquid manure
mix with vegetables medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant liquid manure mulch material 7

Spe cie s
Summer Savory
Feverfew
Parsley
Planting Age Height Method
50 cm annual sow seed in a nursery and transplant
50 cm perennial sow seed in a nursery and transplant medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant liquid manure
30 cm perennial sow seed in a nursery and transplant mix with vegetables medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant
mix with vegetables medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant
Function
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Booklet 5 - Information About Growing Herbs

In our diets, we eat not only grains, bread, vegetables and pulses but also different types of herbs. Herbs make food more tasty and can also help digestion, and act as medicines. So it's a good idea to learn how to grow appropriate new types of herb. In this booklet we learn about some new types of herb, and how to grow and use them for more benefits in our diet and garden.
How to read the information on new herb varieties ?

1. The herb's name
2. Its drawing
6. Its functions and benefits
3. Its height
4. Its age
5. How to plant its seed or seedling
Species
Balm
Basil
Borage
Chamomile
Lavender
1 metre perennial sow direct, or raise in a nursery and transplant medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant mulch material
50 cm annual sow direct, or raise in a nursery and transplant mix with vegetables medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant liquid manure
50 cm annual sow direct, or raise in a nursery and transplant mix with vegetables medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant liquid manure mulch material
50 cm perennial sow direct, or raise in a nursery and transplant medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant mulch material
50 cm perennial raise in a nursery and transplant medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant
Function
raise and
Species
Marjoram
Rosemary
Sage
Tansy
Thyme
so raise and
50 cm annual sow seed or plant cutting in a nursery, and transplant mix with vegetables medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant
up to 1 metre perennial sow seed or plant cutting in a nursery, and transplant medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant liquid manure
1 metre annual sow seed or plant cutting in a nursery, and transplant medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant liquid manure mulch material
Function
Species
Oregano
Nasturtium
Lemon Bergamot
Sorrel
Comfrey
Flower
up to 1 metre perennial sow direct or raise cuttings in a nursery, and transplant mix with vegetables medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant
1 metre perennial sow seed in a nursery and transplant
25 cm perennial sow direct, or raise in a nursery and transplant
50 cm perennial from root cuttings
Function
tea mix with vegetables medicine medicine companion planting edge plant bee food (nectar) edge plant liquid manure
mix with vegetables medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant liquid manure mulch material 7

Spe cie s
Summer Savory
Feverfew
Parsley
Planting Age Height Method
50 cm annual sow seed in a nursery and transplant
50 cm perennial sow seed in a nursery and transplant medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant liquid manure
30 cm perennial sow seed in a nursery and transplant mix with vegetables medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant
mix with vegetables medicine companion planting bee food (nectar) edge plant
Function
What is a
Home Nursery ?
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 6 - Home Nursery
A Home Nursery is a nursery made in your own garden to grow plants that you need yourself. There is no single way to make a Home Nursery, nor is it made for just one type of plant. Vegetable, fodder, fruit, medicinal herbs, and other types of seedling can all be grown in the home nursery. Then, you can plant these seedlings on your own land, or distribute to Belmaya Rana and her Home your friends, or even Nursery, Surkhet, Nepal sell them. For different species of seedling, there are different types of home nursery. In this chapter simple methods are described for growing different types of plants for home use.
Why

make a Home Nursery ?
How
to make a Home Nursery ?
to obtain suitable seedlings when needed; to produce seedlings close to where they are needed; so seedlings can be cared for and protected at home; to grow the right species which are right for the local climate; to make use of domestic waste resources for water and compost; to improve productivity on your own land using trees and shrubs; seedlings can be exchanged or sold; by producing seedlings yourself you don't need to import them; you increase your skills
There are many methods of growing plants, and many different types of nursery to do this. The fruit nursery, leaf pot nursery, hot bed, air nursery, etc. all have their own methods. They are described in more detail in other chapters. In this chapter, at first information is given about things concerned with any type of nursery. After that, we give some examples of useful types of nursery.
Materials Needed to make a Home Nursery

cutting tools seedlings Digging tools cuttings
roots seed
It may be that you don't have the resources in your village to build and manage a large nursery. In a big nursery more water, compost, and more maintenance would be needed. This means there is less time to spend working at home, and an extra person would need to be employed. In many villages it's difficult to make such arrangements. So, you can use local waste resources and simple methods to successfully raise seedlings, even if only a few, at home. 2
compost and fertile soil

Chapter 6 - Home Nursery
mulch
small sticks (for marking) 3
1. Things to consider when building a Home Nursery

(a) Site Selection
It's important to choose the right place for a nursery. A site is needed where watering, checking, protecting, mulching, composting and such daily maintenance becomes easier. Once the right site is chosen, we can start to build the nursery. You can put different types of nursery in different places around the farm. But wherever they are, you need protection, compost, water and good seed or seedlings.
(b) Protection
To make a successful home nursery it's essential to have a protected area. If your home nursery isn't protected, chickens, goats, etc. will damage it and eat the plants there, and all your work will go to waste. Also, seedlings won't be available when needed.
What to protect against ?
Danger Management
Livestock fence, live fence,
watcher, community agreement thatch shades, water
Resources needed
wormwood, thorny plants, Crotalaria, Sesbania, citrus, bamboo, etc straw, mulch, shade trees, green manures, etc.
Dangers to the Home Nursery

In any place where these dangers aren't protected against, the nursery will fail
Sun
Pests & integrated pest diseases management sun pests and disease
methods
healthy soil & plants, liquid manure, mixed crops, rotations, companion planting, ash, oil seed cake, cow's urine, neem oil, etc. straw, mulch, trees (agroforestry), green manures, etc. straw, mulch, agro-forestry, green manures, etc. 5
wind
Wind
mulch, thatch shades, windbreak thatch shades, tree cover
Hail livestock
4
(c) Soil and Fertility Management

To raise healthy seedlings in the shortest possible time, fertile soil is essential. If the forest is near, you can bring in good, fertile soil for making beds and filling pots. Otherwise, livestock manure is used for making compost to mix with the local soil. It is important that compost is well rotted, and raw or even half decomposed compost shouldn't be used in the top soil of the nursery. Compost produced from the sweepings pit is good to use. Information about this is given in the Sweepings chapter. If the soil is clay type, mix one part sand with 2 parts soil and one part compost. Soil from the Mother Tree For many species of tree, if soil is taken from around the roots of the same species in the forest and mixed in beds or pots, growth in the nursery can be greatly improved. This is because the soil under the "Mother Tree" contains essential micro-organisms which help the young plants to grow, just like mother's milk helps a baby.
pans, get into the habit of saving the waste water for the nursery. More information about how to do this is given in the Waste Water Pit chapter. In the hot season, water the nursery in the evenings or at night, not during the day. By mulching the beds, or making a thatch shade, the water used to irrigate will last longer.
(e) Seed
Talk with other farmers to decide which species are wanted to be grown, and where the seed can be obtained. Many types of seed can be collected from the nearby forest or farmland. This seed should be collected at the right time, and stored well until ready for sowing. More information about this is given in the Seed Saving chapter. Timely Seed Sowing Most seeds can be sown in the nursery in the Spring. In lower, hotter climates this can start in the winter. At higher elevations it may be some months later. Here, using a hot bed can mean starting in the winter even at high elevations. Information about this is given in the Hot Bed chapter. Seedlings must always be big enough (at least 8-12 inches) to plant out in the planting season, whenever that is. Chapter 6 - Home Nursery 7
(d) Water Management

By using waste water from the household, enough water to irrigate the home nursery can be provided. So morning and evening, washing hands and face, or washing pots and The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" 6
Species Selection The method used in the nursery will depend on which plants you want to grow.
2. Making nursery beds

After choosing a site with suitable water and fertility resources, you can start work on making the beds.
Type of nursery
Seed sown direct into nursery beds
Species grown
Vegetables :- cauliflower, cabbage, tomato, aubergine, chard, brocolli, etc. Trees :- Persian lilac, neem, sea buckthorn, ash, coffee, oak, etc. (these can then be transplanted into pots)
Size of the beds

The beds should be 4 feet wide. This allows reaching to the centre of the bed from either side without stepping on the soil. The beds can be as long as you need. The 4 feet shape and length of the 4 feet beds depends on the number of plants you want to grow. 4 feet
Seed sown into walnut, mango, soapnut, butter tree, polypots etc. Cuttings Root slips Air nursery mullberry, napier grass, willow, hazel, some Ficus, etc. comfrey, lemon grass, broom grass, etc. Lucaena, Acacia, Sisso, Bauhinia, Sesbania, (most legumes) , papaya, tree cotton, etc. wild peach, pear, citrus, walnut, etc. pumpkin, tomato, gourds, chilli, aubergine, etc. for off-season growing pumpkin, gourds, cucumber, beans, peas, etc.
Shape of the beds

If the nursery is on a slope, the beds should follow the contour, i.e. they should be as level as possible. Watering and access should then decide how to design the beds.
Circle nursery
One good method is to make a nursery bed around the base of a fruit tree. Then, excess water and compost put on the nursery will go to the tree, instead of going to waste.
Fruit nursery Hot bed Leaf pots
The width of the bed is 4 feet
The air nursery, fruit nursery, hot bed and leaf pots are described in more detail in their own chapters. The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" 8
Preparing the nursery soil

Dig the nursery bed to a depth of 50 cm (18 inches) and add compost, forest soil, sand, etc. as needed. After making the soil fine and loose, the beds are ready for sowing seed. Tree, shrub and vegetable seed can be sown. Beds for planting cuttings and root slips are made in the same way.
(a) Sowing seed in the beds

This method is dependent on the shape and size of the seed. Small seed :alder, eucalyptus, etc. This seed is very small and needs mixing with sand or soil to help sow evenly. Mix one part seed with 2 parts sand or soil. Make small lines across the bed with your finger, and sow the seed mix into this small trench. Then cover with a thin layer of fine soil. Large seed :make a deeper trench across the bed. Seed is planted at twice the depth of the seed's thickness. Seed planting distance :leave a distance between seeds which is the same as the size of the seed.
3. Sowing and Planting in the home nursery

Now, information is given about planting in different types of nursery. First, how to sow seed, then plant cuttings, and after that examples are given of how to plant napier grass, lemon grass and comfrey.
Lines are made in the bed to be ready for sowing seed
Sow the seed twice as deep as its size and cover with soil
cabbage orange oak peach
10
11
4 fingers (2-3 inches) space between lines
Let's See
1
how to make a Home Nursery
Between seeds, leave the same space as the size of the seed
oak seed example
orange seed example
cabbage seed example
Belmaya's home nursery in Gumi VDC, Surkhet, Nepal, with various plants shaded by thatch.
Benefits of planting in a line :- after seeds planted in a line have germinated, they can be recognised from weeds that germinate around them. This means that the bed can be weeded without damaging the new seedlings.
After sowing seed, cover well with fine soil. Then cover (do not smother) with a thin, light mulch
12
Coffee seedlings in a home nursery sheltered by nearby shrubs.
13
How to plant Napier grass, comfrey and lemon grass in the Home Nursery Napier grass 1 1
Lemon grass
Trim leaves & roots of large clump
cuttings from one stem 2
Comfrey 1
separated and cut into small plants (slips)
2 small slips made from large clump
;pf fn planting the cuttings
comfrey roots 3 3
ready for planting

14
small "slips" planted in a bed

slips planted in a bed 4

15
slips planted in a bed
Lucaena planted on the edge of the beds provide shade and a support for a frame to hold thatch, as well as producing fodder, firewood, etc. (b) Planting cuttings
Some species are more successful and grow faster from cuttings than from seed. Species growing from cuttings :- mulberry, willow, many Ficus, drumstick, grape, honey locust, etc. Timing of cuttings Cuttings are usually made in the cold, dormant season. Deciduous plants lose their leaves in winter, and 2-3 weeks before sprouting new leaves in the Spring is usually the best time to plant these cuttings. So if plants sprout in late February, plant the cuttings in early February. If they sprout in mid March, plant the cuttings in late February, etc. Selecting cuttings When selecting branches for making cuttings, always choose healthy, undamaged and diseasefree branches from last year's wood. Cut the branch cleanly into short lengths, and plant quickly in the nursery.
slips sprouting well
covered with a light mulch
mulberry cuttings sprouting

16
17
Things to consider when preparing cuttings Cuttings are prepared after bringing to the nursery, and when preparing should be cut straight at the base and slanting at the top. Cuttings are usually between 6 and 12 inches if cut away long. There from the 12 cut near should be at ins. to the bud, top will least 5 buds dry out bud, on the cut6 doesn't ting. The ins. dry out top of the cutting should be pruned just above the top bud with a slanting cut. If cut too far above this bud, the wood will dry out and can cause disease to enter. Preparing a bed for planting cuttings The bed is dug and made fertile as for a normal nursery (see p.6 and 10). It's most important that the soil is light and loose, not compacted like clay. Dig a trench, place cuttings on one side, and fill in 18
Planting the cuttings After cutting the branch from the tree to be propagated and trimming it into short lengths, the cuttings should be planted quickly into the bed to prevent them from drying out. Make a trench in the bed about 4-6 inches deep. Place the cuttings dig a trench, upright about 3 inches apart against the side of place the 1 cuttings and the trench. Then refill the fill in the soil soil into the trench, covering more than half of the more than cuttings. The cuttings half of the should be left at an angle, cutting as in the drawing. Plant should be the rest of the bed in lines 2 buried like this. The cuttings should be left with the slanting top cut at a vertical angle, and facing away from the sun. By doing this water cannot settle on the top, and the sun will not dry out the cut surface. Place a light mulch between the cuttings and make thatch shades over the top. This will conserve moisture and protect from frost, hail, etc. The nursery should be well protected, as the cuttings should not be touched or moved. plant the cuttings at an angle pointing away from the sun
19
(c) Planting Napier grass cuttings

The nursery for Napier grass is prepared in the same way as for other types. The Napier stem should be mature and slightly woody. If there are small aerial roots and leaves sprouting from the internodes, these can be planted in a nursery, or directly onto their permanent positions in the fields. To make the cutting, make a slanting cut mid point between 2 nodes. When planting in the nursery make sure the node on the cutting is buried in the soil. If successful, roots will sprout from this node and the cutting will grow.
(d) Planting Lemon grass slips

To propagate lemon grass, carefully dig out a large clump and divide into small plants, or slips. These can then be planted in the nursery. In the rainy season the small slips can also be planted out directly into the fields. Before planting, the leaves should be trimmed to about 4-6 inches and the roots trimmed to about 2-3 inches long. Plant as described Make small slips above, cover with mulch and from a large clump water well.
Trim the leaves and roots
4-6 inches 2-3 inches
Many types of cutting can be planted in the rainy season as well. At this time, cuttings can be made and planted direct into farmers' fields. Broom grass can be planted in a nursery in the same way, but this is done in the Summer. The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" 20
Dig a trench, place the slips and fill in the soil
21
(e) Planting root slips

Some plants will grow from planting sections of root, or root and shoots. By planting these in a nursery, many useful plants can be produced in a small space. Plants which will grow from root slips include comfrey, lemon grass, broom grass and cardamon. Preparation of beds to plant root slips is the same as other methods described above. Planting method The method for planting root slips is the same for planting cuttings. Dig a trench and line the root slips along one side, then fill in the soil again. Leave a small shoot sticking up from the soil surface. Then cover with mulch and irrigate. At first the bed should be well watered, and then give water as needed. Add a thatch shade as required. 22
(f) Using Polypots

Many seeds can be planted directly into polypots. Others planted into beds can then be transplanted into polypots after they have germinated. Planting seeds in polypots When planting seed in polypots, the seed is buried by the same depth of soil as is the thickness of the seed. When filling the pots with loose, fertile soil, leave enough space to place the seed, then cover it with the remaining soil, as in the picture below.
Dig a trench and line out root slips
Small seed is covered with a thin layer of soil
Large seed like peach is planted deeper, and covered by more soil
Placing the polypots in the nursery After seed is sown in the pots they are put into the nursery beds. A bed width of 1 metre is enough, the length is according to the number of pots needed. It's not necessary to prepare the soil of the beds as the good soil is already filled into the pots. It is better if the floor underneath the pots is made of stone or gravel. Chapter 6 - Home Nursery 23
Refill the trench to bury the slips
To keep the pots upright in the bed, place stones, bricks or bamboo around the edge. In a 1 metre wide bed, you can fit 18-20 regular small sized polypots (2 inch diameter) filled with soil. If large size, (4 inch) 8-10 pots will fit in one line. To allow more space in the bed, place a cross bar made of bamboo every 6 lines of pots, and continue to place more pots the other side of it. When all are placed, water and place a thatch shade on top of the bed.
Transplanting seedlings from bed to pot If plants are to be transplanted from bed to pot, the seedling is ready at the 4 leaf stage. First, water the bed well and then carefully lift the seedlings with the help of a small stick. Using the stick, make a hole in the soil of the pot for the roots.
Cross bar placed every 6 lines of pots
Bed with stone, bricks or bamboo on the edge
Making sure the roots of the seedling are pointing downwards, place the seedling into the hole. The roots must all be in the hole. Finally, use the stick or fingers to press the hole closed around the roots, and give water. For some days afterwards keep a shade over the bed, as the seedlings need to be protected from the sun.
Root pruning in the pots As the seed germinates and the plant grows, its roots will grow down into the soil in the pot. If the roots are allowed to grow too long and thick out of the holes in the pots, lifting the pots will be difficult and if the roots break the plant may die. So after the first month of growing, the pots should be lifted to check for roots growing out of the holes. If found, they should be cleanly cut and the pot returned to the bed. After the first pruning, pots should be checked every 2 weeks. Pruning the roots like this is good for the plant and means it can be planted easily. Not pruning can cause the plant to die. 24
(g) Irrigating in the nursery

Seedlings need the right amount of water to grow well. With too little water seed will not germinate, and growing seedlings will dry out. Too much water and they will rot, and the water is wasted. Mulch and shading reduce the amount of water needed by conserving the moisture. In the cold season it is best to water in the morning, and in the hot season water in the evening or at night. Chapter 6 - Home Nursery 25
(g) Thatching over the nursery

Small seedlings need protection against heavy rain, strong sun, frost and hail, etc. On hot, sunny days shades should be placed over the beds from around 11am to 3pm. The shade should be about 50cm high. In the winter, or whenever frost is likely, shades are needed at night, and should be about 25cm high.
Farmers' Mrs Devi Gurung Experience

From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 3, Shera village, and a member of "Chintan" Women's Group, Mrs Devi Gurung has made her own home nursery. Now let's read about her experience. I learned about making a home nursery from the Homestead Programme (JPP) and my local Women's Group. Now, in my nursery Mrs Devi Gurung I have seedlings for producing fruit, firewood, fodder and the like. I have tree cotton, coffee, Bauhinia, bamboo, Acacia, papaya, Lucaena and so on. Some seedlings are in beds, some are in polypots, according to the species of plant. So now it's easy to plant them on my land. For fertility in the nursery and the vegetable garden I used the compost in the sweepings pit. And the waste water pit provides enough water for irrigation. All together there are 5 to 600 seedlings. Mainly I'll be planting them at home, but I will also swap some with friends in the group, and give some away as well.
To protect from the sun in summer, high shades are needed in the daytime.
To protect from frost in the winter, low shades are needed at night (h) Weeding in the nursery
Various weeds will grow in the nursery. These need continuous removal. Sometimes it's difficult to distinguish weeds from sown plants. By sowing in straight lines, seedlings can be recognised after they germinate. Everything else will be weeds and can be carefully pulled, dried, and mulched back on the beds. The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" 26
27
Read On !
Subjects Related to Home Nursery
Liquid Manure chapter :- Use local plants to make a
liquid for fertilizer and pest control from information in this chapter.

There are many types of pest and disease which affect farm crops. In this chapter information is given about preventing these problems using local resources.
Waste Water chapter :- If you need extra water for

the home nursery, find information in this chapter about how to make use of household and tapstand waste water for irrigation. Kitchen Garden and Mixed Vegetable Growing chapters How to make and manage a home vegetable garden for permanence, ease and simplicity ? Information on doing less work for more production while also being able to produce a wide range of fresh vegetables is given in these chapters.
Four chapters on how to make various other nurseries :- Different types of plants need different types of
management to grow them successfully. Information on how to build and manage the fruit nursery, air nursery, hot bed and leaf pots is given in these chapters. Agroforestry chapter :- information about how to integrate trees and crops by planting and managing trees on farmland without decreasing farm yield and producing a range of other useful products is given in this chapter.
What is a
Hot Bed ?
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 7 - Hot Bed
Bhim Regmi and his Hot Bed Good, nutritious food is not only a need for everybody, it's a right. Many farmers grow vegetables, which helps to provide us with many essential nutrients. But there are several months when seeds won't grow because of the cold, and the kitchen garden stays empty. One method of raising vegetable seedlings even in cold weather is called the Hot Bed. The hot bed is a way or providing extra heat to the soil and growing seedlings in the cold season, so seedlings can be grown ahead of time. This means that vegetables can be grown off season, even in cold climates. Read on, to find out how to do this.
Why
make a Hot Bed ?
How
to make a Hot Bed ?
In cold climates and at high altitudes, for several months over Winter and early Spring there is snow and frost, which prevents seeds germinating and can kill young plants. For this reason seedlings can't be grown until the time for frost has past and the weather warms up. By making a hot bed, seedlings can be grown even in the winter. This means that vegetables can be produced 1 or 2 months earlier than usual.
Making the Hot Bed Choose a good site for the nursery. This must be easy to
protect and maintain, with plenty of sun. Dig a trench. The trench should be 1 metre wide, 50cm deep, and as long as you need for the amount of plants to be grown (a 1x1m hot bed is usually enough for several families to share seedlings grown for planting in their own kitchen gardens). Place a 3 inch thick layer of straw or leaf litter in the bottom of the trench. On top of this place a 3 inch layer of raw, fresh cow or horse dung, and wet well. On top of the dung place another 3 inch layer of straw or leaf litter. Then return a 3 inch layer of the soil dug from the trench. Finally put a 3 inch layer of fine, fertile soil (which can be made by mixing compost with the dug out soil, if it is suitable).
Village-made Hot Bed
There are also economic benefits from this. If vegetables can be raised off season, i.e. ahead of time, they can be sent earlier to the market when prices will be higher. For example, if in a normal season vegetables are 10 rupees a kilo, at offseason times the vegetables may be sold at 15-20 rupees. 2
k'l:tsf g+= ^ tftf] g;{/L
Chapter 7 - Hot Bed
Hot Bed
The seed will be sown into this layer of fine, fertile soil. In the Hot Bed we can sow seeds direct into the soil, or into leaf pots filled with the same soil. After sowing the seed, cover the bed with a thin layer of finely chopped mulch. Finally, the bed is covered with a sheet of plastic. First of all make a bamboo frame on which to hang the plastic. Bury the edges of the plastic in the soil around the bed, so air cannot get in.
Inside shown through cross section

1. Heat from the dung helps seeds to germinate
sun plastic seed heat thin mulch
50cm deep
Materials Needed to make a Hot Bed digging and cutting tools clear plastic bamboo
soil + compost soil straw
heat
seed
fresh dung
straw
2 metres rotted compost fresh dung straw or leaf litter
2. The plastic helps to protect growing seeedlings from frost

sun germinating seedlings plastic
1 basket
4
1 basket
1 basket
Chapter 7 - Hot Bed
0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 65 4 3 2 1
Most types of vegetable can be grown in the hot bed. Usually, summer crops are most suitable as these are the ones that can be started for early planting after the winter.
Species to grow in the hot bed
planting method
leaf pots
direct into the bed
season
chillis, aubergine, ladies' finger, sunflower, etc.
pumpkin, cucumber, gourds, beans, etc.
rainy season plants
tomatoes, broadleaf mustard, chard, lettuce, onion, cabbage, etc.
beans, peas, etc.
dry season plants
Chapter 7 - Hot Bed
Let's See
3 #
In the bottom place a 3 inch layer of straw or leaf litter
how to make a Hot Bed
On top of this place a 3 inch layer of fresh dung
dig a trench 50cm deep, 1 metre wide, and as long as needed
4
On top of the dung put another layer of straw
Make lines in the soil to sow the seed into
On top of this put a 3 inch layer of the trench soil
8
Leaf pots with seed sown can also be put in the hot bed
6
Then put a 3 inch layer of fine, fertile soil
8
9
Now cover the whole bed with a fine mulch k'l:tsf g+= ^ tftf] g;{/L
Chapter 7 - Hot Bed
10
Make a bamboo or stick frame
Maintenance
How to maintain a Hot Bed
From time to time the nursery needs maintaining : when the sun is out the plastic can be folded back to irrigate and weed the nursery as required; replace the plastic in the evening, when the sun goes down; heat from the dung warms the soil, and the plastic prevents it quickly escaping; when the danger of frost has passed the seedlings in the hot bed can be transplanted into the kitchen garden
11
Hang the plastic on this and bury the edges in the soil
12
Mrs Laxmi Thapa and her Hot Bed
The plastic opened to weed the nursery

10
Chapter 7 - Hot Bed
11
From time to time open the hot bed to check inside
Remove the plastic when the danger of frost is over. Make a fence to protect against livestock
tomato seedlings At this time giving water, liquid manure, or weeding can be done lettuce seedlings
pumpkins in leaf pots
12
Chapter 7 - Hot Bed
13
When seedlings are ready
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Lekh Pharsa-2, Purano Gaun village, and a member of "Creative" Women's Group, Mrs Tulisara Gyami has made her own hot bed nursery. Now let's read about her experience.
Mrs Tulisara Gyami
hot bed
seedlings beds are mulched
kitchen garden beds
seedlings
When the danger of frost is passed, seedlings can be transplanted from the hot bed into the kitchen garden. First, water the plants well before transplanting. Water them again once they have been transplanted.

Chris Evans, advisor, Himalayan Permaculture Group, Nepal www.designedvisions.com The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" 14
In our village, it's difficult to grow vegetables in the winter because of the cold at Mrs Tulisara Gyami that time. The frost kills the plants. That's why I made a hot bed, to grow off season vegetables. After I made the hot bed it was easy to grow vegetables earlier in the season. As soon as I saw the first hot bed, I knew it would work because the morning after the day we made it, the heat had warmed up the inside and it was full of steam. Outside we were shaking with cold, but inside the plastic seedlings started to germinate very quickly. I used the bed for 3 or 4 successive plantings into the garden. This made it easy to k'grow g+= ^ tftf] g;{/L l:tsf lots of beneficial vegetables 2 months sooner than normal.
Chapter 7 - Hot Bed
15
Subjects Related to the Hot Bed

Hot Bed chapter
Leaf Pots chapter

Many types of vegetable for off-season production can be grown in the hot bed. Cucumber, pumpkin, beans, etc. can also be grown off season. You can learn how to make leaf pots from this chapter.
Kitchen Garden Mixed Vegetable chapter Gardening chapter

Plants grown in the nursery can be mixed with all sorts of others for planting. Information on a method producing more with less work is given in this chapter. Where, when, and how to plant seedlings raised in the nursery with less work and more production ? Information on how to make a successful kitchen garden is given in this chapter.
Read On !
What is an
Air Nursery ?
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 8 - Air Nursery
It's everyone's responsibility to plant trees and make the Earth green. But because of lack of skills to raise plants, many farmers don't do this important work. They may try to do it, but often the planting isn't successful. In this chapter we discuss Ram and Lilawati Gharti's Air Nursery the question of how to raise seedlings using local resources and less work. There are many types of nursery to raise different types of seedlings. Here, we learn about a new and quite different type of nursery, called an Air Nursery. An Air Nursery is a bed which is lifted above the ground, so there is empty air space between the bottom of the bed and the ground below.
Why
make an Air Nursery ?
How
digging tools seed
to make an Air Nursery ?
The main purpose of the air nursery is to produce a good shape for seedlings' roots. It is mainly useful for those plants which develop a fast-growing tap root. Seedlings are usually raised from seed sown in a nursery bed, or sown direct into polypots, or transplanted from one to the other. But it's very easy to damage the roots as young seedlings are transplanted from one place to another. Many plants can dry out. In polypots, roots need pruning regularly, and if this is forgotten or not possible at the right time, the roots grow into the soil and when lifted can break and damage the plant. The air nursery is especially for species that grow these fast, long roots in the nursery.
Materials needed to make an Air Nursery straw or leaf litter fertile soil
about 3 baskets nails rope
A small air nursery can be made in the corner of a kitchen garden
stakes
bamboo
planks
sticks
When to build an air nursery

The air nursery is built whenever normal nurseries are started. This is normally late winter for lower, warmer areas, and later in the spring for higher, cooler areas.
This chapter's Author :-
Building the Air Nursery

On the following pages the building method for the air nursery is described, with pictures and text.
Mrs Belmaya Rana

Local Coordinator, Gumi, Surkhet, Nepal 2
Chapter 8 - Air Nursery
Dig holes at 4 corners of a square and drive in 4 strong stakes
5
Strongly secure 4 planks around the top
Place strong sticks across the uprights
Fill with fertile soil
3
Place smaller sticks across
@
Plant seeds in lines
Add smaller sticks and straw to close all holes

4
Cover the seeds with soil and cover the soil with a light mulch
How to make
Dig in 4 stakes at the corners of a square, and between 50cm and 1 metre high, so they are strong and steady. Surround the top frame with planks or bamboo, and fill with up to 6 inches of fine, fertile soil to make the nursery bed. Dig a round pit 50 cm deep and 50 cm in diameter underneath the nursery. The soil from this can be used this to fill the nursery above. This pit then has a second use when lined with plastic to make liquid manure in, and is shaded by the nursery above. Now the air nursery is ready to sow seeds in. After sowing, cover the seeds with a thin layer of soil and then a fine mulch, and water the bed well. Seeds will germinate quicker if first soaked in warm water for 1-2 days.
Let's See
how to make an Air Nursery
1
Making the hot bed in a shady spot behind the house
Species to plant in the Air Nursery

Plants which produce a fast growing tap root are ideal for the air nursery, such as:Lucaena, Acacia, Bauhinia, Dalbergia, Sesbania, Gliricidia, Flemengia, Calliendra, tree cotton, mango, papaya, walnut, honey locust, etc.
2
Making the pillars and frame to hold the bed
Use straw or leaf litter to stop soil from falling through
Make the soil fine and even
Make lines to sow the seeds into
4
Enclose the space with planks, as shown here
8 5
Inside this, put up to 6 inches of fertile soil

8
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2"2" The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House -
how to sow the seeds in the bed
Chapter Air Nursery Chapter 8 -7 - Hot Bed
Cover with mulch and water well and regularly
The top of the bed is well mulched with leaf litter
The roots of a papaya grown in an air nursery are short and well bunched
After 3 months, showing seedlings growing well
Underneath is a pit for making liquid manure
10
Ms Chandra Pun shows the roots of a papaya grown in the air nursery
10
11
Both roots shown below belong to the papaya plant. One is grown in a polypot and the other in an air nursery. What difference can you see ?
Maintenance
How to maintain an Air Nursery
In a polypot
In an air nursery
This is how the plants in an air nursery grow well. From time to time regular maintenance of watering and weeding is needed, and liquid manure can be used.
Things to note :Water will dry out faster than normal in the air nursery, so watering is needed more often. In the hot season water once or twice a day, and in the cold season once every 2 days is enough.
Here's a big, community air nursery to grow many seedlings
The roots are in a fine root ball, easy to dig out and plant
Because of the long tap root, digging up is difficult and damages the plant
12
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 8 - Air Nursery
13
So the roots will grow down as the leaves and stems grow up. As the fast-growing tap roots grow down, they meet the base of the bed and grow into the air space. Here, they will dry up and die, which stops the deep root growing - this is automatic root pruning. Instead, many fine roots will grow higher up. When this is done, it becomes much easier to dig up seedlings for planting out, and roots are not damaged. No harm is done to the seedling. Just trim off the dead roots when it is time to plant out.
Farmers' Mr Ram Bahadur Gharti Experience and Mrs Lilawati Gharti

From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 2, and members of the "Don't be Alone" Farmers' Group, Mr Ram Bahadur Gharti and Mrs Lilawati Gharti have made their own Air Nursery. Now let's hear about their experience. At first we didn't believe a nursery could be in the air ! But then the Homestead Programme (JPP) taught us and we built our own. We didn't think we had the materials to build one but managed to find bits and pieces and eventually in only half an hour we'd built an air nursery. If we'd known how to build it before it would've been much easier because it's a much better way of growing seedlings, to dig up without damaging the roots. We made the nursery taller to protect the seedlings from being eaten by the chickens and pigs. It's just right for growing seedlings for planting on our own land, and we give to friends as well. But I've said I'm not giving any next year so they'll have to make their own nursery. They've agreed to that, at least.
A layered system with air nursery on top and other plants below to fit more into a small space. Sunrise Farm, Kathmandu
14
15
Subjects Related to the Air Nursery

Good benefits can be had from the information in this book about making and using an air nursery. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
Agroforestry, Living Fence, Fruit Orchard and Soil Conservation chapters

The air nursery is for growing strong, healthy plants. Information on how and where to plant fruit and multi-purpose seedlings for better production and less work is given in these chapters.
Home Nursery chapter

Around the homestead you need to plant many different plants for different functions. Information on different nurseries to grow various types of plants is given in this chapter.
Read On !
What are
Leaf Pots ?
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 9 - Leaf Pots
There are various methods to raise many different species of plant. Often, certain species cannot be transplanted as small seedlings, and they need to be sown direct in the garden or fields. When these species are sown, such as beans, pumpkins, gourds and cucumbers, lack of care for the small plants mean that many die due Watering leaf pots in a nursery to pests, weeds, lack of water, etc., and are wasted. But by sowing in a Leaf Pot nursery, the plants can get the necessary care and attention when young, and be planted out when they are strong and healthy. This saves many seeds and plants from going to waste. This method of using large leaves to make into pots, filling them with fertile soil and growing seedlings is called a Leaf Pot Nursery.
Why
make Leaf Pots ?
How
to make Leaf Pots ?
For growing seedlings which can't be transplanted from beds, such as some vegetables, fast growing trees or green manure seed plants, leaf pots can be used. Vegetables such as beans, pumpkin, cucumber, gourds, etc. cannot be transplanted bare-root, so these can be sown in leaf pots. Trees and green manure species, such as velvet bean, Sesbania, Crotalaria (such as sunhemp), lab lab bean, etc., which are to be used for seed production and so need more care and attention, can be started in leaf pots. When seedlings are growing in a leaf pot nursery, they can be given better care. This helps them to grow well, and also stops seed and seedlings being wasted.
Choose big, whole, unbroken leaves of the appropriate species. These leaves are rolled into a cone and stitched with bamboo pins. This will hold the soil well. After filling with fertile soil, the cones are sown with seed and covered with soil the same as if using polypots.
Materials Needed to make Leaf Pots
large leaves
bamboo strips or rope
seed
sticks bamboo posts This Booklet's Author :

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 9 - Leaf Pots
crowbar
Making a Stand for the Leaf Pots 2
Making the Leaf Pots
e etr m
1
t t is t w
is t w
Dig in 2 upright stakes
1 metre
Use leaves to fit the size of seedling grown. Big leaves will make big pots for big seedlings, and small leaves for small pots with small seedlings
2
t is t w
i tw
st
Take both ends of the leaf and start to twist
3
3
Split the bamboo and attach horizontally between the 2 uprights, to make a gap which the leaf pots can fit into. Filled leaf pots are placed in a rack made like this 4
Twist the leaf into a cone shape with one end closed
4
bamboo pin Pin the leaf into a cone shape as shown here
Chapter 9 - Leaf Pots
Let's See
1
bamboo pin
how to make Leaf Pots

leaves for making pots
Leaf pot filled with fertile soil ready for planting seed
2 pots ready to fill with soil Two seeds planted in the middle of the pot
Put the rack for holding the leaf pots in the shade. Fill the pots with fertile soil and place them in the rack
6
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 9 - Leaf Pots
Seed is sown in the pots and covered with a finger width of soil
Maintenance
How to maintain Leaf Pots
Keeping the pots while seedlings grow
5
Add water carefully
6 7
After sowing seed in the leaf pots, they need to be put in a safe place. The pots can be half buried in a nursery bed, or in a hot bed, as necessary. Another method for keeping leaf pots can be called a vertical nursery. This can only be used for cone-shaped leaf pots. A vertical nursery doesn't use up any land and can be made next to the house or on the edge of the courtyard. Seedlings will also be safe from chickens. See p. 4 for how to build the vertical nursery.
A seed starting to grow

8
These plants need watering daily

High output from a small area. Leaf pots under an air nursery, with a pit for liquid manure at ground level.
Because they are in the air, leaf pots in a vertical nursery can dry out quickly so need small amounts of water once or twice a day. If placed in the shade, they will need less water.
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 3, Ratadada village, and a member of "Hariyali" women's group, Mrs Vishnumaya Shris has made her own leaf pots. Now let's hear what she says.
Mrs Vishnumaya Shris
Planting the Leaf Pot

When the seedling has grown to the 4 leaf stage it can be planted out. At the place where it is to be planted, dig a small hole and fill with compost. Without taking the seedling out of the pot, plant both together in the hole. By doing this the roots of the seedling aren't disturbed. The leaf pot should be completely buried. After planting, add mulch and water well.
Seedlings being planted with their leaf pots
If we plant various types of seed direct onto the land many can die, or not grow well. So we make leaf pots, filling them with soil and Mrs Vishnumaya Shris sowing them with seeds such as pumpkin, cucumber, beans, cow pea, bitter gourd, bottle gourd, etc., especially the climbing vegetables. We keep the pots in a vertical rack made from bamboo. We tie split bamboo in between 2 upright posts which leaves a gap perfect for holding the leaf pots. The pots need watering every day. Seedlings grow faster than if sown direct in the field, and are ready to plant out 2-3 weeks after sowing. We found that these plants suffer less from insect pests than others, perhaps because they're stronger. We share these skills in the group. I teach to some, and learn from others.
10
11
Subjects Related to Leaf Pots

This book provides enough information to be able to make and grow plants in your own leaf pots. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
Leaf Pot chapter

Kitchen Garden chapter Leaf pots are very useful in successful vegetable gardening. Information about this and other easy methods for home-producing healthy vegetable sat low cost is given in this chapter
Hot Bed chapter This chapter descibes how to use leaf pot seedlings along with other varieties in a hot bed to grow off season vegetables
Mixed Vegetable Gardening chapter With less weeding, watering and other work, and harvesting various types of vegetables from 3 weeks after planting, lasting up to 6 months. Information on this easy technique is given in this chapter
Read On !
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 10 - Producing Fruit at Home
an Introduction
Producing Fruit at Home
'Fruit is the elixir of life'
Did you know ...?

The reason why people often like sweet food is because of the need for vitamin "C". Fruit has lots of vitamin C, and ripe fruit is usually sweet, so we are programmed to like sweet things. That's why people like sugar products. But of course, there's no vitamin C in sugar ! Eating a piece of fruit after a meal helps the intestine to digest the meal. Fruit is tasty, juicy and nutritous, and contains many essential vitamins and minerals for our bodies. It is one of our responsibilities to plant fruit trees. That's why even if we only have a small piece of land, many of us are keen to plant fruit trees. In this Farmers' Handbook there is information about various methods of producing fruit. In this volume, Near the House (2), are chapters about the Fruit Nursery, Grafting, Budding and Stone Grafting. In the next volume, The Fields, are chapters about Air Layering, Top Grafting, Planting Fruit Trees and Integrated Fruit Orchards. This chapter gives additional information to help the other technical chapters be more effective. They are all connected together to give simple methods to successfully produce more fruit at home. 2
Information about Improved Fruit Varieties

To grow improved fruit varieties, it's possible to join local, wild varieties with their improved relatives. Information about which species to join, when to join them and which method is used to join them is given in the chart on the next 2 pages.
Stone Grafting
Grafting Budding
Cuttings
Air Layering Top Grafting
After this, on page 7, is information about the other chapters related to fruit production.
Chapter 10 - Producing Fruit at Home
1 The fruits you want

to produce are in these columns
Species of scion (branch)
2 The local 3
species (rootstock) to join them to
wild peach wild peach or plum wild peach wild peach or apricot wild walnut wild apple wild pear Trifolate local persimon wild mango guava grape wild cherry
Here is information about which techniques to use, and when to use them (Northern Hemisphere)
Top Grafting Feb-March Feb-March Feb-March Feb-March
Drawing
Grafting Feb-March Aug-Sept Feb-March Feb-March Feb-March March-April Feb-March Aug-Sept Feb-March Aug-Sept Oct-Nov Feb-March June-July (stone grafting)
Budding June-July June-July June-July June-July
Air Layering
Cuttings Feb-March

Stone Grafting

Peach Plum Almond Apricot Walnut Apple Pear Citrus spp. Persimon Mango Guava Grape Cherry
4
Feb-April

Feb-March Feb-March
June-July June-July June-July June-July

Feb-April
Feb-March

Feb-April

Feb-March

May-June

Feb-April

Feb-March Feb-March
Feb-March
Feb-March
June-July
Subjects Related to Fruit Production

An easy way to irrigate fruit trees
These chapters give different techniques to grow fruit trees successfully in the villages.

Bury a porous clay pot about 50cm away from a newly planted fruit seedling. When this is filled with water, it soaks out of the pot directly to the root zone of the seedling. Instead of a pot, the hardened shell of a bottle gourd can be used, with a small hole made in the base. bottle gourd How to grow root stock from local wild fruit seed for grafting and budding on your own land.
Grafting & Budding chapters

Produce high quality and quick fruiting seedlings at home with these 2 methods.
Stone Grafting chapter

Graft improved mango onto local wild trees quickly and easily at home.
Air Layering chapter

Produce good quality citrus, guava, lichi, pomegranate, etc. with this easy method. fruit seedling
Top Grafting chapter

Easy methods to graft wild trees growing in the fields and forests to make productive fruit trees.
clay pot

How to plant out high value fruit trees for best production using local resources.
Integrated Fruit Orchard chapter

stone mulch 6
Fruit and other multi-purpose trees in an orchard designed to give maximum yields quickly.
Farmers' Innovation Plastic or Organic ?

To bind grafted fruit trees plastic tape is usually used. But Mr Lal Bahadur Buddha, a Farmers' Leader from Jajarkot district, Danagaun-2, Kalpat village in Nepal, has found a method which doen't need plastic for grafting, Lal B. Buddha budding and top grafting work. He very carefully strips a thin layer from the surface of the Sisal plant (Agave spp.) and uses this instead to bind scion to rootstock (see picture). Using plastic you need to be careful to cut it off after 3-4 months or it will strangle the seedling. Not so with sisal - because it is organic it degrades and falls off by itself. Lal Bahadur has for many years played a leading role in fruit improvement in his district. He has even invented a new method to graft walnut (see the Grafting chapter). When experts from the Horticulture Station in Kathmandu said that it is only possible to get a 25% success rate with walnut, Lal was getting 80% with his own method. He spends his time teaching other farmers his methods.
'wisdom' has got something about long time, at least a generation, experience to it - farmer innnovation may be better or knowledge or ?
What is a
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 11 - Fruit Nursery
Fruit Nursery ?
Local fruit nursery, Panchkatya, Jajarkot The fruit nursery is a place where local wild fruit seed is sown to grow seedlings. This means selecting from healthy, disease free species that grow wild or on farms, such as wild pear, peach, walnut, apple, etc. Branches (scion) or buds from good fruiting trees, which must also be healthy and disease resistant, can then be joined onto these seedlings while still in the fruit nursery. This will produce high quality fruit trees with strong, local roots. The work of joining 2 compatible plants together in the fruit nursery is called grafting or budding. Information about these methods is given in their own chapters.
Chapter 11 - Fruit Nursery
Why
To grow im
make a Fruit Nursery ?
How
to make a Fruit Nursery ?
1. Time to build the nursery

The best time to build the fruit nursery is in the Autumn (October in the Northern hemisphere)
proved fruit trees in your own village. To make use of the local wild fruit trees. To grow fruit trees suited to the local climate and soil. To be able to obtain fruit trees whenever you need. To save the cost Seven types of local plum of buying fruit trees. To grow fruit trees which produce quickly. To be able to generate income from local resources.
2. Materials needed
These are the materials needed to build a fruit nursery: seed : collect good viable seed of local, wild fruit trees, such as peach, plum, apricot, cherry, walnut, pear, etc. digging tools; biomass : a basket each of well rotted compost, semi decomposed biomass, and fresh green leaves. Materials Needed to make a Fruit Nursery seed
digging tools
crowbar
semi-decomposed biomass or dried leaf litter
green leaves
well rotted compost
This Chapter's Author :

one basket
one basket
one basket 3
Site Selection
It's important to choose the right place for a nursery. A site is needed where watering, checking, protecting, mulching and composting and such daily maintenance will be easy.
Cross section to show the fruit nursery trench

2-3 inches between lines of seed

mulch

soil
semi rotted compost soil green leaves loosened soil
trench 6-8 inches wide

6-8 inches deep

5
The bed for planting the seed can be as long as you need, depending on the number of seeds you have to sow. First, dig a trench about 6 inches wide and 6-8 inches deep, keeping the removed soil close by. Then with a crow bar or pick axe, loosen up another 6-8 inches of soil in the bottom of the trench, without removing it from the trench. Now place a 2 inch layer of green leaves in the bottom of the trench. On top of this put a 2 inch layer of the soil dug out of the trench. Next, put a 2 inch layer of half decomposed or dried leaf litter. Cover this layer with another 2 inch layer of soil. Then put a 2 inch layer of the well rotted compost. Now put all the remaining soil that was dug out of the trench to make a mound above the trench. The trench has now been refilled with the soil, green leaves, leaf litter and compost.
Digging the bed
6-8 inches deep
compost
fertile soil
seed
Sowing seed in the nursery Now the local, wild fruit seed, such as wild pear, apple, peach, plum, apricot, walnut, etc. can be sown in the nursery. Along the heaped up bed make 2 shallow grooves 3-4 inches apart, and place the seed into these grooves. The distance between each seed in the line should be the same as the size of the seed itself. Cover the seed with soil to a depth which is the same thickness of the seed, and then cover with a 2-3 inch thick layer of mulch. For the mulch, use leaf litter, straw, pulled weeds, etc.
Let's See
spade pick leaf litter
how to make a Fruit Nursery

green leaves
Materials needed to make a fruit nursery compost hook
Sow the seeds as shown here.
1
Size of the trench 6-8 inches deep

2m long
3 inch distance
distance between 2 seeds is the thickness of one seed
Dig out the trench and leave the soil at the edge
6-8 inches wide 6

The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 11 - Fruit Nursery
soil removed from trench 7
Dig down another 6-8 inches to loosen the soil without taking it out of the trench
Then put a layer of leaf litter
8 5
Put a basket of green leaves in the trench Cover this with more soil
Now put in the compost
0 1
Cover with a layer of the soil removed from the trench 8
Put in the rest of the soil with compost to make a mound

11
12
Maintenance
How to maintain a Fruit Nursery
Peach seed
For sowing distance see earlier p.6
13
After sowing the seed the nursery needs good maintenance. Seed sown in the Autumn will germinate the next Spring. In the months in between, the nursery should be watered deeply every 2-3 weeks if it doesn't rain. This will help the seed to germinate well. After the seeds have germinated, the mulch helps to conserve moisture in the soil, and keeps down weeds. Even so, irrigate and weed the nursery as needed. Add more mulch if needed. All this helps the seedlings to grow well. Seedlings which germinate in the Spring may be big enough to graft or bud the next Winter. If the seeds germinate slowly, or if weeding and irrigation is not done, the seedlings will be a year slower to reach the size needed for grafting and budding.
Put on mulch
Grafted seedlings completed in the nursery (arrows point to where the graft is)
10
11
Work needed while seedlings are growing in the nursery

irrigation : weeding : mulch : the seedlings need water regularly. pull up any weeds that grow and use them as mulch. keep a thick mulch on the bed
One seedling
Pinching
Pinching
(removing the leaves) In the late summer any lower leaves or small branches should be removed with secateurs or a sharp hook, and the growing tip also cut off. This makes a good shape of the seedling ready for grafting or budding. By taking out the tip the seedling will grow fatter rather than taller, and taking out the side leaves and branches lower down leaves a clean stem which is easier to graft or bud. This work of picking leaves and tips is called pinching. 12
Seedlings growing in the bed Its tip is removed and lower leaves picked (pinched) Tip pinched
This seedling is complete
Lower leaves pinched
13
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Lekh Pharsa-2, Purano Gaun village, local teacher Mr Dhan Bahadur Midun has made his own fruit nursery. Now let's read about his experience.
Mr Dhan Bahadur Midun
Read On !
Subjects Related to the Fruit Nursery
This book gives enough information to be able to make and manage your own Fruit Nursery. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
Seed Saving Chapter

To grow good fruit root stock you need to select good, healthy trees to produce seed. More information on seed saving is given in this chapter.
14

After the Homestead Programme started work in our village I learned about fruit Dhan Bahadur Midun nurseries, and made one on my own land. I started by growing 100-200 seedlings, and have gradually increased that number with experience. It was difficult at first without the knowledge but now I find it easy. Though we don't have any irrigation here, by using lots of compost and mulch the need for water was much reduced, and what we saved in the waste water pit has been enough. I've sold, exchanged and given away seedlings I raised here to friends in our village. I've also provided other villages up to 2 days' walk away with seedlings. Doing this I'm starting to understand that by applying work and investing in the right place at the right time, many benefits can be gained.
Seed Saving Chapter
15

After raising good seedlings in the fruit nursery, if they're not planted well all the work can go to waste. Information on more productive planting is given in this chapter.

Plant fruit trees with various other multipurpose trees to give more and quicker benefits for less work. This is the Integrated Orchard, and you can read about it in this chapter

Local peach, pear, walnut, etc. sown in a fruit nursery can be grafted with cuttings or buds of compatible improved trees after 1 to 2 years. In these chapters, learn how to do this method at home.
What is
Grafting ?
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 12 - Grafting
Grafted peach trees ready for planting, Surkhet, Nepal It can be difficult for farmers to earn their livelihoods from growing only grain crops. Thats why its good to learn new methods which increase production to farm our own land. One method is by making a nursery to grow improved fruit tree seedlings. This means you can grow tasty and nutritious fruit on your own land, and at the same time sell or trade extra production to earn cash. There are many methods of joining local wild fruit tree rootstock to high producing improved varieties. One of those methods, which is detailed in this chapter, is called grafting. Grafting is a method of joining the cutting (scion) of an improved variety of fruit tree onto the root (rootstock) of a local compatible variety.
Why
Benefits of Grafting
do Grafting ?
How
plastic
to do Grafting ?
Grafted trees produce fruit quicker. A tree grown from seed may take 8-10 years to fruit, but a grafted tree will only take 2-4 years. Cutting the root A tree grown from seed may produce stock in preparapoor tasting fruit. Grafting is done to tion for grafting improve the taste and size of the fruit. A tree grown from seed may not produce fruit the same as the tree the seed came from (mother tree). But a grafted tree will be just as good as the tree the cutting (scion) came from. A grafted tree will continue to give the same quality fruit for many years. Grafted fruit trees can be sold to give an income to the household. By producing your own seedlings and fruit, you save money. Seedlings can be produced locally, saving time in searching for the right fruit trees to plant. This Chapter's Author: Mr Bhuvan Khadka
Himalayan Permaculture Group, Surkhet, Nepal
Materials Needed to do Grafting

cutting (scion) from a good fruit tree
secateurs
grafting knife or sharp tool
local, wild rootstock
How does grafting work ?

All plants have tiny channels which take water and nutrients up to the leaves and down again. These channels are inside the bark but outside the woody part of the stem. They form a greenish band around the stem called the cambium.
Chapter 12 - Grafting
Cross section of the wood to be grafted Scion Rootstock
3 1
To succeed at grafting, the cambium of the scion and the rootstock must be exactly aligned In a successful graft, the channels in the cambium carrying nutrients and water from the rootstock to the scion and back are continuous, not broken.
Grafting Method
1 Preparing the rootstock for grafting
wood
2
Close up of rootstock cambium to be joined cambium (green) wood
A local, wild fruit tree seedling grown

in the nursery or naturally in the forest is called the rootstock. For grafting, the rootstock is ideally the thickness of a pencil, but it can be a little thinner or thicker than this (510mm). Leaves and branches should be prevented from growing from the rootstock on the first 4-6 inches from the ground. These can be carefully pinched off from time to time. 5
bark
4
bark
2 Selecting the scion for grafting To graft onto a local, wild rootstock, the branch cutting from a good fruiting tree is needed. This branch cutting is called a scion. The scion sould be from a healthy, disease-free tree that gives good fruit. A one year old branch should be used as scion wood. If the scion is to be brought from far away, a whole branch should be cut. The cut end should be covered with moss and packed in sacking. Any buds should be unbroken, and the cutting should not be exposed to the sun. 3 Cutting the scion
Trim the scion so it has 3-5 buds. The scion should not be
thicker than the rootstock. 1 2 3 length of scion
Make a 1 inch long slanting cut at
The scion should be the same diameter as the rootstock if

possible. It can be thinner than the rootstock, but not thicker. There should be 3-5 live buds on the Prepared scion, which should be cut at a slant, rootstock just above the top bud. 4 Cutting the rootstock and
grafting the scion The way to prepare rootstock is described in

the Fruit Nursery chapter. On the day before grafting, water the rootstock well and mulch thickly. Using a sharp knife or similar tool, make a 1 inch long slanting cut through the rootstock 1-3 inches from the ground. The face of the cut should be completely flat. The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" 6
slanting cut the base of the scion, the same length as the cut on the rootThe scion should stock. The face of the cut be cut just above should be completely flat. the top bud to Half way up the slanting prevent too much cuts of both rootsock and wood drying out scion cut a small nick into the face of the cut edge (see also p.10, photo 5 to 8). Join rootstock and scion together by inserting the nicks on opposing faces of the rootstock and scion into each other. Push rootstock and scion together so that the cambium layers are in close contact at least on one side of the join (if rootstock is larger than scion), if not both sides (if rootstock and scion are the same size). The scion and rootstock should be held together by the opposing nicks being interlinked with each other. Chapter 12 - Grafting 7
Binding the Graft
Bind the joined rootstock and scion together so no air or water can enter the wound. 1 2 Bind the Start binding plastic from below tightly the wound around the stem 3 Then wind the plastic tightly upwards See an alternative to using plastic on p.18 Wind the plas- 4 tic to above the join, then wind it down again Bind down to where the plastic started 8
Let's See
1
how to do Grafting
Measuring a local rootstock 3-4 inches from the base
3
5 6
Cut at the measured place Measure the scion from the good fruiting tree to fit the rootstock
Tuck the end of the plastic so it points downwards

Make a slanting cut 1 inch long on the base of the scion.
9
Push the scion and rootstock together so that the nicks on each face insert into each other. Binding the graft with plastic is shown on p.8
Make a small nick about half way down the face.
5 6
Hold the scion in the mouth to prevent drying out. Make the same 1 inch slanting cut on the rootstock Make a nick in the same place on the rootstock 10 Rootstock with nick close up
Carefully bind the graft tightly so no air or water can get in to the wound.
11
8 10
This scion shown sprouting 2 weeks after being grafted.
11
12
A stone mulch has been placed around a seedling grafted directly in the fields. ( ) Grafted seedlings shown in the nursery. An arrow marks the bound graft. ( )
A grafted seedling shown growing well in its permanent place.
13
If the rootstock is bigger than the scion.
14
A shoot sprouting from the rootstock of the graft. This should be pinched off. The graft scar can be seen after plastic is removed 12
Its OK to graft a small scion onto a larger rootstock.

One side of the cambium of root stock and scion must match exactly. 13
How to Maintenance maintain a grafted seedling

Care needed after grafting
The grafted seedlings need fencing against livestock, and should not be touched. They should be protected from strong sun, wind, hail, and heavy rain. Make a 50cm high thatch to place over them, and the nursery should be in a sheltered site. The seedlings need regular watering to keep the soil moist. After 4 months, when the scion has sprouted well, the plastic can be carefully removed. Without protection, work is wasted
Citrus rootstock is grafted in the Autumn and kept under plastic until Spring.
Compatible species and timing of grafting

Type of scion 1. Improved peach, plum, apricot, almond 3. Pear 4. Orange 5. Persimon 6. Apple 7. Cherry Type of rootstock Month (Northern Hemisphere)
Pinching
Any leaves or branches sprouting below the graft (from the rootstock) should be pinched off with the fingers, otherwise they take valuable water and nutrients meant for above the graft. This is called pinching. If the graft is unsuccessful, a single sprout from the rootstock can be allowed to grow. This can be used to graft another scion again next year. 14
all can be grafted onto wild peach, Jan./Feb., Sept. plum or apricot March, April Jan./Feb., Sept. Oct./Nov. Jan./Feb. Jan./Feb., Sept. Jan./Feb. 15 wild pear trifoliate local persimon wild apple, crabapple wild cherry
2. Soft shelled walnut local walnut
Grafted seedlings should be protected from livestock
Grafted seedlings should be given water and compost
2
Lucaena lemon grass marigold lemon grass Lucaena
Any leaves or branches sprouting from below the graft should be removed
coriander
Around the fruit seedling, comfrey plant companion plants

16
onion comfrey These branches are removed

17
The method for grafting walnut is slightly different to that given above. Lets see :
1
Make a point on the scion, with one edge slightly longer than the other
How the scion is joined onto the rootstock
Farmers' Experience
From Jajarkot district, Dhime 7, Dharnasi village in Nepal, Mr Shanta Bahadur Pun has done plenty of grafting. Now let's read about his experiences.
Mr Shanta Bahadur Pun
2
long edge on the upper side
3
When the rootstock and scion fit perfectly, cut off the rootstock above the graft. Then bind it as in the normal method.
short edge on the lower side
scion
rootstock
This is done in the spring The skin of the sisal (Agave) can be used to bind the graft. The skin is removed as shown here. More details about this are given in chapter 10 Fruit Introduction 18
After I learned grafting I practiced at home with a small local, wild peach nursery. Onto Shanta Bahadur Pun them I grafted improved peach, plum, apricot and almond. On such a small piece of land this gave such a high production, and you can literally eat the fruits of this success within 3 years! In the spring, shades over the beds are very important - this stops the hot sun from drying out the newly grafted seedlings. Water needs to be given carefully, at ground level. If you water from above, water can get inside and ruin the graft, and it can also shake the seedlings and so break the graft. The cutting tools need to be sharp and clean - like in any operation. Ive succeeded using just the local ashi (hook), I dont need a posh grafting knife. At first the other farmers didnt believe that it would work. I grafted plants on my own farm, and sold them. Then they believed me. Nowadays all the farmers have small or large nurseries on their land.
19
Read On !
Subjects Related to Grafting
This book provides enough information for you to be able to do your own grafting on fruit trees. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.

How to grow root stock from local wild fruit seed for grafting and budding on your own land.
Stone Grafting, Budding, Top Grafting and Air Layering chapters

Information about various simple methods of growing improved fruit varieties at home for planting on the farm are given in these chapters.

After raising good seedlings in the fruit nursery, if they're not planted well all the work can go to waste. Information is given in this chapter.

Information on how to plant fruit trees with various other multi-purpose trees to give more and quicker benefits for less work is given in this chapter.
What is
Budding ?
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 13 - Budding
Fruit trees which have grown from seed may not give good fruit. There are various other ways to make sure that trees fruit well. Depending on the variety and season there are different methods to improve fruit trees. One way is by taking a local, wild fruit tree and transferring a bud from a tasty, good and heavy-fruiting tree onto it. This is called A one year old budded Budding. Budding is peach seedling just one of the techniques used to improve fruit trees so that they give more production. This chapter gives information about where, when and how to do budding, so you can do it at home to produce your own good quality fruit seedlings.
Why
do Budding ?
to use time efficiently to save having to buy fruit seedlings to increase farm production; to develop new skills to increase production from less land
How
to do Budding ?
Benefits of Budding
the tree produces good fruit the tree fruits sooner you don't need to wait for other seasons and methods to be able to produce good trees in your own time
1. Selecting bud wood for budding

The first thing to do in budding is to select good buds from the tree you want to propagate. If this is far away then the whole branch containing the bud should be cut and brought. Don't bring a branch which doesn't have good buds on it. Good buds can come from the current year's growth, or from last year's wood.
When to do Budding ?
Budding should be done in the early Summer when new shoots are sprouting and sap is rising the most.
Materials Needed to do Budding

plastic knife 2-3 good buds
sharp hook local, wild seedling (rootstock) buds from a good fruiting tree
The more sprouting buds on a single leaf axil, the better.

Chapter 13 - Budding
Selecting buds from a good fruiting tree

3
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Make a cut through the bark to the wood about half an inch above the selected bud. Taking care not to damage the bud, cut from half an inch below the bud, upwards to the first cut as shown in the picture. Carefully separate any wood that has been cut from the bark and bud (see the picture at the top of the next page). Now the bud is ready. Put the bud in a bowl of water, so it can be carried without drying out.
2. Cutting the selected bud
3. Preparing the bud
If there are leaves on the budwood, these can be trimmed as shown here.
A compatible local, wild variety of seedling is called a rootstock. The rootstock shouldn't have any disease or wounds. The rootstock should be prepared before the bud is cut, to save time. How to prepare rootstock is described in the Fruit Nursery chapter. The rootstock seedling should be well watered and mulched the day before it is to be budded.
Now this bud is ready to graft.
4. Preparing the rootstock
Carefully remove any wood from the bud
Then make a vertical cut from the centre of the first cut, down about an inch, to make a "T" shaped wound. First make a horizontal cut in the bark, as deep as the wood throw this bit away
5. Joining the bud to the rootstock

To graft the bud from the improved tree, use your knife to prise open the T-shaped wound, and slowly insert the budwood downwards into the opening. The budwood should fit exactly into the inside of the T. If there is a small piece of the budwood left sticking out above the horizontal cut in the rootstock, this should be cut off.
Let's See
1 2 Selected bud 3 Showing the line of the cut to remove the bud
how to do Budding
Make the first horizontal cut half an inch above the selected bud
Cut off any bud wood left outside
Second cut from half an inch below
5 4
Cut upwards to remove the bud
Part 6, binding the bud with plastic, is continued after the colour pictures .....
6
The removed bud with wood inside

Then cut vertically through the bark 10
Put the bud in a bowl of water 7 Trim off half the leaves from the bud 8 Wood removed The bud to be joined is ready First make a horizontal cut through the bark
11 This leaves a wound like the English "T"
Remove the wood from the inside of the bud to leave only the bark
8
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 2" Chapter 13 - Budding
12
13
14
6. Binding the bud
Now start to join the bud and rootstock
1
Prize open the bark and slowly insert the bud down into the wound The bud should be inside the wound, flat against the inner wood
After inserting the bud use an inch-wide strip of thin plastic to bind it fairly tightly onto the rootstock. Cover the wound, binding from the bottom to the top and back down again.
See page 14 for an organic alternative to plastic
15
16
6
Finally, bind the tail of the plastic so it points down to allow any rain to run off
Now carefully bind the bud with this plastic 10
Leave the bud sticking out from the plastic
Don't cover the bud and leaves with the plastic, leave them outside.
See page 14 for an organic alternative to plastic

11
How to Maintenance maintain a budded seedling

How to tell if the budding is successful 1 2
Things to do after budding is complete

Give plenty of water to the seedling immediately after budding. Keep the budded plants well mulched. Make a thatch to shade the seedlings from the hot sun. Water and weed the seedlings as necessary. Carefully remove any buds that sprout below the new bud. In the autumn after the budding was done, carefully cut off the top of the seedling just above the new bud.
Two weeks after the budding is done, gently pull at the leaf stems on the bud. If the leaf comes away easily from the base, even by just touching it, the budding has been successful. If the leaf does not come away even with a stronger tug, and slowly dries up, then the budding has probably failed Then you can try again by grafting in the winter.
Planting the Seedling

If the seedling is deciduous (that is it drops its leaves in winter) the budded seedling can be planted out in late winter. If the plant is evergreen it is usually planted in the summer. A good place to plant such a valuable seedling is in an old pit latrine. OtherCompanion wise, dig a pit one plants metre deep and one metre wide, fill it with water compost compost and soil, and plant the seedling there. Full information about this is given in the chapter Fruit Tree mulch Planting.
Removing the plastic

Whether the budding is successful or not, the plastic needs to be gently cut and removed after 3-4 weeks otherwise it will "strangle" the growing seedling. This can kill even a successful bud. 12
13
An easy way to irrigate fruit trees

Bury a porous clay pot about 50cm away from a newly planted fruit seedling. When this is filled with water, it soaks out of the pot directly to the root zone of the seedling. Instead of a pot, the hardened shell of a bottle gourd can be used, with a small hole made in the base. fruit seedling
Farmers' Experience
Mr Lal Bahadur Budhathoki
From Nepal, Jajarkot district, Khalanga - 5, Pokhara village, Mr Lal Bahadur Budhathoki has done plenty of budding. Now let's hear about his experience. I first learned about budding from the Homestead Programme (JPP) and came home and started budding improved peach onto our local, wild peaches. Budding is done Lal B. Budhathoki in late June, and when other local farmers saw, they were amazed that you could transfer just a bud from one tree to another. I budded peach onto wild peach, and pear onto our local wild pear, but this wasn't as good as the peach. Now the local Farmers' Group has started to do it. Everyone thinks it's great, and it's cheap too. The budding is done in late June, and then the top is cut off in the Autumn to allow the bud to grow on up. If it fails, it doesn't affect the tree and you can graft again in the Winter. Also, if grafting is unsuccessful in the Winter you can do budding on the same plant in the Summer. Either way the seedling isn't wasted. We don't use fancy grafting knives - just a razor blade and ashi (local cutting hook) are enough. The plastic is to keep out air and water, but needs removing quickly, within the month.
Bottle gourd clay pot
stone mulch
Instead of Plastic
You can also use the skin of the sisal leaf (Agave) to bind the bud. As shown here, carefully peel the skin from the leaf. See chapter no: 10, Introducing Home Fruit Production for more details 14
15
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Here is more information about various simple methods of growing improved fruit varieties at home for planting on the farm. Planting trees on farmland can bring farmers many benefits. But you can't plant any type of tree, nor anywhere. This chapter gives information on how to plant trees without affecting farm yield Information on how to plant fruit trees with various other multi-purpose trees to give more and quicker benefits for less work is given in this chapter After raising good seedlings in the fruit nursery, if they're not planted well all the work can go to waste. Information is given in this chapter. How to grow root stock from local wild fruit seed at home for grafting and budding on your own land.
Grafting, Top Grafting, Stone Grafting & Air Layering chapters Agroforestry chapter Integrated Fruit Orchard chapter Fruit Tree Planting chapter Fruit Nursery chapter
Read On !
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Booklet 14 - Stone Grafting
Stone Grafting ?
In the tropics and sub-tropics, many farmers like to plant mango trees. Demand for good fruit is increasing, and farmers are understanding the benefits of this. Farmers want to plant mangos, but often the seedlings aren't available, or if they are, they're expensive. But there is an easy way of producing good quality mango seedlings. This is called Stone Grafting. Using this method, mango seedlings can be Grafted mango in fruit, Nepal grown quickly and cheaply at home, producing good quality fruit. Grafted trees also are fast to produce fruit. This means that poorer farmers can easily plant mangos without going into debt, and get faster benefits. In this booklet you can learn how to do stone grafting for quick and easy mango production at home.
Why
do Stone Grafting ?
How
to do Stone Grafting ?
Nowadays most mango grafting is done using the "Inarching" method. But this takes 2-3 years to produce a seedling, which is why mango seedlings are so expensive. Also, in Nepal, the skilled grafters live in the south, so it is difficult to obtain mango seedlings in the poorer northern hill districts. Transport is expensive, and many seedlings can die during the journey in the hot summer, when they are distributed. Seedlings costings 2 or 3 times as much after they have been transported from the nursery into more remote hill districts. So there are many benefits from using stone grafting to produce mango seedlings : quick production - while it takes 2-3 years to produce a seedling for distribution with inarching, it takes 2 months with stone grafting; stone grafted seedlings are cheap to produce stone grafting is an easy method many seedlings can be produced in a small place, unlike inarching seedlings can be produced near to where they are to be planted
When to do Stone Grafting ?

Stone grafting is done in the early summer, at the time when wild mangos are ripe and the tips of the branches have new red shoots.
Where to do Stone Grafting ?

A stone grafting nursery can be made at home on a small plot to grow just a few plants, or on a big plot with 2-300 plants. One square metre of nursery bed can contain about 100 plants. For this, a well shaded spot is needed, protected from livestock, and easy to visit for care and maintenance. If possible, there should be good fruiting mango trees nearby from which to take scion for grafting.
Materials Needed to do Stone Grafting

Good fruiting variety of mango (mother tree) large polythene pots (4 inch diameter) thick plastic cutting tool razor blade
local/wild mango seeds thin plastic

Chris Evans Appropriate Technology Asia, Nepal 2
secateurs
Booklet 14 - Stone Grafting
Graft on day 14
1. Planting the Seed
plastic
Types of work done in Stone Grafting 7 days after the seed has sprouted trim the leaves on the scion Scion on the mother tree is prepared according to the day the rootstock seed germinates in the polypot. The description of work is in 3 parts :4 5 a preparing the scion on the mother tree; select trim b preparing the rootstock; a good leaves c a daily calendar of when to do (a) branch around tip and (b) is given. (but don't of branch cut it) don't do 6. 3 1 plant 2 b until a week The day 7 days local after 3,4 &5 this after rootstock is done sprouts is rootseed counted as stock day One sprouts
With stone grafting it is important to keep note of the time when the rootstock germinates. On the next page is a type of calendar showing which work needs to be done, at what time. 4
prepare scion on mother tree
preparing rootstock
when to do (a) and (b)

5
day
Fill the polypots with fertile soil. Dig a trench for the nursery bed, about 4-6 inches deep. The width and length of the trench depends on how many seedlings are to be produced. Lay out the thick plastic in the base of the trench. Place the filled polypots in the trench. Collect ripe seed from healthy, diseasefree wild local mango trees. They ripen at just the right time for stone grafting. Sow the seed in the polypot and cover with the soil. Watch for when the seed starts to germinate. Within a week, the first seeds will start to grow, but they won't all start at the same time. Keep the sprouted pots in one place.
6 cut scion from mother tree
How to do Stone Grafting
10
11 12 13 14 15
2. Preparing the Scion

A scion needs to be cut and brought from a healthy, good fruiting mango tree. This is called the mother tree. Before the scion is cut it needs to be prepared while still on the mother tree, and the time to do this depends on when the rootstock seed had sprouted in the nursery. Five to seven days after the seed has sprouted in the nursery, you need to go to the mother tree and prepare the scion. However many seedlings in the nursery are 5-7 days old, the same number of scions need to be prepared on the mother tree.
Let's See
1
how to do Stone Grafting

Local mango seed planted in polypots filled with fertile soil
Preparing the Scion Go to the mother tree and select branches for scions. If the branch has red sprouting tips, then it is suitable to use as a scion. The branch and tip should be healthy and disease free. Now trim off the leaves around the tip for a length of about 6 inches, but don't trim the tip itself.
don't cut the red tip Close up of local mango seed planted in polypots
The third part of Stone Grafting is continued on p.11.

6
#
3
On the mother tree, leaves are trimmed down to 6 inches from the red tips, but the tips are not cut.
After a week the scion is cut from the mother tree.
4 9 5
A scion prepared on the mother tree looks like this.
8
The scion should immediately be put in water, and its leaves trimmed.
Make a 1 inch cut down the centre of the local rootstock with a razor blade.
3. Cutting the Scion
10
Insert the pointed scion into the rootstock
11
The trimmed branch will be cut for use as a scion to join to the rootstock, but not yet. It will be another week before this is done, and until that time the trimmed, red branch tip will remain on the mother tree. After 7 days return to the mother tree to collect the scion. Using secateurs or a sharp tool, cut the branch 6 inches from the red tip. As soon as it has been cut, put the scion in a glass of water. This is because it is very soft and will otherwise dry out quickly. When the scion is in the glass, trim each leaf as shown. This also reduces water loss. Now take the scion to the nursery, where it should be grafted immediately onto the rootstock.
Bind with thin plastic
12
4. Grafting the scion to the rootstock The grafted seedling is then put inside plastic. There are 2 methods :- for a single seedling cover and tie with a plastic bag (left), or for a whole nursery, cover with a plastic sheet (right).
10
By this time, the seedlings growing from the local, wild mango seed should be 12-14 days old. Their leaves and stem should be soft and red, like the scion on the mother tree.
11
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12
b Make a 1 inch slit
straight down from the centre of the top of the rootstock with a razor blade.
the root stock to leave it 3-4 inches high.
c Trim both sides of the end of the scion
a Cut the top of
d Now carefully insert the point of the
Now the grafting work is complete to make a point, leaving the scion about 3-4 inches long. The trimmed point should be 1 inch long. scion into the slit on the rootstock.
e The rootstock and the scion
f Very carefully bind the root-
stock and scion with a thin plastic strip so that water cannot enter. The cut parts of the rootstock and scion should be completely covered.
should be exactly fitting
At first the grafted seedling is very weak. Even though it may be well grafted, if it is not cared for properly the graft can fail and all the work will be wasted. Care should be given as described below. The seedling should not be touched or moved. The seedling needs lots of water. However, water cannot be given from above because the falling water will shake the seedling and the graft can break. Therefore, water should be given from the bottom by pouring it into the trench where the polypots are placed. This will seep into the polypots through the holes, and go directly to the roots. This is better for the seedling. The seedlings need to be kept in a moist environment. So cover the nursery with plastic and bury the edges, like in the hot bed nursery, so no air can get in. Only open when watering.
Care for the seedling after stone grafting
nce How to maintain tena a grafted seedling ain M
The grafted seedlings should be watered from below, not above.
13
The seedlings should be well shaded. Within 1-2 weeks you will know if the graft has been successful or not. If not, the top will dry out and die. If the graft is successful, the seedling can be planted out into its permanent position after 2 months in the nursery. For this, a pit needs to be dug and composted beforehand. The mango may flower after a year, but it is not good to allow it to fruit for at least 3 years. During this time, the flowers should be removed to stop fruiting. How to plant fruit trees such as the mango is descibed in the Fruit Tree Planting booklet. Bury a porous clay pot about 50cm away from the newly planted mango seedling. When this is filled with water, it soaks out of the pot directly to the root zone of the seedling. Instead of a pot, the hardened shell of a bottle gourd can be used, with a small hole made in the base. Mango seedling Bottle gourd
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Rupandehi district, Butwal town, Mr Ishwari Prasad Panti is a horticulture expert who has done lots of stone grafting. Now let's hear about his experience.
Mr Ishwari Prasad Panti
clay pot
stone mulch 14
The first thing to pay attention to in stone grafting is the nursery. The rootstock as well as Mr Ishwari Prasad Panti the mother tree need good care. When grafted, the seedlings should be under plastic, and in the shade. In the full sun, all the work will be wasted. Too much wind can also dry out the seedlings. For the rootstock, plant ripe seed from wild, local mangos (which grow everywhere) in the nursery. After the rootstock has germinated, it is grafted when it is red. The scion from the mother tree should also be red. One week before grafting the scion should be trimmed while still on the tree. The rootstock should be cut to 3inches tall, and slit down the middle. The scion should be the same size, and cut to a 1 inch point. Making sure the edges are matching, the scion is inserted into the rootstock. This method is very quick, and I can get a 65% success rate. It's also possible to stone graft even when the rootstock seed has just split and the stem is just pushing out.
15
Subjects Related to Stone Grafting

Fruit Tree Planting booklet
After raising good seedlings in the fruit nursery, if they're not planted well all the work can go to waste. Information is given in this booklet.
Integrated Fruit Orchard booklet

Information is given in this booklet on how to plant fruit trees with various other multi-purpose trees, giving extra and quicker benefits for less work.
Agroforestry booklet
Planting trees on farmland can bring farmers many benefits. Different types of trees grow better in different places. This booklet gives information on how to plant trees to increase farm diversity and productivity, without affecting crop yield.
Pit Latrine booklet

A fruit tree grows best if planted in a big pit. If you have an old pit latrine to plant in, you can double the benefits. In this booklet learn how to make a hygienic, cheap and productive pit latrine.
Read On !
The Fields
CONTENTS
Subject
This Volume's Authors : Chris Evans, Laxman Rana, Bhuvan Khadka, Ms Hommaya Gurung, Mrs Deumaya Rana Edited, Designed & Produced by: Chris Evans & Jakob Jespersen Translated from Nepali by Chris Evans Proof reading: thanks to Mike Feingold, Margaret Evans, Ted Albins, Rupert Greville, Andy Langford, Looby Macnamara Photos: Jakob Jespersen, Chris Evans Addional photo credits are given in Volume Five Cover illustration: Mr Motilal Phauja Typing: Chris Evans Computer Coordination: Layout Ltd., Kathmandu Published by: Chris Evans, Jakob Jespersen...... Distributors: .......... (see p.8 for address) Printed by: Format Printing Press, Kathmandu...... First Edition (Nepali) printed June 2001, 7500 copies This Edition......... Farmers' Handbook, ISBN 99933-615-0-X....... This Volume : 99933-615-4-2
Chapter No:
Introduction to this Volume .......................... 1 Green Manures ............................................. 2 No-Till Farming ............................................ 3 Top Grafting .................................................. 4 Integrated Fruit Orchard ............................. 5 Fruit Tree Planting ....................................... 6 Agro-Forestry ................................................ 7
The Farmers' Handbook is about techniques for sustainable farming and this is the fourth of 5 volumes. There are 9 techniques presented here. In five volumes there are 40 techniques and approaches in total.
Air Layering .................................................. 8 Bamboo Cuttings .......................................... 9
Living Fence ................................................. 10 S.R.I. Rice Growing ...................................... 11

This is the fourth volume of a five volume production of the Farmers' Handbook. In all there are forty techniques & approaches shown, of which nine are in this fourth volume. In this volume we introduce you to some of the methods used in the fields. The titles of these are given on the previous contents page. This Farmers' Handbook has been prepared to provide information about sustainable farming techniques as well as being a resource to run literacy programmes. Information about such programmes and how the Handbook can be used is provided in the fifth volume. As well as technical information, a glossary of new and difficult words is also provided in the fifth volume.
Aims
Background


Inside the handbook each method is descibed in a separate chapter, or chapter. All methods are descibed in the same way:Green Manures 2 No-Till Farming 3 Top Grafting 4
described. The main part is then "How to?" make or do the method; In the "How To" section the centre pages show colour pictures about the method. After describing how to create the method, how to maintain, care for, manage and/or operate it is described. After this, there is an interview with an experienced farmer who has built and used the method. Finally, information is given about other chapters in the Handbook which are directly connected to this method. There are minor changes to this structure as appropriate.
Techniques
Integrated Fruit Orchard 5 Fruit Tree Planting 6
Air Layering 8 Agro-Forestry 7
Bamboo Cuttings 9 Living Fence 10
S.R.I. Rice Growing 11
Appropriate Technology Asia P.O. Box 8975 EPC 849 Kathmandu, Nepal tel: +977 1 5549774 nepal@arasia.org.uk www.atasia.org.uk

Funding Support
Support for the production and printing of The Farmer's Handbook has come from Methodist Releif & Development Fund (UK), ActionAidNepal, MSNepal, GTZ Food for Work, Hill Agriculture Research Project (HARP), ICIMOD. In this volume, Green Manures, Agro-Forestry and Zero Tillage chapters have been supported by Helvetas Nepal
What are
Green Manures ?
The Farmers' Handbook - "The Fields", Chapter 2 - Green Manures
Sesbania being ploughed in as a green manure , Surkhet, Western Nepal Every farmer knows how much work goes into the production of a basket of compost and carrying it to the fields. But it never seems that the farm production gives an equal return for the hard work that goes into making and carrying the compost. Green manures are a method of replacing that basket of compost with a handful of seed. In this method, the plants that grow from the handful of seed are ploughed back into the soil. After a while in the soil, the plants rot down to become compost. Plants used in this way are called Green Manures. It's a very good way of increasing the fertility of the soil, and can give huge benefits for farmers. So let's read about it here.
Why
grow Green Manures ?
Increase Farm production - using green manures can

increase the production of grains, pulses, vegetables, fodder, fuel, etc. grown on the farm.
Decrease work and expense - less compost needs to be

carried. By using green manures, the soil becomes loose and easier to plough or dig.
Benefits of Green Manures Reduce the need for artificial fertilizers - by using green
manures the need to bring in fertilizers is reduced. By not using fertilizers, costs are saved and the soil is not damaged. Also, production can be increased to feed the family for longer, or excess produce can be sold.
Reducing weeds - green manures cover the ground and so

reduce the work and cost of weeding.
Protect the soil - by covering the soil, green manures protect

it from the damaging effects of hot sun, wind and hard rain.
Increase biomass production in the fields - in an example

from Brazil in South America, where 40,000 farmers have converted to using green manures, they have calculated that using velvet bean as a green manure has produced 50 to 140 tons per hectare of extra biomass. This is the equivalent of carrying up to 3000 loads of leaf litter! But the green manure biomass doesn't need to be carried from anywhere. Wherever the fields are, that's where the biomass is produced and, that's where it rots to form compost.
Improve the soil - where green manures have been regularly used the soil is softer, lighter and easier to work. As a result, the soil has a greater capacity to absorb and store water and nutrients.
Improve the quality of

crops - crops grown with green manures are more tasty and nutritious than those grown with chemical fertilizers. Mr Thek B. Gurung of Gumi VDC - 4, Surkhet, likes using Sesbania green manure on his fields 3 3
Increase in micro-organisms and their activity in the soil

- Beneficial micro-organisms live and work around the roots of green manure plants in the soil. They help the plants to catch and create nutrients in the soil. The fertility isn't just for the plants, it helps to make the soil rich. The microorganisms help the plants and the soil, and in return the green manures help to protect the microorganisms from being damaged by the sun, wind, rain, leaching, etc. 2
The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields"
Chapter 2 - Green Manures
How
to grow Green Manures ?
There are 2 ways of using green manures :1. When land is unused, or fallow between crops; 2. While crops are still growing in the fields.
1. Using green manures as fallow

When crop land is empty after crops have been harvested, green manure seeds can be sown as thickly as sowing wheat. When the green manure plants are about to flower they can be cut and left, or ploughed into the soil.
Green manures are easy to use, but it's important to note certain things, such as : green manures can be used in all seasons; which-ever type of green manure is being used, they will give most benefit to the soil if cut and/or ploughed in at flowering time, before seed is set; climbing types of green manures can smother the crops they are growing with. If so, the climbing stems need pulling down from the crops.
Selecting which green manures to use.

There are many plants which can be used as green manures. In particular, the type of green manure should be selected according to the type of crop it is growing with or in between. For a large plant like maize, a large green manure like velvet bean or Sesbania should be used. For a short crop like many vegetables, smaller green manures such as mustard or buckwheat can be used. Criteria for selection of green manures include :-
2. Using green manures mixed with crops

This method is used mostly with maize growing. An easy method is to sow a green manure at the same time as maize, and then dig it in when it is time to weed the maize (after 3-4 weeks). At this time green manure seeds can also be sown, and the green manure is cut and mulched or ploughed in after the maize is harvested to provide even more fertility.
plants are fleshy and soft fast growing; fast to decompose; leguminous; don't attract pests and diseases; don't compete with crops; provide nutrients needed in the soil (more information about this is given on p.21) 5
Examples of winter-grown green manures

Low altitude - mustard, peas, broad (fava) bean, fenugreek, tobacco, buckwheat, etc. Mid altitude - mustard, peas, broad bean, fenugreek, buckwheat, etc. High altitude - mustard, peas, broad bean, buckwheat, etc. tobacco broad bean
Examples of using green manures

Now we'll see some specific examples of green manures. On this page Sesbania is used with rice. On page 17 Sesbania is used with maize, then on page 18 velvet bean is used with maize, and on page 20 mustard is used with wheat.
Sesbania and Rice

In this method, Sesbania is sown before rice is planted. As rice is sown into nurseries, all other paddy areas are fallow, which is when Sesbania can be grown.
peas
sunhemp
hemp
mustard
Examples of summer-grown green manures

Low altitude - mustard, buckwheat, amaranth, sunhemp (Crotalaria), Sesbania, Chenapodium, fenugreek, lab lab, velvet bean, jack bean, tobacco, etc. Mid altitude - mustard, buckwheat, amaranth, sunhemp (Crotalaria), Sesbania, Chenapodium, fenugreek, lab lab, velvet bean, jack bean, tobacco, hemp, etc. High altitude - mustard, mustard, buckwheat, amaranth, sunhemp (Crotalaria), Chenapodium, fenuamaranth greek, tobacco, hemp, etc. hemp sunhemp buckwheat 6
How to Sow the Sesbania as densely as wheat or mustard sow seed. Then lightly till to cover the seed with soil.
Sow after winter crop is harvested, or in the Timing Spring. Sesbania will grow faster if the soil is kept moist, so irrigate if possible. After 4-6 weeks, the Sesbania will be 18-36 inches tall. Cut at ground level and plough in as the paddy are prepared for planting rice.
Seed production of Sesbania

When Sesbania is being ploughed in during paddy preparation, transplant a few of the largest, thickest, healthiest plants onto the edges of the paddy - space at 2 metre intervals along the terrace edges. These will grow on to produce seed for green manure use next year. The seed will be ready after 6 to 7 months Chapter 2 - Green Manures 7
Chenapodium mustard
tobacco
terrace transplant seed plants on terraces 6-7 months
nursery sow rice 2-4 seeds weeks plant rice
paddy sow Sesb. seed 4-6 weeks plough in Sesbania 3-4 months harvest rice
Seed plants will grow at 2 metre intervals on the terrace edges. When between 1-1.5m tall, pinch out the tops. This helps to thicken the stem and prevents the plant growing too tall, when the wind can blow them over. Pinching also produces more branches, and so more seed. There's a picture of this on p.11. After the Sesbania has been cut and ploughed in, the paddies are flooded, and rice is planted. The fertility from the rotting green manure is a good food for the rice.
Let's See
how to grow Green Manures

Sesbania is sown as the fallow is broken
Calendar for rice and Sesbania
Sesbania germinates in 6-10 days
Sesbania seed plants growing on the terraces
Sesbania is this big after a month. From now it can be ploughed in.
The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 2 - Green Manures
harvest Sesbania seed
The tips of the Sesbania seed plants are pinched out. This makes more branches, and the plant has a stronger stem.
The Sesbania is cut at its base before ploughing in.
After the rice is harvested the Sesbania seed is ripening
This makes ploughing easier The seed plants also provide a firewood yield. Seed is cleaned and stored for next season
Land ready for planting after Sesbania has been ploughed in

10
11
Sesbania or velvet bean is sown as the maize is weeded for the first time
Velvet bean growing as a green manure
If maize is also weeded by hand this is still the time to sow green manure Sesbania grows amongst the maize
A Guatemalan farmer inspecting the velvet bean after the maize has been harvested The Sesbania is ready to plough in after the maize is harvested
The velvet bean is cut at the roots when it starts to flower

12
13
Velvet bean after it has been cut
White clover is sown as a green manure in a fruit tree nursery. This keeps weeds down, conserves water, and adds nitrogen to the soil.
Velvet bean flowers and seed pods Perennial white clover Agroforestry on the terrace edges and velvet bean green manure in the maize
This wild "weed" is also a good green manure plant
Sunhemp used as a green manure with millet
2 years before, the soil on this Guatemalan farmer's fields was too poor for farming. After using velvet bean as a green manure, look how black the soil has become and how big the corn is (also see p.22)
14
15
Sesbania and Maize

In this method Sesbania is sown with maize. There are 2 methods of sowing the Sesbania as a green manure with maize . Method 1 :- Sowing Sesbania at the same time as maize. The maize and Sesbania germinate together. The Sesbania is dug or ploughed in when the maize is weeded after 3-4 weeks, and the fertility from the Sesbania helps the maize crop. Instead of Sesbania, many other types of green manure can be used to provide nutrients for the maize. Method 2 :- Sowing Sesbania when maize is being weeded As maize is being weeded for the first time, 3-4 weeks after sowing, sow Sesbania as thickly as you would sow wheat. While weeding, the Sesbania seed will be covered. After the maize has been harvested, the Sesbania is cut and ploughed in as the land is being prepared for the next crop. The fertility from the Sesbania will benefit the next winter crop. Sesbania seed production Sow seeds on the terrace edges. Select as many of the best plants as are needed for growing on to produce seed. Other green manure types can be used instead of Sesbania, but they need to be tall plants, (like maize), for example sunhemp. See also velvet bean and maize, p. 18
Sesbania roots
Broad bean roots
On the roots of legumes like Sesbania, broad bean and velvet bean, small nodules can be seen. Inside these nodules are micro-organisms called "rhizobium".
Rhizobium take nitrogen (a very important element for plant growth) from the air and makes it available for the plant roots. When they are active they are this pink colour. 16
17
Calendar for maize and Sesbania

Method 1. sow maize and Sesbania 4-5 months harvest maize plough in, or cut and mulch, the Sesbania
Method 2. sow maize sow Sesbania at time of first weeding harvest maize plough in, or cut and mulch, the Sesbania
The velvet bean is a climing type and will grow into a large vine. If it starts to smother the maize before the maize is harvested, it should be pulled off the maize plants onto the ground. After the maize is harvested, the velvet bean can be allowed to smother the standing maize stalks to put on extra biomass. After the maize has been harvested, the velvet bean is cut and ploughed in as the land is being prepared for the next crop, or cut and mulched if the land is to be fallow.
Velvet bean seed production

Plant velvet bean seed on the field edge, under a suitable tree, and allow it to grow up the tree to produce seed. Don't let it climb on fruit trees as the large, thick vine can damage the fruiting of the tree. Velvet bean seed will be ready to harvest about 8-10 months after sowing. Velvet bean seed is not edible for people.Edible climbing beans can be used instead of velvet bean, such as lablab, Jack bean, etc. These can be allowed to produce a bean crop if timing is appropriate.
3-4 weeks
Velvet bean and maize

In this method, velvet bean is grown as a green manure with maize. Velvet bean is sown as the maize is weeded for the first time.
Calendar for maize and velvet bean

Maize is weeded by hand or ploughed 3-4 weeks after sowing. At this time, sow velvet bean seed 50cm apart. The seed is covered with soil when weeding. The velvet bean will germinate quicker if it is soaked in water for 2 days before sowing. While soaking the velvet bean seed, change the water twice a day. 18
sow maize
sow velvet bean at time of first weeding 3-4 weeks
harvest maize
plough in, or cut and mulch, the velvet bean 19
Mustard and Wheat

In the autumn compatible green manures can be sown with winter crops. It is difficult to grow green manures together with crops like wheat or barley, so they are usually grown before the grain crops. Timing The green manure can be sown while land is fallow, after harvesting the summer crop. After harvesting the summer crop, such as rice or maize, the land is ploughed as normal, and mustard is thickly sown. The mustard should be ploughed in as it starts to flower. Then the winter wheat (or any winter crop) is sown. Instead of mustard, buckwheat or fenugreek can also be used in the same way as green manures.
Calendar for wheat and mustard

sow mustard plough in mustard, sow wheat harvest wheat
about 3 weeks
There are many other types of green manure that can be used as well as the above examples. "I sowed sorghum as a green manure. After a month I ploughed it in and planted potatoes, and got 3 times the production !"
Bhim B. Gautam, Gumi, Surkhet Below is some information about which green manures have high amounts of particular nutrients
Mustard is ploughed in at flowering time for use as a green manure. Here, wheat is then sown.
20
Type of green Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium manure buckwheat mustard tobacco Chenapodium Sesbania beans
lots lots lots
lots lots lots lots
lots
21
A story about Hurricane "Mitch"

In 1998 Hurricane Mitch struck Central America, especially Honduras, Guatemala and Nicaragua. Strong winds, torrential rain, landslides and floods killed over 10,000 people and left 300,000 others homeless. But in the south of the Lempira region there were no disasters. No landslides, no deaths, in fact 84 villages in the region produced 2000 tonnes of surplus grain. To explain these amazing facts, the government, along with local NGOs and farmers studied the area and Farmer Yuwan Aguirre found that the farmers there had pulls back the thick mat of been implementing sustainable, biomass resulting from a organic agriculture practices that velvet bean green manure had protected them from the dancrop. This has helped to gers of natural disasters. Since the protect againts soil erosion last 30 years, over 10,000 farmers and raise production. in these villages had been implementing soil conservation, terrace improvement, agroforestry, green manure and integrated pest management strategies to protect the steep slopes in their areas. Because of this, even a huge natural disaster like Hurricane Mitch wasn't able to cause them any serious damage. Since the beginning of their experiences, the farmers of Lempira have been sharing their lessons with local farming organisations and with farmers throughout the country and in neighbouring countries too. The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" 22
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 3, Mr Dambar Bahadur Regmi has grown green manures since 1995. Now let's hear about his experience.
Mr Dambar Bahadur Regmi
I've seen myself the benefits of growing Sesbania green manure with rice paddy. Ever since I started doing this, the production of rice has increased steadily. Dambar Bahadur Regmi Land that used to produce 960kg of rice can now produce up to 1400kg, which is pretty good for this area. Also, I've spent less buying fertilizers from the supplier since using green manures. The soil has become softer and easier to plough, so you need to do less work and still get better crops. Rice that's grown this way tastes better, too, and the mill owner tells us that there's less husk and more grain in my rice and that of other farmers who've started using green manures. Now I want to try using other types of green manure as well as Sesbania.
This chapter's author Ms Hommaya Gurung
Coordinator, Himalayan Permaculture Group, Surkhet, Nepal

23
Read On !
Subjects Related to Green Manures
This book provides enough information to be able to grow your own green manures. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
Seed Saving chapter

This chapter gives information on methods to produce and store various types of quality seeds, including green manure seeds, at home.
Compost chapter
As well as green manure, animal compost is also useful for plant food, but needs to be produced in a well managed way. This chapter shows how to produce a quick rotting, good quality compost.

How to make and manage a home vegetable garden for permanence, ease and simplicity ? This chapter shows how to produce a wide range of fresh vegetables by doing less work for more production.
What is
No-Till Farming ?
The Farmers' Handbook - "The Fields", Chapter 3 - No-Till Farming
In the 1960's a Japanese agricultural scientist called Masonobu Fukuoka started to ask himself how he could reduce the cost of his farming methods. He saw most costs in ploughFields not ploughed for 6 years, ing, weeding, Sunrise Farm, Kathmandu, Nepal fertilizing and transplanting paddy in his rice-wheat system. He spent the next 30 years experimenting to perfect his methods of reducing farming costs in these areas. But now, using his experience, we can develop similar systems in a much shorter time. His methods are also called "farming of the sages", because of the deep spiritual base to his philospohy, and the fact that nature is regarded with godly respect. His methods are based upon natural systems, and farming practiced without harming nature. Farming with nature can be practiced with any farming system, but the methods descibed in this chapter are particularly related to the rice and wheat system.
Why
do No-Till Farming ?
How
to do No-Till Farming ?
There are 3 main reasons for ploughing: to aerate the soil; Ploughing to reduce weeds; is crazy ! to mix organic matter in the soil. If we can achieve these needs without ploughing, then why plough ? This was Fukuoka's idea. A plough is never used in the forest, but the soil is always soft Masonobu Fukuoka and fertile. In fact, the more you plough, the more ploughing is needed, as weed seeds are brought to I'm a soil's the surface and germinate. Ploughing friend leaves the earth bare, leaving microorganisms and nutrients to be dried out by the sun, washed away by the rain, and blown away by the wind. That's why it's difficult for farmers to get good production even after so much hard and expensive work ploughing, weeding, etc. Farming without tillage does no harm to the environment. Without tillage, the natural soil life will keep the soil loose and fertile by itself, which also greatly lightens the farmer's work, and reduces cost. 2
There are examples of traditional no-till systems. One example is before cutting rice, lentils are sown and grown without ploughing. In a good mulching system crops are grown without digging, and by using some green manures such as velvet bean, no-till systems have been developed. More information about these are given in the Mulching and Green Manures chapters. In this chapter information is given about a no-till method of growing rice and wheat.
Materials Needed for No-Till Farming

wheat and rice seed white clover seed well rice straw ditto straw clay rotted compost
wheat straw
This is the start of Fukuoka's method:1 After harvesting summer rice, plough one last time. 2 Sow wheat seed. 3 Thickly sow clover seed. 4 Mulch the wheat and clover with the straw from the rice crop.
Chapter 3 - No -Till Farming
In this way, the wheat and clover germinate together. Wheat grows up above the clover, and clover grows on the ground. Below the clover is the straw mulch. Clover works as a green manure. By covering the soil, it helps to smother weeds and conserve moisture. It also fixes nitrogen in the soil. Nitrogen made naturally like this does the same work as urea fertilizer.
Let's See
how to do No-Till Farming

Materials needed: straw, grain and clover seed, compost.
mulch straw add compost weeding

(if needed)
This is a year's calendar of work for the no-till method sow wheat sow clover harvest rice This is the best place to start, and go round clockwise harvest wheat
sow rice clover seed close up
restrict clover
(see p. 9) 4 $
mulch straw
Sowing wheat
After wheat, sow clover
Clover germinating in the wheat
This shows the wheat growing with clover underneath Here the wheat is ripe and underneath the clover is green
Cover everything with rice straw
Spread a little compost
After wheat is cut, sow rice and mulch with wheat straw
Chapter 3 - No-Till Farming
Close up of wheat and clover growing together.
Maintenance
How to maintain a No-Till System
After harvesting rice, the wheat is sown without ploughing. Before sowing, soak wheat and rice seed and mix with powdered clay. While mixing, spray with water This makes a clay coat around the seed which protects it from birds. Another method is shown on p.10.
8
As the wheat ripens, any weeds should be removed. At first, more weeds will grow, but after the thick ground-cover of clover grows, and without tilling, weeds will reduce. Sow rice after the wheat is harvested. As the rice grows, there is a danger that it will be smothered and prevented from growing by the thick ground cover of clover. There are 3 ways of preventing this :1. Flood the field for 10-12 days. This weakens the clover and the rice can grow through and above it. Then drain the water. The ground cover of clover will recover, and the rice will have grown away from its competition.
In the summer rice is flowering, while underneath clover is doing the weed control.
2. If there is a shortage of water as the rice is germinating, allow livestock to graze the clover. But only allow this once, for a short time, and then remove the livestock. They will eat down the clover, so the rice can grow up and away. The clover will again recover as the ground layer. 3. After sowing the rice, the clover can also be cut. It can be used as a fodder for livestock, or as a mulch. Then add the wheat straw mulch, and weed as necessary.
Farmers' Experience
Mrs Sanumaiya Shrestha lives at Sunrise Farm in Sita Paila-4, Kathmandu, Nepal. She has experience in no-till farming, so let's hear her story.
Mrs Sanumaiya Shrestha
Another method of coating seed with clay. Here, clay is made into a thick paste, mixed with rice or wheat seed, and pressed through a 5mm seive.
Try your own research

There are many ways of working with nature to reduce work such as ploughing, weeding, etc. The most important thing is to understand the principles of the methods. Instead of wheat, barley or oats can be used. Timing will be different for different places and climates. It may be better to sow the rice before the wheat is cut, or sow wheat before rice is cut. This method may seem difficult at first, but this is no reason to give up. Try it out first on a small plot, and increase the area as experience grows. 10
I really like the no till method. Wheat and clover are sown together and covered with the rice straw, Mrs Sanumaiya Shrestha which also helps to protect them from birds. Then, if there's no rain, we may need to irrigate. Rice is sown in just the same way, without having to raise the seedlings in a nursery. The day before sowing either rice or wheat, I soak the seeds to help them germinate quicker. As soon as rice is cut, I sow the wheat, and as soon as the wheat is cut, I sow the rice. Sometimes a little weeding may be needed, but not often. There's more weeds at the beginning, but much less later on. Now all the work of digging is saved. Before, we did all the digging and the yield was the same, and now we get the same yield without the digging. Doing less work to get the same yield must be a good method, isn't it?
11
Subjects Related to No-Till Farming
Read On !
This book provides enough information for you to be able to try your own No-Till Farming. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
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This booklets author Chris Evans, advisor, Himalayan Permaculture Group, Nepal www.designedvisions.com By sowing green manures with crops, fertility is increased and with less work there are more benefits. Learn how in this chapter. Mulch keeps the soil covered, keeps weeds down and conserves water. This chapter shows how to mulch the soil while still growing other crops. Only when there's a plentiful supply of fodder from the land can the straw from grain crops be used for mulch in a no-till method. In this chapter, read about how to integrate trees on farms .
Green Manures chapter Mulching chapter Agroforestry chapter
What is
Agroforestry ?
The Farmers' Handbook - "The Fields", Chapter 4 - Agroforestry
Trees with fields in between: plentiful, secure productivity Agroforestry is a sysem where farm crops are mixed with trees to supply fodder, fuel, leaf litter, medicinal herbs, fruit, timber, etc. Conventionally, farmers have only grown a single crop on one field. Also, there is a belief that crops cannot grow well in the shade of nearby trees, so trees will often be cleared from cropland. In the days when there was plenty of forest near to the village, there was no shortage of fuel, fodder, etc. But now, overcutting of fodder, firewood, timber, etc., and grazing livestock, has destroyed the forests. So farm yields have become lower and lower. More landslides have been an extra problem. By planting agroforestry, farm needs for fodder, timber, fuel, etc. can be met as well as protecting the environment. In this chapter, information is given on how to establish agroforestry, and how to manage it to increase farm yield.
Why
do Agroforestry ?
Trees protect the soil from the harmful effects of strong sun,
wind and heavy rain, and conserve moisture in the soil.
By producing daily needs of fodder, fuel, timber, etc. on

the farm, less time is spent going to the forest.
Benefits from Agroforestry By planting agroforestry, yields of fodder, firewood, timber, fruit, herbs, etc. can be increased.
When agroforestry is on your own land then timber, fruit,

herbal medicines, firewood, fodder, etc. don't need to be purchased. Livestock are also easier to raise for income, and overall the home economy is strengthened. 1 With no trees, moisture in the air blows away. 2 When trees are on the land, the moisture collects on the leaves, and 3 drips onto the ground. 1 2
Livestock needs are met more easily. The farm economy is stronger. Because daily needs of fodder, fuel, leaf litter, etc. are met
from the land, the forest is used less, and so is conserved.
Tree roots prevent soil from being washed away. Trees'

leaves provide organic matter for soil organisms. This increases the fertility in the soil, and so trees have more nutrients to grow. Trees protect the soil, and the soil gives nutrients to the trees. This cycle works to protect soil life and natural fertility.
Agroforestry helps to make the homestead self reliant
Chapter 4 - Agroforestry
How

to do Agroforestry ?
What type of tree to plant in agroforestry ?

Trees with small leaves that don't overshade the land, e.g. Lucaena, Flemengia, Acacia. Trees which drop their leaves in winter, e.g. mulberry, Melia.
Where to grow Agroforestry ?

on terrace risers and edges on the edges of fields and farm boundaries on the edges of paths according to the shape of the landscape
Multi-purpose trees which give many benefits such as fodder, timber, firewood, medicine, bee forage, fruit, etc.
Materials Needed for Agroforestry

seedlings seeds secateurs sharp hook, machete, etc. saw
Trees which don't compete with ground crops.
Trees which can be pruned to a desired shape, e.g. mulberry, Lucaena, Bauhinia, peach, plum. Plants which are good, nutritious fodder for livestock, e.g. napier grasss, most legumes, lemon grass, etc.
Trees which have deep roots that aren't damaged by ploughing, e.g most legumes, Melia.
cuttings
This Chapter's Authors :

Ms Hommaya Gurung Mr Buvan Khadka 4
Himalayan Permaculture Group, Surkhet, Nepal
Nitrogen-fixing trees which increase nitrogen in the soil. 5 %
How are plants established in Agroforestry ?

By planting cuttings, e.g. mulberry, napier grass, sugar cane, some Ficus; By raising seedlings in nurseries, eg. coffee, Melia, peach, etc. Trees with fast growing tap roots, such as lucaena, bauhinia (most legumes), tree cotton, papaya, walnut etc. are best raised in an Air nursery. For more information about this, see the chapter Air Nursery. By planting root slips, e.g. broom grass, cardamon, lemon grass, comfrey, vetiver grass, etc.; protecting seedlings naturally regenerated on the land; By air layering, e.g. orange, pomegranite, guava; By direct sowing, e.g. sunhemp, Sesbania. It is easy to grow many of the useful, good quality and multi-purpose plants needed for agroforestry by yourselves, on your own farm. Once you've decided the types of plant needed, the seeds or cuttings need collecting at the right time. Then they can be raised in the appropriate nursery, at home.
Design of Agroforestry Systems

The following principles need to be applied when planning and establishing a farm or a community agroforestry system.
Diversity
Just as there are many types and sizes of tree and shrub mixed in a forest, so our agroforestry should also be made up of a wide range of species, to make them sustainably most productive.
Layers (stacking)
In the forest, all plants are different. Some are small, some tall, some middle sized - this is called stacking. A stacked system means that more productive plants can fit into a smaller space without competing. For example, in the ground layer, pineapple and lemon grass can be grown. Above them, napier grass, sugar cane and coffee can grow. Above them, Lucaena, mullberry and tree cotton can grow. Even higher still, papaya, pear and peach can be grow. Highest of all, Melia, Dalbergia, Neem, and other timber trees can grow. They will also serve as a useful windbreak. top layer of big trees
Air nursery Normal nursery
Stacked Agroforestry
mid canopy layer
lower canopy layer shrub layer ground layer

Nursery for cuttings

6
Beneficial Relationships
It is important to consider the relationship between the species in different layers of agroforestry, and the field crops. Without a good relationship between the field crops and the tree systems, some crops may not grow well, such as in the shade. Then, companion plants can be used. For example, mustard and maize do not grow well close to tree crops. But taro, cardamon, ginger and tumeric do grow well, and they can tolerate both the trees and field crops. So by planting the companion crop in between, the best yields from all can be assured, without competition and drop in yield.
Let's See
how to do Agroforestry
Microclimate
The climate inside and around the agroforestry system is different to the surrounding climate. There are areas of different moisture, temperature, and light levels. These are called microclimates. Species need selecting according to their need.
Areas with agroforestry and forest are productive, protected in a sustainable way.
There are different types of microclimate in agroforestry
Up high there is more light and wind
On the ground is more moisture 8
On the ground is less sun and wind

On steep slopes, farming with the plough is difficult. But with agroforestry on the terrace edges, the risk of erosion is less, and extra benefits of fodder, fuel, timber, etc. can be produced close to the village. Chapter 4 - Agroforestry 9
When starting agroforestry, the right species needs to be planted in the right place
In this high mountain area, fruit trees and fodder grasses are seen growing together on terrace edges
By planting tumeric between trees and crops, competition is reduced. By digging a ditch between lines of trees and crops, the tree roots are cut. This also stops the trees competing with the crops
In Tatta village, Jajarkot district, Nepal, traditional agroforestry practice has covered farmland with productive trees. 10
The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 4 - Agroforestry
The ditch is also used for irrigation and collecting leaf biomass 11
A 2 year old agroforestry, showing "stacking" of different species
People say that crops can't grow in the shade of trees, but here the wheat is growing well !
The same land a year later
Competition between the trees and maize is seen here. The solution to this problem is given on pages 11 and 21.
This picture shows various types of small and large trees and shrubs planted together
tree cotton papaya sugar cane 12 taro Lucaena pineapple

banana mulberry Adhatora napier grass 13
Melia
The branches of Dalbergia are being pruned to produce good timber.
Lots of firewood can be produced on your own land by agroforestry
Plenty of fodder and litter can also be produced at home. This saves much time and labour. A third of the trees' top branches are left, and the remaining are pruned.
14
The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 4 - Agroforestry
15
Cycling
The benefits of extra production and soil improvement from agroforestry are the result of cycling. This cycle needs to run continuously. Livestock are fed and bedded with fodder, straw, etc. from the agroforestry, and compost is returned to the fields. Leaf biomass can also be cut and mulched directly to the land. Work like this should be done regularly. If the cycle isn't completed, the trees will use all the moisture and fertility, and the soil will become depleted of nutrients for the crops. As a result, crop production can decrease, and farmers will lose out. So to manage agroforestry sustainably and productively, it is essential to run this cycle.
Leaves from the Dalbergia prunings can be used as a mulch.
Cycle
Tree leaves are cut and mulched on the land
2 2
Fodder and leaf litter are given to livestock to produce compost.
1 3 5
These leaves conserve soil moisture, and rot down to become compost.
16
5 3 4 4
Compost goes back on the fields.
Trees use the nutrients to grow.
Excess nutrients are taken up by the roots of the trees below the crops. 17
Maintenance
How to maintain Agroforestry
Timing of pruning in agroforestry

(a) Winter (b) Summer
Management after establishing agroforestry

To manage agroforestry, the trees and shrubs should be cut from time to time. Any dead or useless branches and trunks should be cut and removed for use. So, management of agroforestry is mainly harvesting of products. Collection of fodder, leaf litter, firewood, etc. is beneficial to the trees, as well as to the annual crops. If this work isn't done in the right way, the agroforestry system will not help to increase production and benefit the land. So it is very important to manage agroforestry in the right way.
Deciduous trees, which drop all their leaves at one time, are best pruned over winter. Evergreen trees are best pruned in the summer. Some of these can be pruned twice a year. In the winter, crops need more sun, and in the summer they need good air movement. So many trees and shrubs, especially those which cause more shade, should be pruned at these times so they provide production as well as to provide good conditions for the annual crops, based on their needs, and the needs of the tree crops.
Agroforestry planted on terrace edges provides nearby fodder. The fodder can be fed to livestock or mulched directly on the land.
Things to consider when pruning Use sharp tools; Don't split the bark; Try not to leave
wounds on the sunny side of trees; Prune small branches and deformed trunks of timber trees; Prune fodder and biomass plants low down in the winter, and higher up in the summer.
18
19
Management for mulch and leaf litter

The leaves of Adhatora, Melia, castor, etc. make excellent mulch. Such trees and shrubs can be cut at least twice a year. Depending on the trees and crops around, they can be cut low down, or higher up. The plants should be able to sprout again after cutting.
Management for firewood

Trees grown for fruit, timber, biomass or fodder will also provide firewood when they are pruned. Dead, diseased or damaged trees and branches should be regularly removed and can be used for firewood.
Timber management
Trees planted for timber should be allowed to grow up straight. The top one third of the tree should be left uncut, while the lower two thirds pruned of all side branches. The pruning should clean, otherwise disease can enter the wounds. When large branches are cut, plaster the wounds with fresh cow dung. Pruning can take place once or twice a year.
Here Lucaena planted in agroforestry is cut and the leaves mulched directly on the land.
Fodder grass management

Fodder grasses planted or regenerated in the agroforestry should be cut to feed livestock, or mulched directly on the land. This should be done in a way which doesn't harm the crops. This diagram shows a method to control the growth of tree roots. By digging a trench along the line of trees, the roots are prevented from competing with crops. See also the picture on p.11.
Fodder tree management

Fodder trees should not be allowed to grow straight up. They are managed by cutting once or twice a year to produce maximum biomass. They should be cut according to the season to provide shade or sun, according to the needs of the field crops. They can be fed to livestock, or mulched directly on the land. 20
21
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 3, Ratadada village, and a member of "Hariyali" women's group Mrs Belmaya Rana has done agroforestry on her own land. Now let's hear about her experience.
Mrs Belmaya Rana
Read On !
Subjects Related to Agroforestry
This chapter provides enough information for you to be able to grow your own agroforestry system at home. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
At first we had hard times without the knowledge of agroforestry. We had to go far for fodder and firewood. This wasted a lot of time. I learned about Mrs Belmaya Rana agroforestry from the Homestead Programme (JPP) and designed my land. I've planted mulberry, Lucaena, Bauhinia, fruit trees, chillies and lots of other plants. In all, there are 56 species of useful trees and shrubs in my agroforestry system. The trees are all arranged in layers, all species are mixed up together. Before, 60kg of the mustard I grew was used to trade for chillies. Now I grow enough of both and have extra of both to trade. Now I have time to cut fodder as well as doing the housework. There's enough fodder on my own land for my 4 goats and 4 cows. I grow enough fruit for the family, and sell extra for cash. The trees don't affect the rice, but it did affect the mustard and maize, so I planted taro, ginger and tumeric against the trees in some parts, and dug trenches to cut the tree roots in others. 22
Nutrition chapter
Nutritious plants can also be grown in agroforestry
Improved Stove chapter

Agroforestry produces nearby fuel for the stove
Home Nursery chapter

Plants for agroforestry can be produced easily at home
Seed Saving chapter

How to produce various types of good quality seed at home
23
Fruit production chapters

Easy methods of producing, planting and managing fruit trees
Forest Management chapter

Forest is protected by using agroforestry to supply farm needs

Grow plants in agroforestry which help in pest control
Mulching chapter
Produce plenty of biomass for mulching to conserve soil
Liquid Manure chapter

Grow plants to make liquid manure to control farm pests
Compost chapter
Nearby fodder and biomass makes making compost easier

A living fence is agroforestry on the farm boundary

Agroforestry helps protect and supply the kitchen garden
Beekeeping chapter
Many plants for bee food can be grown in agroforestry
Livestock management chapter

Agroforestry crops make keeping livestock much easier
What is an
Integrated Orchard ?
The Farmers' Handbook - "The Fields", Chapter 5 - Integrated Orchard
An orchard is a planted and managed area of fruit trees. A well managed orchard will give benefits to people's health, their income, and Kamal Pun (right) and his orchard, Jajarkot the environment. There are ways of improving an orchard with small inputs which can greatly increase its productivity. To get more benefits, the orchard should be managed in a sustainable way. To get more production and easy maintenance, the orchard should be like a forest. The orchard can be rich, fertile and sustainable, just like a forest. One of the forest's qualities is its diversity. So our orchards should also contain a great variety of plants, and then they can be more productive and sustainable, like the forest. So, an integrated orchard is a diverse mix of fruit and multi-purpose plants growing together. In this chapter,we show how to design and manage an integrated orchard for quick and sustainable production.
Why

make an Integrated Orchard ?
How
to make an Integrated Orchard ?
Benefits of the Integrated Orchard Other trees can be planted in between the fruit trees; These other trees can provide fodder, fuel, timber, medicines, nectar, vegetables and other useful products; More production from less land; Soil and water conservation; Degraded land can be regenerated; Pests and diseases are more easily and cheaply controlled; Farm production increases annually; There's a quick return on investment; As well as cash income, the integrated orchard also provides many basic resources for other farming systems.
Species' selection and planting design

Good quality species should be chosen for the orchard. Species should be appropriate for the climate and landscape. The size of the different plants when they are mature should also be considered. According to size, 4 or 5 layers of trees and shrubs can be recognised :1 Upper canopy trees :- these are the biggest trees, and usually take the longest time to produce fruit. They are also usually the longest lived. Fruit trees in this group include mango, jackfruit, avocado, walnut, chestnut, butternut, pecan, etc. Multi-purpose trees include soapnut, neem, toon, mauwa, etc. These trees should be planted 10-12 metres apart. 1 Upper canopy trees 10-12 metres But planting trees at this spacing leaves 10-12 metres of space in between, which is wasted if nothing else is planted. Farming tilled crops may damage the trees when they are ploughed. So it is best to plant smaller trees in between.
Conventional farming education usually recommends an orchard of one variety. In a mango orchard, there are only mango trees, and in an apple orchard, only apple trees. Planting in this way leaves much wasted space in between the trees, and much work goes into maintaining these empty spaces. But if the spaces are ploughed to grow annual crops, then the fruit trees' roots may be damaged and production will be lower. So the answer is to plant perennial crops of useful trees and shrubs in between the fruit trees. This booklets author Chris Evans, advisor, Himalayan Permaculture Group, Nepal www.designedvisions.com The Farmers' Handbook, 2
"The Fields"
Chapter 5 - Integrated Orchard
2 Mid-canopy trees :- apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot, persimon, cherry, etc. can be seen as mid-canopy trees. They can be planted 5-6 metres apart, in between the upper canopy trees. They will fruit sooner than the bigger trees, and usually do not live so long. Upper canopy trees Mid-canopy trees 2
4 Shrub layer :- After the smaller trees, shrubs like pineapple, cardamon, napier grass, lemon grass, blackcurrant, gooseberry, etc. have their turn. They can be planted 1-1.5 metres apart. They are fast to produce, and only live a few years. 4 Shrub layer
5-6 metres But even planted like this, 5-6 metres of lend is left empty. Other trees can still be planted in between. 3 Lower canopy trees :- orange, lemon, banana, custard apple, sea buckthorn, coffee, papaya, mulberry, etc. are small trees. They can be planted in between, 3 metres apart. Lower canopy trees 3
5 Ground layer :- finally, as a ground cover to increase productivity even more, various types of sweet potato, taro, beans, peanuts, clover, comfrey, ginger, tumeric, etc. can be planted. Wild plants like wormwood and nettle can also be encouraged. They help to make the soil fertile. But the groundcover plants may need controlling if they harm the young trees. When the trees are bigger, climbing plants such as grapes, passion fruit, jasmine, yam, pepper and rattan can be planted. But these should not be allowed to climb on the fruit trees, or they will reduce the trees' fruiting ability. 5 Ground layer
3 metres But even 3 metres is a lot of empty space. Even smaller shrubs can be planted in between. 4
Note :- These pictures show how small and large trees and shrubs can be designed into the integrated orchard. When establishing the orchard, plants can either be planted all at the same time, or gradually, as time and labour allow. 5 Chapter 5 - Integrated Orchard
Protecting the orchard

The orchard needs fencing to protect against livestock. Temporarily, thorny branches such as Acacia, blackthorn, wild blackberry, sea buckthorn, etc. can be cut and made into a fence. A living fence of planted trees and shrubs gives other benefits, and is a more productive and longer-term way of protecting the orchard. A living fence, or hedge, can be made of thorny species such as cactus, sisal, wild pear, hawthorn, some of the Acacias, Prosopis, sea buckthorn, honey locust, etc. Some can form a fence within 2-3 years, and give other products, too. Fodder, firewood, fruit, medicines, nectar, etc. can all be gathered from the fence. After several years, even timber for construction can be produced. The chapter Living Fence gives more information about this.
Let's See
how to make an Integrated Orchard
The integrated orchard looks like a forest, but the trees and shrubs have more use.
On the edge of the orchard, the living fence gives protection and production. 6
Farmers visit to learn the methods

Above is fruit, below ginger, tumeric, pineapple, etc. all producing benefits
On big trees, vine plants such as pepper, betel, grape and passion fruit can climb up.
Marigolds are seen planted in the ground layer. These were planted to help with pest control, and now self-seed.
No space is empty in the integrated orchard
Coffee trees in the orchard need shade to fruit well, so are best in the lower level, underneath bigger trees.
Maintenance
How to maintain an Integrated Orchard
For an integrated orchard planted in this way, maintenance is mainly harvesting. The succession of production from the orchard is described below. 1st year :- sugar cane, various vegetables, fodder grass from weeding. 2nd year :- the above, plus banana, cardamon, ginger, tumeric, broom grass, currants, etc. start producing. 3rd year :- all the above, plus pineapple, coffee, papaya, sea buckthorn, etc. start to produce. 4th year :- all the above, plus grafted apple, peach, plum, apricot, pear, orange, etc. start to produce. 5th year :- all the above, plus grafted mango, walnut, lychee, chestnut, etc. start to bear fruit. Trees that have grown from seed will produce fruit more slowly, such as soapnut, butternut, hazel, etc. They will start to produce fruit after 8-10 years.
In 1989 this land was bare. Then, Mr Surya Adhikari started his integrated orchard, and now see ! (in 1999)
Not just fruit trees

All the above species produce fruit. But once the shape and size of the tree is understood, any type of useful and multi-purpose tree or shrub can be fitted into any of the layers. Plants for fodder, timber, herbal medicines, fibre, etc. can be added to provide their particular type of benefit, according to the land and the needs of the farmer or community. Chapter 5 - Integrated Orchard 11
10
A well established Integrated Fruit Orchard
Tillage in the orchard

If annual crops are needed to be grown between the fruit and multi-purpose trees, the trees can be planted in lines spaced wider apart, as in the photo below. This is the same basic design as for an agroforestry system. Terrace improvement is also a result. But you should not plough near the roots of the fruit trees. When the trees are bigger, livestock can be grazed in the area from time to time. Because the integrated orchard is made up of many layers of multi-purpose trees, there is a high production from a small space. By planting in this way, production will gradually increase as time goes on.
sugar cane Lucaena
12
pineapple guava napier grass coffee banana ginger tumeric taro
mango
drumstick
pear papaya
Ground crops can be grown between the lines of trees and shrubs of the integrated orchard. There are more than 50 species of plants in this picture.
13
Farmers' Experience
From Jajarkot district, Dandagaun 3, Kalpat village in Nepal, Mr Kamal Pun has planted an integrated orchard on his own land. Now let's read about his experiences.
Mr Kamal Pun
Read On !
Subjects Related to the Integrated Orchard
This book provides enough information for you to be able to design and maintain your own integrated orchard. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
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Since I took training in how to make an integrated orchard, I've been making my own orchard at home. My land is steep and dry, and was a bare grazing area for everyone's cattle. I made a design and began planting seedlings by layer. Kamal Pun Now, I have mango, banana, orange, papaya, grapefruit, coffee, peach, plum, apricot, lychee and many more. On the ground are pineapple, napier grass, lemon grass, and others. I have grain crops and fruit, and both produce well. I also grow seedlings for sale. I keep livestock, and there's enough fodder from the orchard to feed them from the many types of local fodder trees that are planted there. Before, there was no production from this bare slope. But last year I earned almost $1000 from my farm. I've been able to pay off all my loans, buy cloth, medicine, etc., and still have some left to invest. Now I want to buy another piece of land with the income. This orchard has been seen by many local farmers as a model. I've been teaching them how it's done - they come from many villages in the district.
Five Chapters on how to make various Nurseries

For planting a variety of plants in an integrated orchard, different types of nursery are needed to grow them. Information on how to build and manage the home nursery, fruit nursery, air nursery, hot bed and leaf pots is given in these chapters.
Grafting, Budding, Stone Grafting, Top Grafting & Air Layering chapters
Information about various easy methods to grow tasty and good-yielding fruit varieties at home for planting on the farm are given in these chapters.
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The orchard also needs a fence. By planting a fence made of trees, the production from the orchard can be increased even more. This chapter gives information about making and managing a living fence. An easy method of mapping out contours for soil and water conservation on sloping land is descibed in this chapter. Planting trees on farmland can bring farmers many benefits. But you can't plant any type of tree, nor anywhere. This chapter gives information on how to plant trees without affecting farm yield. After raising good seedlings in the fruit nursery, if they're not planted well all the work can go to waste. Information on more productive planting is given in this chapter. How to grow root stock from local wild fruit seed for grafting and budding apple, peach, plum, apricot, walnut, etc. on your own land.
Living Fence chapter Fruit Nursery chapter Fruit Tree Planting chapter Agroforestry chapter A-frame chapter
What is
Fruit Tree Planting ?

Farmers' Handbook "The Fields", Chapter 6 - Fruit Tree Planting
Fruit is a store of goodness. It is juicy, tasty and nutritious, and it holds vitamins essential for our health and well being. So it's our duty to plant fruit trees. All over the world people have planted fruit trees, since early times. Comfrey and garlic as companion Even if people plants under a young apple tree have only a small piece of land they show interest in planting fruit trees. But if you don't have the skills and knowledge to plant and care for fruit trees they can die, or at best be less productive. So all the effort that went into acquiring and planting fruit trees goes to waste. In this book we can learn about how to plant and maintain fruit trees to get the best production using local resources and with minimum work.
Why
plant fruit trees ?
How
protection from animals easy maintainance shelter from the wind
to plant fruit trees ?
There are many types of benefit from fruit, for example:-
Choosing the right places to plant fruit trees

When selecting where to plant a fruit tree, you need to consider the following needs:
it is tasty and nutritious; if you eat fruit after a meal the food is easier for the body
to digest; fruit is like wealth which you can sell or exchange; after you plant a fruit tree it only requires a small amount of maintenance, and will last for many years (it is perennial); because they are perennial, fruit trees help to protect the soil and the environment. fruit trees give nectar to bees, give firewood from pruning, habitat for birds and wildlife, and many other benefits.
enough room to grow suitable good soil
Below are good places to plant fruit trees:
in old pit latrines terrace edges on the edge of the house's yard on the edges of fields
Many types of fruit trees can be seen planted in the fields
In order to get these benefits, the first important thing is to plant the fruit tree well. Only then will fruit trees give their benefits to people and the community.
Apple Apricot
2
Pear Plum
3
Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields"
Chapter 6 - Fruit Tree Planting
Materials needed to plant a fruit tree

rotted compost leaf litter green biomas digging tools one basket
one basket
one basket
In the bottom of the pit, put 6-8 inches of green biomass, then cover it with soil that has been dug out of the pit. Then put a 12-18 inch layer of semi-decomposed biomas mixed with un-rotted animal compost and soil. Then put in a layer of well rotted compost mixed with soil. All the dug soil should be put back in the pit until it is heaped above the pit, which is now ready for planting.
oil seed cake
Companion Plants
garlic marigold comfrey seeds coriander legumes fruit tree vegetable seedlings onion
If you have a problem with ants or termites, mix oil seed cake (such as mustard) with the soil. One part of cake should be mixed with 10 parts of soil.
Planting the Fruit Tree

When you plant the fruit tree in the prepared pit, first remove as much soil and compost as is needed for the size of the roots. The roots should be open, and point downwards. When the soil has been returned around the roots and filled in, tread on the soil to press it down. Around the pit make a shallow trench to collect water. Lastly, put down rotted compost covered with mulch. If you don't have enough biomass, use rocks to cover the soil.
Preparing the Pit

If you're planting the fruit tree in an old pit latrine, then your pit is already prepared. If not, you need to select a good place and dig a pit. The pit should be at least 3 feet deep (if you have deep soil, then 4 feet is even better). The pit should be 3 feet wide. 4
After doing all these things the tree will grow well.
Like people, trees don't like to be alone

Where are my helping friends ?
Companion Planting
Various plants can be planted around the fruit tree which help it to grow even better and give more production. This is called companion planting. Garlic, onion, marigold, basil, mint, lemon grass, nasturtium, comfrey, coriander, fennel, dill, tansy and wormwood are some examples of companion plants. There are many benefits of planting them with the fruit tree.
Let's See
how to plant fruit trees

The pit should be one metre wide and at least one metre deep.
Benefits of Companion Planting

Companion plants help to protect from harmful pests They attract beneficial insects They produce vegetables, herbs, nectar for bees, etc. They can be cut and used as a mulch They can be stacked densely in different layers They help to balance the environment They help to conserve soil moisture They help to prevent weeds from growing
2
trench around the pit
Cross Section of the Pit

soil and rotted compost half-rotted compost and soil soil
Companion planting helps the fruit tree, but doesn't take much extra work
6
Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 6 - Fruit Tree Planting
green biomas
Make a trench around the pit to collect water.
6
Pull the tree upward as you fill in the soil so that the roots all point downward.
4 5
Trim off the fruit tree's long roots.
Don't squash the roots while planting the fruit tree.

8
Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 6 - Fruit Tree Planting
Maintenance
What the Fruit Tree needs :-
How to Care for the Fruit Tree
Protection from damaging pests Fertility Water

Different types of companion plant seen beneath a mango tree. Companion planting also helps to provide these three needs. However, extra maintenance brings extra yields. Compost:- It's good to provide compost once a year, in early Spring. Water:- If there's a rainy season, and if the fruit tree is dormant over winter, you don't need water then. But if there is a dry season when the tree is growing and fruiting, irrigation will make a big difference.
Where to put Water and Compost

Don't put water and compost right next to the stem of the tree, because the roots that feed grow further away. So water and compost need to be put in a circle away from the tree.
rotted compost
A grafted fruit tree can flower when very small.... 10
....but this makes the young tree weak, so you should remove the flowers for 1-2 years.
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Each year as the tree starts to grow, put compost around under the drip line.
To keep your fruit Cut at a tree healthy and giving slant the best production, branches should be pruned once a year when the tree is not growing (it is dormant). Dead or diseased branches should be cut immediately. Any branch touching another, or competing for light and space, should be cut. Use a sharp tool for this. After cutting large branches, cover the wound with fresh cow dung.
Pruning the Fruit Tree
After getting your grafted fruit tree from the nursery, cut the top off. This helps to form good side branching.
Cut just above a healthy bud to prevent too much wood dying.
Bud
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14
A good way of irrigating young fruit trees is given in the "Introduction to Fruit Production" chapter. Big branches should be cut with a saw, and small branches with a sharp hook or secateurs. This is how it looks after unwanted branches are removed. Cut out dead, diseased and unwanted branches.
You can get good production from planting fruit trees on empty land. And you don't have to plant Dil Bahadur Bucha every year like grains, but you can still get production each year. Fruit trees are good for keeping bees, so you can get more honey too. I dig a pit a metre wide and a metre deep and in that mix biomass and then good, rotted compost as the pit is refilled. It's important that the roots of the fruit tree are well spaced and pointing down as you plant it. If you get air on the roots the tree can die, so stamp the soil well down on top. I mulch with waste biomass and put rocks on top. That way the moisture is kept in the soil, and I don't need to water so much. Around the pit I plant comfrey and lemon grass for future mulch, so I need less compost. There are lots of benefits from fruit trees, you can even plant pineapple underneath. Now I have mango, pear and peach growing, and the lime is starting to fruit.
From Ratadada village, Gumi - 3, Surkhet, in Nepal, Mr Dil Bahadur Bucha has had plenty of experience at planting fruit trees. This is what he says.
Farmers' Experience
Mr Dil Bahadur Bucha
15
Read On
To see how to integrate fruit tree planting with other techniques, read these chapters in the Farmers' Handbook.

In this chapter learn how to make a nursery and grow your own fruit rootstock at home for grafting and budding.

You can plant many varieties of trees to get more production, and faster too. This is explained in this chapter.
Farmers can get lots of benefits from planting trees on their land, but you can't just plant them anywhere. In this chapter, learn how to integrate trees without affecting your crop production.
Pit Latrine chapter

A fruit tree grows best if planted in a big pit. If you have an old pit latrine to plant in, you can double the benefits. In this chapter learn how to make a hygienic, cheap and productive pit latrine.
Subjects linked to Fruit Tree Planting
What is
Top Grafting ?
Many people would like to plant fruit trees, but often can't find good types. Sometimes the seedlings may cost too much, if you have limited income. But difficulty in finding good fruit trees shouldn't stop you trying to get them - the solution to the problem can be found. Raising rootstock seedlings in the nursery may take 2-3 years. After grafting, it will take a few more years before they bear fruit. So let's learn an even easier way to grow grafted fruit trees. This is called Top Grafting (or top working). Top grafting is a method of grafting cuttings (scion) from Pear, top grafted improved fruit trees onto appropriate types of wild trees which are already onto a wild pear tree growing in the fields and forests, without needing a nursery. This method is very cheap and easy, and produces good quality fruit trees which give fruit quickly.
Farmers' Handbook "The Fields", Chapter 7 - Top Grafting
Why
do Top Grafting ?
How
to do Top Grafting ?
plastic saw
You can grow fruit trees on your own land You don't have to make a nursery Many types of less useful wild fruit species
can be made into improved varieties Trees will fruit sooner and give more fruit than otherwise Waste resources can be made into useful ones; Fruit trees can be grown easily in the forest
Materials Needed to do Top Grafting
rootstock Healthy, disease free, wild fruit trees are called rootstock. sharp tools
secateurs
You can eat the fruits of your labour with fruit trees
knife
scion A cutting from a good fruiting tree is called a scion.

2
The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 7 - Top Grafting
The methods of top grafting are very similar to that of grafting. But while grafting is normally done in a special fruit nursery, top grafting can be done directly on the farmland or in the forest, wherever the appropriate wild fruit trees are found.
How does grafting work ?

All plants have tiny channels which take water and nutrients up to the leaves and down again. These channels are inside the bark but outside the woody part of the stem. They form a greenish band around the stem called the cambium.
Which types can you top graft onto ? Local Type

Local peach Wild pear Wild apple (crabapple) Wild cherry
What to graft
peach, plum, apricot, almond pear apple cherry
wood cambium Cambium splits when bark is peeled bark
Cross section of the inside of a wild tree wood
apple cambium pith wood (green) bark
seen from above
plum cherry pear

Close-up of the cut end of the Scion
apricot
4
Chapter 7 - Top Grafting
Top Grafting Method

Scion To succeed at top grafting, the cambium of the scion and the rootstock must be exactly matched
Scion
1. Selecting and preparing the rootstock Top grafting can be done on any appropriate local wild
fruit tree. The tree should be strong, healthy and free of disease.
Rootstock
After selecting the tree to

graft onto, clear away brush and weeds from around the base, and cut off any small branches growing from the base.
cambium (green) cambium (green) Where to Top Graft ?
This is how the cambiums are joined
Cut down the tree anywhere between 4 inches up to 3

feet high above the ground, according to need and the shape of the land.
On farmland, grazing land, or in the forest, wherever there are suitable wild fruit trees, such as wild peach, wild pear, wild apricot, etc.
The cut should be straight and clean.
When to Top Graft ?

Top grafting is usually done when trees have lost their leaves, in the winter. In lower, warmer places this may be in January (Northern Hemisphere). In higher, colder places this may be February or March. It is best to top graft about 2-3 weeks before new leaves sprout on the trees. The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" 6
2. Choosing and selecting the scion

The scion is selected from a good fruiting tree. The scion is about pencil thickness, or the thickness of your little finger.
Let's See
Selecting the rootstock
how to do Top Grafting
3. Grafting the scion

There are 3 ways to graft shown in this chapter. They are shown with photos on the following pages.
4. Binding the graft

Plastic is used to bind the scion to the rootstock so air and water can't get into the graft. If a very large rootstock is used, a separate piece of plastic is needed to cover the cut section while the scion is bound. This is shown on page 11, photos 6 and 7.
Cutting the rootstock
Method 1.
Bark Top Grafting
Let's see the 3 methods of top grafting

On the next 7 pages, 3 methods of top grafting are shown. The first method is called bark top grafting, and is on the first 4 pages. After this, the second method is called tongue top grafting, and is shown on 1 page. The third method is called split top grafting and this is shown on 2 pages. 8
The cut section is cleaned
From the top, make a 1-2 inch long vertical cut in the bark. The scion should have 3-5 buds on it.
On a big rootstock, 2, 3 or more scion can be grafted.
4
Spread a piece of plastic over the top, and bind the scion onto the rootstock with another piece. Bind tight so air and water cannot get in.
Make a 1-2 inch slanting cut on the lower end of the scion Insert the cut end of the scion into the bark through the vertical cut on the rootstock.
10
11
Finally put another piece of plastic over the top, and bind this on as well. This shows where care is needed to bind well Now, grafting work is finished on this tree.
Method 2.
Tongue Top Grafting
rootstock scion
9
When the rootstock is small, as here, only one scion should be grafted. The cambium layer under the bark of the rootstock and scion should be exactly aligned (see p. 5,6)
The cut on the rootstock and the scion are both slanting and an inch long. In the centre ofeach cut edge, make a small nick (tongue). These 2 nicks will insert into each other to hold the graft.
tongue tongue
Bind the graft with plastic, as in the other methods.

12
13
the cut is 1 inch long the cut is 1 inch long
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Insert the sharpened scion into the cleft. The cambium of the root stock and scion must be exactly matched.
14
Make an inchlong cut on both sides of the scion .
Cleft Top Grafting
Method 3.
Place a sharp tool in the cleft, taking care not to split the stem.
Make a cleft in the middle of the cut stem.
Bind the graft with plastic, as in the other methods.
Finished top grafting
15
After Top Grafting is successful

An improved pear grafted onto a wild pear rootstock has sprouted well. After 4 months, the plastic is removed. The seedling is protected from livestock.
How to Maintenance maintain a top grafted seedling

Aftercare for the grafted tree Protect the grafted tree from livestock Make a round trench around the plant, and use this to give
water and compost. Water as necessary, whenever possible Mulch thickly around the stem Plant companion plants around the tree Pinch or cut off any branches that sprout below the grafted branch
7
Apricot, 2 years after it was grafted onto a local peach
A grafted fruit tree orchard in Jajarkot, Nepal
Here, vegetables are grown under the fruit trees.

16
17
Companion Planting
Protect the tree from livestock

Darn ! I'd love to peck at those leaves, but no chance
How to eat it ?
Various plants, such as garlic, onion, marigold, basil, mint, lemon grass, comfrey, coriander, fennel, dill and wormwood can be planted around the fruit tree, which help it to grow well and give better production.
Make a small trench around the grafted tree. Use this to give water and compost as needed.
Benefits of Companion Planting

Companion plants help to protect from harmful pests They attract beneficial insects They produce vegetables, herbs, nectar for bees, etc. They can be cut and used as a mulch They can be stacked densely in different layers They help to balance the environment They help to conserve soil moisture They prevent too many weeds from growing There is more information about this in the Fruit Tree Planting Method chapter 18
Give water and compost
water
compost
19
Maintenance needed each year Now your fruit tree can grow well. To help it more, prune it once a year in the winter. Give it a basket of compost at the same time.
On a big tree, many scions can be grafted Top grafted branches are shown
compost
compost
Pruning the tree
Remove any branches that sprout from the rootstock. More information about pruning is given in the Fruit Tree Planting chapter.
20
Many scions can be grafted onto a trunk in this way.

One branch from the rootstock is left uncut at first. This helps to pull water and nutrients from the roots for the new grafts. After the grafts have sprouted well, this branch can be cut off.
21
Farmers' Experience
Mr Tek Bahadur Khadka
Read On !
Subjects Related to Top Grafting
This book provides enough information for you to be able to do your own top grafting on fruit trees. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
From Jajarkot district, Khalanga -5, Pokhora village in Nepal, Mr Tek Bahadur Khadka has done plenty of top grafting. Now let's read about his experiences. I work for the Homestead Programme (JPP) in 6 VDCs of Jajarkot district. At first I didn't think this method would work, but after training and starting work, I like it a Tek Bahadur Khadka lot. I now teach this in the villages. I started by top grafting pear onto the wild pear that grows here. At first we used to cut these wild pear down as we thought they were useless. Now we top graft them and have made a fruiting orchard out of the forest. Before, you'd see just a few pear trees in the village. Now there are hundreds of trees, and everyone knows how to do top grafting - even in places where I've never been to teach. And it turns the wild pear into a useful tree. You don't have to buy fruit seedlings, and they fruit quickly. Everyone likes the method in the villages, it's so easy. You don't need any strange tools, and can do it in your own village area.
Grafting and Budding chapters
Top Grafting chapter
Fruit Nursery chapter Fruit Tree Planting chapter Grafting and Budding chapters
Information about various simple methods to grow improved fruit varieties at home for planting on the farm are given in these chapters.
22
23

In this chapter learn how to make a nursery and grow your own fruit rootstock at home for grafting and budding.

Information is given in this chapter about how to plant fruit trees with various other multipurpose trees to give more and quicker benefits for less work.

After raising good seedlings in the fruit nursery, if they're not planted well all the work can go to waste. Information about fruit tree planting is given in this chapter.
Planting trees on farmland can bring farmers many benefits. But you can't plant any type of tree, nor anywhere. This chapter gives information on how to plant trees without affecting farm yield.
What is
Air Layering ?
Farmers' Handbook "The Fields", Chapter 8 - Air LAyering
Hommaya Gurung plants a guava seedling made by air layering. Everyone likes to eat tasty fruit. And everyone who plants an orchard looks forward to tasting the fruits of their work. It is our responsibility to plant fruit trees, which give the family nutrition as well as increasing farm production. So people want to plant fruit trees, even those with just a little land. There are many ways that farmers can grow good quality fruit trees at home at very low cost. The more methods are known, the more choices farmers have to improve their farm production. In this chapter we talk about another easy and successful method of propagating fruit trees, which is called Air Layering. Air layering is a simple way of propagating fruit tree seedlings from their branches.
Why
do Air Layering ?
How
to do Air Layering ?
There are 2 problems with planting fruit trees from seed. The first is that a tree grown from seed willl take a long time to produce fruit. It may take 8-10 years. The second problem is that although the seed may be taken from a very good tree, producing excellent fruit, the new tree may not produce good fruit. By air layering a tree, we can guarantee that it will produce fruit sooner, and the fruit will be as good as the tree from which the branch was taken.
Time to do Air Layering ?

In low-lying, hotter climates, air layering can be done from late winter through to spring. The higher and cooler you go, normally the later air layering can be done. The season can go on through spring and even into early summer. The time to do air layering is normally the same time as when fruit trees start to grow new leaves.
Species which can be Air Layered

Most of the citrus varieties - orange, lemon, lime, grapefruit, kumquat, etc. Also, pomegranite, lychee, guava, star fruit, custard apple, plum, and pear. There may be other varieties that you know in your local area.
Materials Needed to do Air Layering plastic hook, etc. fertile soil knife tree moss
This Chapter's Author

Mrs Deumaya Rana Dahachaur-4, Surkhet. 2
The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 8 - Air Layering
string
Choosing the branch to air layer

The branch to be air layered should be healthy and free of disease, and at least one year old.
1 A branch chosen to be air layered
One inch of bark taken off
Then, away from the tip, cut the bark from around the stem of the branch.
After removing the bark, wrap around a handful of tree moss, or a ball of soil mixed with ash and cow dung.
2
2 cuts around bark the branch peeled off 1 inch in between the 2 cuts 4
Make 2 clean cuts around the branch one inch apart, and take off the bark only between the 2 cuts.
Preparing a handful of moss
Chapter 8 - Air Layering
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Spread out the moss between the hands.
Wrap the moss around the cut section to make a ball.
moss
Tie the ends of the plastic around the moss, so air and water cannot get in.
Wrap the right size of plastic around the moss.
plastic
A completed air layering

string
When air layering, always make sure the end of the plastic is pointing down, otherwise water can get in, and the air layering may fail. The branch is then planted in the summer, 6-8 weeks after binding.
11
To plant the air layered branch, cut the branch just below the moss ball
9
Inside the plastic, white roots can be seen.
12
Roots seen as the plastic is removed This branch is ready for planting
8
10
roots
Before cutting and transplanting, make sure the place to plant the seedling is prepared
13
Planting the branch Dig a pit a metre deep and a metre wide. Fill the pit as shown in the picture below. Carefully plant the new seedling, taking care not to damage After cutting, remove just the plastic, and plant the branch with the moss still attached.
the roots, and cover with soil just above the moss ball. Put a thick mulch around the seedling. Water well into the ditch around the pit. Plant companion plants around the seedling, such as garlic, onion, marigold, comfrey, basil, coriander, nasturtium, wormwood, tansy, lemon grass, etc. More information about this is given in the Fruit Tree Planting chapter.
14
Trench dug around the pit.

soil and compost soil and partly decomposed compost soil
See the moss still attached to the roots.

10
green biomass
11
Maintenance
How to care for an air layered seedling

Put water and compost only in the trench around the seedling
Companion Planting
After planting the seedling, mulch it well and plant suitable companion plants around it.
A good way of irrigating the seedling is given in the Fruit Tree Planting chapter.
Protect the seedling from livestock.

12
12
13
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 6, and a member of "Peoples's Awareness" women's group, Mrs Pabisara Gharti has experience with Air Layering on her own land. Now let's hear about her experience.
Mrs Pabisara Gharti
Read On !
Subjects Related to Air Layering
This chapter provides enough information for you to be able to do your own Air Layering on fruit trees. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
Air Layering chapter

14
I learned about air layering from the Homestead ProMrs Pabisara Gharti and gramme (JPP). To make the her air layered orange cutting, I peeled the bark from around the branch, covered it with a ball of moss, and wrapped it in plastic. Easy. Roots grow from the cut section in about 2-3 months. Then, I cut the branch and planted it with its new roots. I made the air layering in February, and planted it out in June. A seedling made in this way fruits much quicker than when planted from seed. I found this method easier and more successful than other methods, so we've been planting lots of fruit trees made this this way, and will be planting more this year. Why shouldn't everyone do this type of work, that is easy and gives good benefits ?
15
Related Subjects
After raising good seedlings in the fruit nursery, if they're not planted well all the work can go to waste. Information about more productive planting is given in this chapter.

Information on how to plant fruit trees with various other multi-purpose trees to give more and faster benefits for less work is given in this chapter.
Farmers can get many benefits from planting trees on their land, but you can't plant them just anywhere. In this chapter, learn how to integrate trees on the farm without affecting your crop production.
What is a
Bamboo Cutting ?
Farmers' Handbook "The Fields", Chapter 9 - Bamboo Cuttings
Mrs Myasu Garanja's bamboo, which she planted from a cutting Bamboo is an extremely useful plant which has been used for hundreds of years in society. When its shoot is young, it can be eaten as a vegetable. When the stem is strong, it can be used to build houses. That's why there's a Nepali saying that goes "when young, a vegetable; when mature, a house". In the villages, they also say that bamboo can be used for anything, except as a plough share. The traditional way of propagating bamboo is by digging up the root and transplanting a section to a new place. But this involves a lot of difficult work, takes much time, and many other plants can be damaged as it is transplanted. So in this chapter, we show an easy and quick way of propagating many more bamboo than was previously possible.
Why
make a bamboo cutting ?
How
to make a bamboo cutting ?
Planting a bamboo from cuttings gives more benefits from less work. In less time, many more cuttings can be planted, saving work for farmers. The traditional way of digging up bamboo with its roots causes damage to other plants, and much soil needs to be moved. So by using cuttings, this damage is also prevented.
Which bamboo can be used to make cuttings ?

There are many types of bamboo, from hot, tropical, low lying areas to cold, high altitude areas. Most types can be used, except cane bamboo, and bamboo which has only a very small hole, or no hole in the middle.
Materials Needed to make bamboo cuttings
Benefits of Bamboo cuttings

It's a quik and easy method With less work, many
cuttings can be planted One bamboo branch can make many cuttings The original clump isn't damaged by making cuttings
1-2 year old bamboo
sharp tool
water rocks
oil seed cake digging tools leaf litter
saw fresh cow dung compost
This Chapter's Author Mr Laxman Rana

Chapter 9 - Bamboo Cuttings
Things to consider when selecting the cutting the bamboo should be between 1-2 years old the bamboo should be healthy and free of
disease
The tip is young and soft, so is not able to regenerate from cuttings
Time to plant
In hotter, lowland areas, cuttings are taken from mid-winter (mid January in N.Hemisphere) for up to 1 month. In hilly, cooler areas, the time starts up to one month later, until late spring (April).
Length of time to sprouting

A successful cutting will sprout within 3 months.
12 11 10 9 8 7
Method of cutting
Considering the above points, the first stage is to select the bamboo for cutting.
Things to consider when cutting the bamboo Be careful not to damage the chosen
4 bamboo as you fell it Also be careful not to damage nearby bamboo stems Use sharp tools (axes, machete, hook, etc.) As soon as the branch is felled, immediately cut off the tip from 1 inch diameter, otherwise this drains its capacity to regenerate Use the base and tip for something else
The mid section, from nodes 5 - 12, is suitable for cuttings it has a good capacity to regenerate.
The base section up to the 4th node is also not good for use as cuttings
6 5 4 3 2 1
Selecting cuttings after the branch is felled
Selecting and trimming the nodes on the cutting
As soon as the branch is felled, the tip is immediately cut off Select and cut the cuttings as descibed below. The numbers below match with the numbers on the diagram on page 7.
1 There should be no damage or disease on the cuttings. 2 Only leave 3 branches on each node of the cutting. 3 The mid branch of these 3 should be about 18 inches long and have 3-5 nodes (if the distance between nodes is long, there may be 3 nodes, if the distance is short, there may be 5 nodes). 4 The other 2 side branches of the node are cut shorter, to have 2-3 nodes in total. 5 Other, smaller branches are cut off. 6
cut here 4 4
cut here 5
node of the cutting This is how it looks after the cutting has been trimmed
3 4 3 4 4 4 5 5
cut here
3 branches on the node of the cutting

2

cut here
Use a sharp tool to trim off either side of the node.

Fill the hollow ends of the cutting with soil and compost. If there is a risk of termites, mix oil seed cake with the soil to fill If the bark splits like this, the hollows. Use the cutting may not grow. one part of oil seed cake to 5 parts soil or compost mix. This will protect the cutting against termites, ants and other soil-living pests.
Fill the hollow ends with light, fertile soil.
When the hollows are filled, cap the ends with fresh cow dung.
While doing this, be careful not to split the bark.
Where to plant the cutting ?

The cutting can be planted direct in the corners and edges of fields. It can also be planted in the fence, river banks, in gulleys and areas of soil erosion. The cuttings can also be temporarily planted in a nursery, and transplanted out when roots have developed.
Place the cutting in the pit.
Planting the cuttings in a pit
The length of the pit depends on the length of the cutting If oil seed cake is needed, mix it with all the soil covering the cutting.
To bury the cutting, dig a pit 18 inches (50cm) deep and 18 inches wide. Before planting the cutting, put 3-4 inches of fertile soil in the bottom. If there's a risk of termites, mix oil seed cake with the fertile soil in the bottom of the pit
10
Soil and oil seed cake is mixed to cover the cutting
Then fill in the pit with soil. Leave the middle branch of the node sticking out of the pit a few inches.
11
Then mulch the pit with leaf litter and cover with small rocks.
add a pot of water
A newly sprouted cutting
xfufsf] 6'Kkf b]vfpg] tip of the middle branch

rocks leaf litter
Finally, soak the pit with a pot of water. The mulch of leaves and rocks will conserve moisture. Even so, it's best to water the cutting 2-3 times a week in the dry season, if possible. If there were no bamboo neither would there be flute

The cutting will sprout 3-4 weeks after planting,
Roots growing And without nature, there'd be no culture

12
The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 9 - Bamboo Cuttings
13
Uses of bamboo Important household items like baskets, winnowing trays,
shouldn't step where the cutting is planted. Water the cutting 2-3 times a week if possible. The bamboo grown from cuttings can be harvested for use after it is 3 years old.
The cutting should be protected from livestock. People also
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14
How to Maintenance maintain a bamboo cutting
etc. are made from bamboo Craft industries using bamboo provide many people with employment Local bamboo can replace timber and plastics bought in from the outside, which helps to make the community more self reliant This also saves money It's using a local resource Bamboo helps in erosion control and soil conservation Once planted, bamboo lasts many years From the cradle to the grave, bamboo is an essential part of daily life
a plane made from bamboo bamboo utensils
I leaned how to make bamboo cuttings from the Homestead Programme (JPP). Mrs Mayasu Garanja At first it was difficult without knowing, but after training I found it easy to grow bamboo from cuttings. First you need a branch which is 1-2 years old. This is cut into sections, each with a node in the middle and hollow on either side. You fill the hollow ends with fertile soil, and cap the ends with cow dung. Plant this cutting in a pit, mulch well and add water. I've found the best time to do this is mid-January to mid-March. It's so useful to plant bamboo like this. You can make so many things from bamboo baskets, trays, etc., all useful in the house. If you have bamboo in your fields it saves having to buy lots of things from outside. Now, with this method we can plant lots of cuttings and so grow lots of bamboo, because it's such an easy method. Chapter 9 - Bamboo Cuttings 15
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Dahachaur - 3, and a member of "Evergreen" women's group, Mrs Mayasu Garanja has planted many bamboo cuttings. Now let's read about her experiences.
Farmers' Experience
Mrs Mayasu Garanja
Subjects Related to Bamboo Cuttings

This book provides enough information for you to be able to make your own bamboo cuttings. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
Bamboo Cuttings chapter


Soil Conservation and Improvement chapter
Bamboo is very useful f o r soil conservation. In this chapter, we describe the nature of soil, how to protect existing soil, and show how to regenerate damaged soil making it into into productive land again.
Planting bamboo, as well as other useful trees and shrubs, helps to protect the land as well as providing many other important benefits. Information about planting and maintaining a living fence is given in this chapter.
Read On !
What is a
Living Fence ?
Farmers' Handbook "The Fields", Chapter 10 - Living Fence
A living fence along a path, Nepal

A Living Fence is a fence made of living trees and shrubs. Made from thorny or non-thorny plants, it can also be called a green fence, or hedge. There are many ways of using a barrier to prevent harmful pests from coming onto the land. Everyone knows that stone and mud, bricks, barbed wire, bamboo, or even cut branches can be used to make a fence. But the most productive form of barrier is the living fence, because as well as being a barrier, it can also produce many other benefits for the home. In this chapter, information is given about making and managing a living fence.
Why
make a Living Fence ?
How
to make a Living Fence ?
Benefits of the Living Fence

Crops are protected against harmful pests. The living fence can act as a windbreak. As well as protecting the land, various products such as fodder, firewood, medicines, timber, nectar, etc. can be taken from the living fence. Beneficial animals such as predator insects can also find a place to live in the living fence. The living fence saves money. It prevents soil erosion. It can prevent terraces from collapsing It can be used where materials for fencing are not found, e.g. plentiful rocks, barbed wire, large branches or trees, etc.
Where to make a living fence ?

According to your location and its climate, landscape, soil, etc. there are many plants that can be used for a living fence. Planted on the edges of the land, the living fence protects against harm from the outside, including the wind. Within the farm, living fences are useful along edges such as pathways and edges of fields or terraces. They can give shade and shelter, as well as other useful farm produce. The kitchen garden can be protected by a living fence, and even separate vegetable or nursery beds can have their own small living fences.
Materials Needed to make a Living Fence

seeds sharp cutting tools
So, as well as using the live fence for protection, it can also be used to increase farm production. If a fence has tree cotton in it, for example, this is even a cash crop. Citrus varieties such as orange, lime, lemon, etc. can make very good fences. They also produce valuable fruit, and are good for bees. This Chapter's Author:
digging tools
seedlings
cuttings leaf litter
Mr Bhuvan Khadka
Himalayan Permaculture Group, Surkhet, Nepal 2
The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields" Chapter 10 - Living Fence
Choosing what to plant in the living fence

Many types of plant can be grown in home-made nurseries and planted in the fence when they are large. Many species grow from burying branches in the soil like cuttings. The fence can also be planted with suitable seedlings collected from the forest. Different methods for growing seedlings are descibed in the Home Nursery chapter. By collecting seed and cuttings from around the community and local forest, and making home nurseries, we can grow small, large, climbing vine, or any type of seedling. In the living fence it is good to have as many thorny plants as possible, such as blackberry, Berberris, babool (Acacia nilotica), baer (Aeglis), blackthorn, hawthorn, honey locust, mesquite (Prosopis), khayer (Acacia catechu), etc. Thorny plants are mainly useful around the boundary of the farm.
Let's See
A young living fence on the edge of a field.
how to make a living fence
At high altitude, castor in the fence produces lots of biomass.
Living plants make a fence and also give various other products
4
A fence can also be planted within the farm. Here, various useful trees are planted along the edge of a path.
The fence shades the path as well as giving other products.
Within the farm and on the edge of paths, useful plants like wormwood, Lucaena, lemon grass and marigold have been planted. Ipomea (morning glory) is grown easily from direct cuttings, and woven into a thick, strong fence.
6
Lemon grass helps to stop weeds from growing into the kitchen garden, and can be cut for mulch
Maintenance
How to maintain a Living Fence
Things to consider when making a living fence

After planting seed, seedlings or cuttings in the living fence, mulch thickly with straw, leaf litter, etc. This controls the weeds, and allow the plants to grow well. Weeds need removing, and the plants should be watered if possible. Replace any plants that die. Once the plants have grown, there is not much maintenance. Well planned harvesting of products from the fence is the only maintenance that is needed. Cutting or pruning branches will give yields of fodder, firewood, mulch material, etc. If there is too much shade, branches can be cut to let in more sun.
In Britain, willow branches are densely planted. They sprout and are woven together to make a strong fence
8
Firewood collected only from the living fence

Chapter 10 - Living Fence
The kitchen garden needs a good fence around it to protect against strong sun and wind, livestock, weeds and other harmful things. Inside the kitchen garden, each vegetable bed can be surrounded by small fences of comfrey, lemon grass, basil, marigold, wormwood, and Adhatora which protect against invasive weeds and even flying insect pests. There are other beneficial yields of mulch material, fodder, flowers, etc. This can also be called edge farming or companion planting.
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 3, Ratadada village, and a member of "Hariyali" women's group, Mrs Khagisara Gharti has planted her own living fence. Now let's hear what she says.
Mrs Khagisara Gharti
Biomass cut from the living fence helps to increase yields from the land
Mulch from outside Mulch from edge plants Mulch from agroforestry
water
It's been 5-6 years since I planted our living fence. I learned it from the Homestead programme (JPP). There are many benefits from the fence. Mrs Khagisara Gharti I'm always cutting fodder and bedding, firewood and so on from the fence. Leaves can be cut and mulched directly on the soil, or carried to the livestock and used as bedding or fodder. Because it's in your own fence, it's close and only takes a moment to cut and gather. It takes a few years to start producing well, but now this method has saved me a lot of time. I've planted mulberry, Lucaena, tree cotton, Ipomea, Melia, and the like in the fence. If any gaps appear, I plant something else to fill it straight away.
10
Chapter 10 - Living Fence
11
Subjects Related to Living Fence

This chapter provides enough information for you to be able to make your own Living Fence. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
Planting trees on farmland can bring farmers many benefits. But you can't plant just any tree, anywhere. This chapter gives information on how to plant trees without affecting farm yield.
Chapters on how to make various nurseries

Different types of nursery are needed to grow a variety of different plants. Information on how to build and manage the home nursery, fruit nursery, air nursery, hot bed and leaf pots is given in these chapters.
Mulching chapter
Mulch keeps the soil covered, keeps weeds down and conserves water. Information on how to mulch the soil is given in this chapter.
Livestock Management chapter

In this chapter information is given about producing fodder near the house and other easy methods to improve management and health of livestock.
Read On !
What is S.R.I. ?
It has become difficult to increase production from traditional rice farming. It needs extra labour and a lot of compost. Farming with modern methods is also expensive in outside inputs. With conventional methods, only by using expensive chemical fertilisers, pesticides and hybrid seed can farmers increase their production. It is increasingly difficult for ordinary farmers to afford all these things. It is also known that using chemicals is harmful to the environment
A clump of rice grown with the SRI method. This has grown from a single seed.
So here we are demonstrating a new method of growing rice which can use local seed and organic compost, while still increasing rice production. This method is called System of Rice Intensification (S.R.I.), and in this chapter we describe the principles and methods of SRI.
Why
Benefits of practicing SRI

do SRI ?
rice production increased less water needed less seed needed no extra external inputs needed can use local/traditional seed due to better soil and water management: - less pests & disease - better quality grain - more fertile soil
How to
do SRI ?
1. The seedlings grown in the nursery beds are transplanted after just 8-10 days, or at the 2-leaf stage. It is the biological age of the seedling which is important rather than the number of days. In warmer areas the 2 leaf stage is reached in just 8-10 days. This may take 3 or even 4 weeks in colder areas. The old seed case is still attached to the plant at this stage. Such a small seedling should be transplanted with much care not to disturb 2-leaf seedlings the roots, and when planting, the roots should be pointing down, not bent upwards as often happens when planting quickly. When are left pointing upwards, the ability of the plant to grow and seed well is reduced. When the seedling is planted small, it can grow without being disturbed, its roots grow bigger and so it can produce better grain.
SRI involves four major changes from conventional rice production: 1. The seedlings grown in the nursery beds are transplanted after just 8-10 days, or at the 2-leaf stage. 2. Seedlings are transplanted singly, not in a bunch. 3. Seedlings are transplanted at a wide spacing, from 20 to 50 cm apart. 4. Much less water is kept on the paddies. This booklets author Chris Evans, advisor, Himalayan Permaculture Group, Nepal www.designedvisions.com 2
The Farmers Handbook The Fields
At Sunrise Farm in Kathmandu, Nepal, rice seed is sown in old egg boxes filled with soil. This means less root disturbance when planting the seedlings.
Booklet 11 - SRI Rice Cultivation
2. Single seedlings are transplanted. In the conventional or traditional method, a bunch of 3-6 seedlings are planted together in a clump. This leads to competition between the roots, and later the leaves. Single seedlings do not compete and they can get more access to nutrients and water.
4. After transplanting, much less water should be allowed onto the paddy. In the conventional method, paddies are kept flooded only to control weeds in the rice. But this means that less air is allowed in the soil. When the soil is waterlogged, scientists have found that up to 75% of roots can die. When there is too much water, the roots do not grow well. In SRI, out once the seedlings are established, water is managed to keep the soil moist and sometimes even dry. This promotes good root growth, so the plant can find plenty of nutrients from a bigger area. paddy with the right moisture
paddy with too wet soil
left Conventional method SRI method
right
3. Seedlings are planted at wide spacing. There can be between 20 to 50 cm between single seedlings. Seedlings that are in clumps and planted close together suffer from competition (as in 2. above). They will compete for water, nutrients and light. Planting far apart means that each seedling has lots of light and plenty of space to obtain nutrients and water. Also, when single seedlings are spaced wide apart much less seed is needed. If the conventional method needs 100 kg per hectare of seed, with SRI only 7 kg of seed is needed to plant a hectare. 4
always wet On the left, as in the conventional method, the soil is always wet, air cant get in the soil, so roots cant grow well and therefore find less nutrients. On the right, with the right moisture, roots can grow well and so can find more nutrients.
sometimes dry, sometimes wet
Taking the above 4 differences into account, the SRI method is described below
As in the traditional paddy rice cultivation, first sow the seeds in a nursery, but sowing more thinly makes it easier to transplant the small seedlings later on. 1 2 Seedlings are planted when they are 8-10 days old (in warm areas) or whenever the 2leaf stage is reached. At this time the rice seed husk is usually still attached to the seedling.
Joshua Harber
A rake is used to mark out planting distances. The distance between teeth of the rake becomes the planting distance of the seedlings
When transplanting the 2-leaf seedlings great care must be taken not to damage the roots, or expose them to the sun. The seedlings should be planted as soon as possible - if possible within 15-20 minutes of uprooting. 3 6
Shyams rake has holes on the horizontal bar at different distances. This means he can set different widths to mark out his planting distances.
2-leaved seedlings being lifted from the nursery.

4 When planting the seedlings, the roots should point downwards, not be bent upwards.
The seedlings are then planted according to the marks of the rake, anywhere between 20-50cm.
Gamini Batuwitage
5 Plant the seedlings singly, one-by-one. The distance between seedlings can be 20 to 50cm. Farmers can research this themselves to find which distance is best for management and yield. Some farmers prefer 40cm, some 30, etc.
For up to 2 weeks, as the seedlings are establishing , the paddy should be kept wet. After this, water should be managed to allow just the right amount of moisture. Once every 1-2 weeks the soil can be allowed to completely dry out, even crack. In the monsoon season, rain should be enough to satisfy water needs. If irrigation is needed, flood the field once in the evening, allow it to soak in overnight, then drain off any excess water. When the rice flowers, more water can be allowed to flood the field. From 3-4 weeks before harvest, no irrigation should be done & the field drained.
Gamini Batuwitage
The roots of the seedling should point downwards

Fields under SRI, one month after planting Compost Good organic fertilizer for the soil is crucial for the success of SRI, to give good root growth. Because plants are far apart, mulch can also be added. Mulching will also help control the weeds. Green manures can also be used. For example, before planting rice, sesbania can be grown and ploughed into the soil. Mustard can also be sown with the transplanting to control weeds, and be dug in at time of first weeding. Booklet 11 - SRI Rice Cultivation 9
Gamini Batuwitage Gamini Batuwitage
Weeding
In SRI because the soil is not saturated with water, and seedlings are further apart, more work is required in weeding. The first weeding should be done about 10 days to 2 weeks after transplanting. The next weeding may be 2 weeks later. At least 3-4 weedings will be needed, but in SRI the more weeding is done, the better the rice production will be. Uprooted weeds should be left to rot on the soil.
Because seedlings are small and planted far apart, for up to 1 month the crop may look very poor. But at this time, most development is going on in the roots. In the second month, tillering starts and in the third month the above-soil plant grows very fast and becomes a thick clump. Most work is needed at planting because the seedlings are small and need great care. But as experience grows, this work can be done faster. Weeding takes more work than traditional paddy cultivation, but production increases as a result. Mulching and green manures can reduce the amount of weeding needed.
Planting time Mustard green manure seen close-up
After 1 month
After 6 weeks
After 2 months
Rice seedlings
2-leaf seedling Root growth only
At Sunrise Farm, after planting the rice a green manure of mustard is sown. This helps to control weeds, and after 2-3 weeks is dug in, which helps to aerate the soil as well as providing a source of nutrients. 10
Typical growth pattern in S.R.I. planted rice

A little leaf growth, more root growth
Now the leaves start to grow fast
11
On the left is a rice plant grown with the SRI principles. On the right is a plant grown with the conventional method. After the SRI rice has been planted, green manures like Sesbania, mustard or buckwheat can be sown and then be dug into the soil. Any form of mulch can be also be laid down. Either of these will help to control weeds as well as add fertility to the soil. A machine for weeding between rows of paddy. This can only be used when the paddy is flooded, or at least very wet.
Rice plants in SRI method
Rice, planted as single seedlings at 40cm distance, is starting to ripen.
12
13
Paddy managed under SRI has shown good increases in yield. Double yields are not difficult to achieve, and some farmers have achieved up to 4 times their normal yield. To try out SRI, start experimenting with the above ideas on a small area of your land. If you find good results, increase the area. Form a network with other farmers and research/development A large, multi-tillered clump of organisations, so more rice from a single seedling people can try and share experiences. Keep good records of inputs and outputs, and any new approaches which work well for you, in your area.
Farmers' Experience
Mr Shyam Shrestha
Mr Shyam Shrestha, owner and manager of Sunrise Farm, Sita Paila on the outski-rts of Kathmandu in Nepal, has been growing rice using the SRI principles since 2001. Now lets hear about his experience. My experience since 2001 has shown me that although SRI requires more thought and work in some areas, the benefits Shyam Shrestha more than compensate for this. But I also think that once we get more practice and develope a habit of planting this way, jobs like planting seedlings and weeding, which take more time at the moment, will become quicker as we get more experienced. You should take care not to put too much water on the fields. I use more mulch to control weeds. You shouldnt weed late - this makes it more difficult later. Before if we weeded twice, with SRI we weed 3 or 4 times. Ive used green manures of mustard and Sesbania. This keeps the soil more loose and makes weeding easier. With mustard I got a benefit of some greens to eat as well as the weed control and soil improvement. So overall Ive seen that with extra work, the fruits are more abundant! This booklet was produced with the participation of the SRI Group-Nepal, an alliance of (I)NGOs and individuals interested to research, evaluate and network SRI practice in Nepal. http://groups.yahoo.com/group/sri-nepal sri-nepal@yahoogroups.com SRI homepage (International) - http://ciifad.cornell.edu/sri/
Comparison between conventional and SRI methods

Conventional SRI method method
No: seedlings per clump No: tillers per seedling No: seeds per tiller No: seeds per plant Yield (tonne/Ha) 14
4 8.3 114 824 2.0
1 55 189 5858 7.3

Joelibarison 1998
15
Subjects Related to SRI

Good benefits can be had from the information in this book about SRI. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits lets read, learn and practice from other related chapters. Green Manures
SRI chapter
Seed Saving
Green Manures chapter - use green manures to add fertility to the soil and produce more crops Mulching chapter - how to grow more crops with less work while keeping the soil covered Seed Saving chapter - information on methods to produce and store various quality seeds at home Compost chapter - information on how to make good compost quickly is given in this chapter Agro-Forestry chapter - how to plant and manage trees on farmland to increase and diversify farm yield
Mulching
Agro-Forestry Compost
Grihasthi Publications
Read On !
Forest, Soil, & Other Topics
CONTENTS
Subject
This Volume's Authors : Chris Evans, Laxman Rana, Hari Dhungana, Mrs Malati Lakoul Edited, Designed & Produced by: Chris Evans & Jakob Jespersen Translated from Nepali by Chris Evans Proof reading: thanks to Mike Feingold, Margaret Evans, Ted Albins, Rupert Greville, Andy Langford, Looby Macnamara Photos: Jakob Jespersen, Chris Evans Addional photo credits are given at the end of this Volume Cover illustration: Mr Motilal Phauja Typing: Chris Evans Computer Coordination: Graphics Edge, Kathmandu Published by: Chris Evans, Jakob Jespersen...... Distributors: .......... (see p.8 for address) Printed by: Format Printing Press, Kathmandu...... First Edition (Nepali) printed June 2001, 7500 copies This Edition......... Farmers' Handbook, ISBN 99933-615-0-X....... This Volume : 99933-615-5-0 The Farmers' Handbook is about techniques for sustainable farming and this is the fifth of 5 volumes. There are 5 techniques and several miscellaneous topics presented here. In five volumes there are 40 techniques and approaches in total.
Chapter No:
Introduction to this Volume .......................... 1 Forest Management ...................................... 2 Soil Conservation and improvement ............ 3 A-Frame ........................................................ 4 Community Fund .......................................... 5 Land Design .................................................. 6 Glossary ......................................................... 7 Practical Literacy .......................................... 8 Acknowledgements ....................................... 9
Introduction to Permaculture....................... 10 Grihasthi Publications' resources ................ 11
The Farmers' Handbook ls;fgsf] xft]lstfa - o; efusf] main aim of this handbook is to help farmers make kl/ro The this Volume's Introduction
This is the fifth volume of a five volume production of the Farmers' Handbook. In all, there are forty techniques & approaches shown, of which six are in this fifth volume. Because this is the final volume, its design is slightly different to the previous 4 volumes. At the start of this volume we introduce you to some of the techniques used in community forests, and for regenerating land. The chapter on Land Design then summarises all the chapters in this Farmers' Handbook. Finally, there are some miscellaneous topics. This Farmers' Handbook has been prepared to provide information about sustainable farming techniques as well as being a resource to run literacy programmes. Information about such programmes and how the Handbook can be used is provided in this volume. As well as technical information, a glossary of new and difficult words is also provided in this volume. their own farms more successful. This is done by providing information about using simple methods which strengthen, rather than damage the environment, and help to create sustainable livelihoods for future generations.
Aims
Background

Thank You
We would like to say a big thanks to all the friends who helped us to complete this Farmers' Handbook. Apart from those named and pictured here, there are countless others who have supported us throughout the task.
Various farmers' groups have helped to develop and evaluate the Handbook. It is for such groups that the Handbook has been produced.
Forest Management 2 Soil Conservation and Improvement 3 A-Frame 4
Proof reader
Techniques
Community Fund 5
Proof reader
Proof reader
Proof reader
system cambi um Glossary 7 on sci

Practical Literacy 8
Land Design 6
Computer support
Printer
Picture Acknowledgements 9
So on behalf of the Farmers' Handbook, here's a
Introduction to Permaculture 10 Grihasthi Publications' resources 11
very, very big Thank You !

From the Producers and Designers Chris Evans Jakob Jespersen
Appropriate Technology Asia P.O. Box 8975 EPC 849 Kathmandu, Nepal tel: +977 1 5549774 nepal@arasia.org.uk www.atasia.org.uk
Distributor and main contact addresses Permanent Publications

The Sustainability Centre East MeonHampshire GU32 1HR tel: +44 1730 823311 info@permaculture.co.uk www.permaculture.co.uk
Funding Support
Support for the production and printing of The Farmer's Handbook has come from ActionAidNepal, MSNepal, Methodist Relief & Development Fund (UK), GTZ Food for Work, Hill Agriculture Research Project (HARP). In this volume, the chapter on "Soil Conservation and Improvement'' has been supported by Helvetas Nepal
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "Forest, Soil and other Topics", Chapter 2 - Forest Management
Forest Management ?
Forest Management is the way that forests and the trees within them are protected and used to provide forest products and other benefits. In order to manage a forest, the different objectives must be decided upon, and a work plan is made acThe forest we keep, keeps us. cording to this. Just like any farm management, the work plan to manage a forest means what work to do, where, when, and how. Before starting forest management, the capacity and working process of those who are to do the work and benefit from it (user group) should be considered. This may be a community, family, individual, or other organisation which will work in and benefit from the forest. In Nepal, community forest is a resource of primary importance. That's why it's very important for communities and user groups to learn about forest management. In this chapter, information is given in particular about community and private forest mangement.
Why
do Forest Management ?
How
Background
to do Forest Management ?
Most people already know that the forest gives them many direct and indirect benefits. Daily needs such as fodder, firewood, leaf litter, timber, and various herbal medicines are available in the forest. The forest not only protects and improves the environment around settlements, it even helps to provide us with safe, clean drinking water. This is something that people have come to understand since early days. It is also why forest management has been part of the local community for a long time. But for many reasons, the forest has been disappearing before our eyes. As population has continued to increase, on one hand more forest resources are needed, yet on the other hand, population pressure has decreased the forest area and had a bad affect on the environment. With efficient and appropriate ways of conserving and developing forest products such as trees and medicinal herbs, the well-being and productivity of the family and community can increase, and poverty will decrease. This Chapter's Author :
A very important factor together with "how" to manage forests is "who" is managing them. Considering this, the Nepali government has made various regulations. The Forest Department, together with non-government and other organisations have participated in developing a set of regulations to help forest user groups manage their own forests. The forest law covers the management and use of religious forests, leasehold forests, government managed forests and protected forests. However, community forest and private forest are considered to be the most important types of forest. In recent years, the amount of community managed forest has increased greatly. However, user groups have still not been able to realise the benefits of truly sustainable forest management. Over time, there have been many ways that the forest has been protected, developed and its products distributed amongst its users in homes and villages. These management methods have been improved in different places and at different times, but there is still room for improvement. We should now use the lessons of experience, and take forest management forward to cater for the increasing population.
Hari Prasad Dhungana

Federation of Community Forest Users' Groups, Nepal The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" 2
Chapter 2 - Forest Management
Community Forest
This is where national forest has come under a local management plan, and has been handed over from the district forest office to a village committee responsible for the implementation of the management plan.
Needs and abilities of the community or individual

The different needs of a community or individual will determine why and how to manage the forest. In community forestry, the needs and hopes of the community are most important. But individual or family needs usually take priority in private forests. In managing a community forest, the opinions of all users of the forest are important to create the management plan. This may include religious or cultural reasons for protecting or using the forest.
Private Forest
This is where trees and forest on any private, registered land may be managed. Some details of registering community and private forest are give on page 14.
By planting trees on farm land, forest products are brought closer to the home. This saves time and helps to protect the forest. Read the Agroforestry chapter to learn more.
Things to consider in forest management

Objectives of forest management
The forest can be managed for various objectives. The main objective of managing community forest is often to sustainably provide for the needs of firewood, fodder, timber, etc. in the community. Management of private forest may, for example, be for the maximum output of good quality timber. There may be many other objectives in forest management. Just as the objectives are different, the management work in the forest will also be different. 4
The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics"
A forest management plan is a written or understood agreement for a programme of work in the forest, in terms of who does it, and where, when and how the work is done. In community forestry terms this can also be called an "action plan", and can include issues relevant to national forest law.
This a map made by the user group for a forest management plan in Kavre district, Central Nepal
What is a Forest Management Plan ?
Forest Site Conditions

The condition of the forest will differ in different places. Factors such as types and species of trees and shrubs, soil type, moisture, fertility, and aspect all cause great diversity, and affect productivity in the forest. While preparing the forest management plan, an evaluation of the growing stock of productive trees and shrubs, and their growth rates is an important step. Keeping good records of this will enable the user group to estimate the amount of products which can be sustainably gathered from the forest area.
Finding the resources to manage the forest

There are various resources needed in the process of forest management. For example, if making a plantation, or other activities, there must be good public participation to form the users' group committee, and agree on the management plan. This can be called the human resource. It costs to produce seedlings to plant, and there are many other visible and invisible costs that the people managing the forest will need to bear. These human, financial and physical resources have a big affect on management work in the forest.
Here you can see the trees, but it's not a good forest. There are no plants in the ground layer, so this space has no productivity.
There are many types of plants in a good forest.

6
Important resources such as soil are lost without the forest cover.
In this community forest, unwanted species have just been cut back, and useful thinnings harvested.
Naturally regenerated seedlings usually grow better than planted seedlings.
planted naturally regenerated
The same area 1 year later, the forest has grown back well. After a while it will be cut back again. Such work improves the forest..
In a productive and truly sustainable forest there are many types of trees and shrubs which fill all layers of the forest, from ground layer to upper canopy.
Work in the Forest

Plantation
Bare ground, clear glades in the forest, and even terrace edges in fields can all be planted with useful trees. Appropriate non-timber and medicinal plants which are needed by the household and community can be chosen and planted, as well as trees grown for timber. These can be grown in a nursery, or wild plants can be collected from the forest and planted. To learn about species selection, planting distance, propagation and planting methods, you should seek technical advice from the relevant places, such as the local district forest office or appropriate NGO, and request extra training.
Forest killers Thinning

Thinning practice is different depending on the different objectives of the forest management plan. For example, if the objective is only firewood production, trees can be grown closer together. But for good quality timber, the lower branches of selected trees may need pruning. Some types of fodder tree are best cut in different ways at different times of the year. To make space for more valuable species, less useful trees and shrubs can be gradually cleared. For example, if there is too much pine, this can be thinned out and other more useful or desired species planted in the gaps. If many branches regrow from the stumps of cut trees (coppicing), a good tree can be grown by selecting the best one or two stems and cutting the remainder.
Plant more useful plants in bare areas of the forest. Weeding and Fire Control
Clear weeds from around newly planted or regenerated seedlings to help them grow, and protect the area from the harmful effects of fire and free-range livestock. Some trees may suffer more from fire, while slow growing plants suffer more from weed competition. This work protects trees from pests and diseases, and helps the seedlings to grow faster. 10
11
More information about this is given in the Soil Conservation and Improvement, Integrated Orchard, and Agroforestry chapters.
Final Harvest
Fodder trees may be cut several times a year, or once every 2 years, after which they will regrow. Harvesting timber means felling the whole tree. Some herbal medicines come from harvesting roots, some from fruit, or flowers, or bark, etc. In this way benefits are harvested according to the management plan. The management should include planning and preparation for future rotations of crops.
For sustainable harvesting from the forest, products should not all be harvested at the same time. Once an estimate has been made of the growing stock and growth rates, according to this a fixed proportion of the growth can be harvested. This will help to improve the forest without over-harvesting.
Registering a Community Forest

According to the current forest law in Nepal, community forest is given priority for development. The forest user committee is given responsibility for protection of and distribution of products from the community forest. The local community forms the user group to manage all Bhaisepati Women's this responsibility.
Community Forest Saibu-4, Bhaisepati, 1998
By selecting and thinning, useful products are harvested as well as improving the remaining forest.
If the future regrowth of the forest is part of the management plan, it can be sustainable.
12
The community should form a users' committee which can make an application to the District Forest Office. Taking advice from the Forest Office and/or related NGOs, the committee should prepare a clear, simple constitution. After registering the constitution at the forest office, a forest management plan is made. When the plan is approved, the forest is handed over to the community. It's a good idea to take advice from related organisations for technical and management advice while managing the forest.
13
Registering a Private Forest

Farmers' land is often left unused, for example because they do not have the time or other resources to farm it. By planting trees, or by protecting naturally regenerated trees on such wasteland, or even on existing farmland, it is possible to make a private forest. Output from the private forest goes to the landowner. When the private forest is registered, these products can be sold or traded . To register the forest, the land and its distribution of trees should be described in the application to the forest office. The forest office will check your application against what is on the land, then issue you a certificate of registration for the private forest. Once the forest is registered, you do not need to go through any other process of registry in order to sell products from the forest.
Farmers' Experience
Mr Ammar Bahadur Gurung
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 4, Mr Ammar Bahadur Gurung is the ViceChairman of "Longlake Community Forest". Now let's read about his experiences. Our local forest was very good up until 1980. After that, people stopped caring. Livestock were let loose into the forest, and people cut wherever they liked. That led to more Ammar Bahadur Gurung landslides and floods, and even whole houses were washed away. Then, in 1994 this forest was handed over to the community as Lampokhari Community Forest. It is 9 hectares in area. After making a forest management plan, various rules were made. Livestock aren't allowed in, and the forest is opened twice a year to cut fodder and firewood, which isn't allowed any other time. Each person pays 2 rupees to be allowed to cut a load. Because of laws like this, the forest has grown and developed very well. Dead and badly shaped branches are taken out, and dead trees can be bought and cut for timber. The cash income from sale of forest resources goes into the local community fund.
Mr Surya Adhikari of Begnas, Nepal, changed this land from bare ground to a rich, diverse food forest. As well as producing fodder, firewood, etc. for the home, he also produces fruit for cash income. 14
15
Read On !
Subjects Related to Forest Management
This book provides much of the information needed to help manage your own forest. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
Soil Conservation and Improvement chapter

Information is given about the nature of soil, how to protect existing soil, and lots of ideas about how to regenerate damaged soil into productive land again.
Planting trees on farmland can bring farmers many benefits. But you can't plant any type of tree just anywhere. This chapter gives information on how to plant trees without affecting farm yield.

Information on how to plant fruit trees with various other multi-purpose trees to give more and quicker benefits for less work is given in this chapter.

By planting a fence made of trees, production can be much more than just a barrier. This chapter tells how to make and manage a living fence.
The Farmers' Handbook - "Forest, Soil and other Topics", Chapter 3 - Soil Conservation and Improvement
What is
Soil Conservation & Improvement ?

All plant life needs soil to germinate, grow and live its life. If the soil and soil management is good, farm production will also be good. The condition of Bare land becomes greener as the soil recovers in Surkhet, Nepal our environment, society and economy all depend on the health of the soil. If the soil can be kept fertile, production increases, the local economy is strong, and society is safe. Just like skin covers our bodies, so soil covers the Earth. Just like our bodies are damaged if our skin is broken, or wounded, so the Earth is harmed, and production decreases if the soil is damaged or washed away. If the soil is damaged, the farming community also suffers great harm. So we need to understand the needs of soil, and what can damage it. This chapter also gives information on how soil can be sustainably protected and improved.
Soil and its Needs

Different climates have different types of soils . Often, one type of climate will also have many different types of soil. But whatever the soil, they all have similar ingredients in them. Such as : mineral particles - these forms the main part of soil air moisture (water) animal life (visible and microscopic) roots of living plants organic matter (dead plants and animals that are in the process of being broken down)
The roots of the plant in picture 1 are shown close up in picture 2. This is shown even closer in picture 3.
1 3
organic matter
Fertile soil gives good production for all the farm's crops
air
The ingredients listed above are found in all soils in a greater or lesser amount. When they are in the right amount, the soil is naturally fertile. This booklets author Chris Evans, advisor, Himalayan Permaculture Group, Nepal www.designedvisions.com 2
root hair (this takes up nutrients and water for the plant)
mineral particle root
Everything else is soil water, or moisture. In the water are many nutrients, and countless microscopic organisms are also active in this water.
Chapter 3 - Soil Conservation and Improvement
According to the soil type, these different elements are present in different amounts. For example, let's compare sandy and clay soils.
Needs of the soil Testing Soil

Put a handful of soil in a jar of water and shake well. Leave it to settle for 4-5 days. The different types of mineral particles will settle into separate layers What is needed to protect and maintain fertility in the soil ? The contents of the soil descibed above - air, minerals, organic matter, living roots, moisture and living organisms are all essential in the right quantities for healthy soil. When they are all present, soil is naturally self-fertile. Adding the right quantities as needed also maintains the quality of the soil. But if any one ingredient is present in a lesser or greater amount than normal, the quality of the soil can be harmed, or it can also be improved.
Sandy Soil
mineral particles are large air spaces between the mineral particles are large lots of air in the soil As a result of this : soil is light and well aerated the soil doesn't hold water, and dries out faster nutrients are washed out quickly
A small wound on the skin of the Earth.....
Clay Soil
mineral particles are small space between the particles is small less air in the soil As a result of this : the soil is heavy as soon as it rains, the soil is saturated and stays wet for a long time. But when it dries, the soil is very hard nutrients are held in the soil but if there is less air in the soil, plants can't get the nutrients so easily 4 1 2 3 4
..... can make a big landslide. This should be prevented from starting.
All the different ingredients in the soil work together to help plants to grow. But more important than these minerals, living roots, organic matter, etc. are the living organisms in the soil. In particular, the tiny, invisible organisms, such as bacteria,and fungi play a huge role in maintaining and increasing soil fertility. These are collectively called micro-organisms. 5 Chapter 3 - Soil Conservation and Improvement
1. Organic matter 2. Clay particles 3. Loam particles 4. Sand particles
Soil life and micro-organisms

Actually, micro-organisms are probably the most important life on our planet. Living in one teaspoon of fertile forest soil there are 2 billion micro-organisms. Larger organisms, and many types of fungi are also responsible for breaking down dead plants and animals. This forms organic matter. Then, the smaller micro-organisms - mainly bacteria and fungi - take the organic matter and change it so plant roots (the root hairs) can absorb the nutrients, as we cook bread from flour. Even if there is plenty of organic matter in the soil, without the work of micro-organisms, this cannot be taken up by the roots of living plants until it is "cooked". Leaves and branches, dead animals, etc. fall on the soil and are broken down. Micro-organisms eat them. Then, it is their waste in the soil which plant roots absorb as nutrients. This allows the plants to grow and continue the cycle of life.
Life in the Soil
earthworm Larger organisms which can be seen will break down larger pieces of organic matter, and help to get air into the soil. The smaller micro-organisms eat their waste. fungi Plants absorb the waste from micro-organisms
Plants take the nutrients and grow
Cycle of nutrients and the work of micro-organisms
bacteria
How soil is damaged

Soil organisms break down organic matter When soil is left bare, it can be damaged very easily. Many things can damage bare soil, such as : sun :- strong sun will dry out the soil. Dry soil hardens and cracks the soil. Micro-organisms will die in dry, hard soil. water :- when it rains on bare soil, the top layer will set hard. On slopes, the topsoil is washed away downhill. wind :- wind will dry out all the moisture from bare soil, and can actually blow the top soil away.
Soil
fertility
micro-organisms eat the nutrients and excrete them as waste 6
organic matter is made into nutrients
Comparing soil with and without mulch

On these 2 pages the effects of mulching and not mulching are compared together. The left page diagram (a) shows what happens with no mulch on the soil, while the right page diagram shows the example of a mulched soil. The top diagram shows water 1 lost to evaporation, 2 running off the soil, and 3 soaking into the soil. The cycle below each drawing also shows the effects of mulching or not mulching on soil quality.
Cultivated, un-mulched soil
Protected from the sun, wind and rain, the organic matter, soil moisture and beneficial micro-organisms all benefit from mulching the soil. You need to consider where resources for mulching can be found, such as leaf litter, straw, etc. Leaves can be brought from the forest, but this takes time. To produce more resources for mulching, its best to use Agroforestry and a Living Fence - see these chapters for more details. Learn more about the methods and benefits of mulching in the Mulching chapter.
Mulched, un-cultivated soil
a
sun rain
1 weak plant 2 3
less soil life
less moisture small roots
Rain washes away fertile soil, more water is lost to the sun, less nutrients are held in the soil, plants are weak.
a
sun rain 1
2 more soil life more moisture lots of plants
Soil is deep, fertile, and strong well proplant tected. More moisture, 3 more soil life, plants are healthy and strong. bigger roots
b
more need to plough difficult to cultivate
soil ploughed, left bare
less organic matter
b
less air in soil less moisture healthy soil softer soil
lots of mulch
Spiral of destruction
hard soil fewer earthworms
Spiral of productivity
roots grow deeper more earthworms
more moisture richer soil
Other things which damage the soil

Chemical fertilizers :- these harm the soil microorganisms and so cause the soil structure and nutrient uptake to be damaged. Artificial poisons :- as well as killing pests, these kill many beneficial insects and organisms which work in the soil. Big, heavy machinery :- big machines such as tractors compress the soil so that there is less air space. They destroy the structure of the soil, as well as damaging soil organisms. Large livestock :- on wet soil, the feet of large livestock such as cows and buffaloes also compress the soil and damage soil structure.
So, what to do if nutrient deficiencies are recognised by these symptoms ? The chart below gives examples of plants which accumulate greater amounts than usual of certain nutrients. These can be used in mulch, compost or liquid manure so those nutrients which are lacking can be added to the soil. They are called dynamic accumulators.
plant
mustard buckwheat carrot (leaf) comfrey legumes marigold nettle amaranth
contains lots of
phosphate, nitrogen, iron phosphate potassium, magnesium nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, iron nitrogen phosphate nitrogen, potassium, iron, sulphur, copper nitrogen, phosphate, potassium, manganese
Nutrient management for plant growth

Symptoms of lack of certain nutrients Symptoms seen on mature leaves Leaves yellow, starting from tips Leaves die from the edges Leaves yellow between the veins Grey/white spots on fruit and grain Leaves and stems turn red colour Symptoms seen on young leaves Yellow spots on leaves & veins yellow Yellow spots on leaves & veins green Grey spots on seed, pods and fruit Newest leaves die back or have white tips 10 lack of nitrogen potassium magnesium manganese phosphate lack of sulphur iron manganese copper
The main thing to consider in soil conservation and improvement :We need to understand what benefits the soil as well as what that damages the soil, and plan our work according to this.
There are 3 main strategies :1. We need to feed the soil micro-organisms, and allow a good habitat for them to live and work in. 2. The soil should not be bare. We need to keep it covered as much as possible. Especially, take care to cover and protect the soil when there is strong sun, rain and wind. 3. Stop water from running off down a slope for any distance it runs faster, and carries off much soil and nutrients with it.
11
Methods of soil conservation and improvement ?

1. For the micro-organisms :- mulching, good compost, liquid manure, green manures, agroforestry, afforestation. 2. To cover the soil :- mulching, green manures (when land is fallow), agroforestry, afforestation, etc. 3. To stop water running off :- mulching, green manures, agroforestry, afforestation, use A-frame to make contour ditches, terrace maintenance.
Let's See
1
how to conserve and improve the soil

Bare land becomes dried out and wounds start to appear on the Earth's skin.
Compost Mulching These wounds can be healed by protecting the land and planting extra trees. 2
Green manures
Read about how these methods improve the soil in each chapter
A-Frame
3 Double digging Agroforestry Liquid manure
In this chapter, up till now we have read about soil, what it needs and how we can increase its fertility. Now, we look more at regeneration of damaged soil.
12
In 1989, this land was bare - 13 years later it is a rich, fertile and diverse orchard.
13
Here seedlings have been planted and the site protected Napier grass planted 9 After 1 year the Napier is big enough to cut for fodder
Bare and unproductive land on the river edge.... 6 ....when protected, can produce many of a farmer's needs. 5
10 10
Outside the wall the land is degraded, while inside has grown green
14
Ipomea (Morning Glory) planted on the river bank to prevent erosion

k'l:tsf g+= # df6f]sf] ;+/If0f / ;' Improvement Chapter 3 - Soil Conservation and wf/
15
Repair of Damaged Land 11 A high altitude Resource Centre farm being started in 1990 in Jajarkot, Nepal 12
Up until now in this chapter, information has been given to assist in good soil management. If there is good soil on the farm, it is not difficult to maintain and increase soil quality. Where soil has become degraded, the difficult work is to improve it again. But this is very important work - no community can claim it is poor as long as it has degraded land in its region , because they can improve productivity simply by repairing this land. All the things discussed above will help in the repair of damaged soil. But before putting much work into land regeneration, we should first understand how nature does the job.
The canal, made using an Aframe, allows the water to infiltrate the soil This means bare land improves very quickly (this picture in 1993) 13
This is a poor village. No forest, no soil, no wealth.
Maize stalks are used to strengthen the terrace and stop soil erosion
But the ability to improve the land is in the community's hands. Nature also wants to improve itself.
16
17
Soil Improvement and Succession

Improving the soil doesn't take so much work. It's often enough just to prevent it degrading. Left alone, soil will gradually improve itself, in a process called succession. For example, when any bare land is protected, special ground cover plants called pioneers will start to grow first. They will start the soil improvement process. Then, larger shrubs and trees will start to grow. Eventually, a mature forest will develop, and the soil will get a new life. So the first need for improving the soil is protection. The easiest type of protection is a "community fence" - the community decides to protect an area of land, and prevent livestock going into it. After that, stone walls, thorny brush, etc. can be used to make a fence. Most difficult is the individual protection of trees, by surrounding them with thorny branches.
The seeds of many pioneer plants are already in the soil. Many types of fruit, such as Ficus, mulberry, etc. are eaten by birds and spread on the land through their manure. We can speed up this process by providing perches over a bare area for birds to sit on. Bury tall posts on a contour line, and tie string between them. Under the string where birds sit, the seed they carry will germinate. On bare land, it's much easier to work with nature. With a few years' protection, nature will plant the best species to improve the soil. Then people can plant the larger species they need, such as walnut, oak, etc., and they will survive, and grow much better. This improvement doesn't cost much and the land will improve sustainably. The right plants will grow according to site and climate. Making a plantation on a bare site is very expensive, and more trees will fail. It's much cheaper and more effective to use succession for soil improvement.
Communally protected land grows through succession
Land improvement - who benefits? A walled area

The aim of improving community land is to prevent erosion, and produce more fodder, firewood, etc. But we must consider who benefits from this work. There are many examples where resource-poor people gain less than they should. So we must make sure from early on that benefits from land improvement are shared equally amongst the community. Chapter 3 - Soil Conservation and Improvement 19
Each tree is protected by thorny branches

18
1
When land is bare, there are no benefits except a few handfuls of grass for livestock. In fact, the soil will be degrading in the opposite direction. At first it's most important to protect the site. By allowing natural plants to grow the soil will improve by itself.
Succession on bare land
4
Within 3-4 years small trees will start to grow on the land. The soil will have improved well by this time. Now we can start planting large types of tree. In between, smaller, shade loving species such as coffee, pineapple, cardamon, medicinal herbs, etc. can be planted.
When an area is protected from grazing, within 12 years grasses and small shrubs will start to grow. These cover the soil, conserve moisture, and start to improve the soil. Livestock must be fed at home. Grasses which grow on the protected site can be used as fodder for them.
3
After another 1-2 years other seed will be brought to the land by the wind or by birds, and start to grow. As well as providing fodder, these shrubs and trees can also provide small firewood. 20
5
Eventually, both nature and the community can provide for more of their needs. Nature is protected, and human benefits also increase. When nature and the community work together, such benefits are sustainable.
21
One piece of land improvement
It is important to prevent water from running off a bare slope. This can be done by using an A-frame to mark out contour ditches, or swales. This is described in the A-Frame chapter. Let's see how the A-frame can be used.
A stone wall protects the land where seedlings have been planted
Some trees will grow easily from cuttings when planted at the right time. These are Ficus cuttings.
The A-frame is used to mark horizontal lines. These make swales for soil improvement.
After just 2 years, the area is green and productive
Swales made with the A-frame hold water, soil and nutrients on the land. These can be used by growing plants, instead of being washed away.
22
23
The distance between swales depends on the steepness of the slope. The steeper the slope, the closer together the swales should be. In diagram 1 the slope is steeper, and the swales are dug deeper and more narrow. In diagram 2 the slope is less steep, swales are less deep, and wider. In diagram 3 the soil dug from the swale is put above rather than below the ditch. This can be used to make terraces for cultivation as the soil accumulates above the ditch.
Planting of fodder species will increase compost production....
....or the trees can be cut and leaves put directly on the land (mulching).
Instead of digging swales, rocks or branches can be laid out on the contour lines marked by the A-frame to prevent soil erosion. Small shrubs can also be planted. Their roots will bind the soil and won't fall over and cause more erosion, as big trees may do. 24
Soil will collect above trees planted like this, and slowly level land will be formed for easier farming.
By stopping soil erosion in this way, hill farmers can can make their own land more fertile and productive.
25
Ways to increase soil fertility

livestock compost compost made of sweepings from the house and yard legumes to fix nitrogen earthworms silt from ponds, streams, etc. silt and dust collected from the run-off of the first rains deep-rooting trees to cycle fertility mulch using leaf litter to cover the soil dead insects, birds, etc soil and leaves blown in by the wind human excrement laying turf green manures rotation cropping keeping land fallow no-tillage, to allow natural soil fertility
Farmers' Experience
From Nepal, Kaski district, Lekhnath - 10, Begnas village, Mr Surya Prasad Adhikari has worked to improve the soil on his own farm. Now let's read about his experiences.
Mr Surya Prasad Adhikari
If farmers can use as many of these various local resources as possible to increase fertility, they can help to protect and improve the soil themselves. In this way they can increase production locally and make the homestead strong and productive.
26
The soil is our life. Protect it and be happy !!!
I started my mixed orchard in 1988. My aim was to work with nature to improve the soil and make it more productive. The area is 1.5 acres, and it was completely bare and degraded, with hardly any grass. First I planted Surya Prasad Adhikari seedlings and mulched all the land with leaves and compost. In the second year I sowed legumes and planted bananas. I cut the bananas and used them for mulch. Then I planted oranges, pineapple, fodder trees, broom grass, and so on. In total there are 55 species I've planted. It's all protected from livestock. The annual production has increased each year, and I even sell seedlings which grow there. There are 800 fruiting coffee seedlings, and I sell oranges and pineapple too. I produce all the fodder and firewood needed at home as well.
27
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Dig twice as deep to get 4 x the vegetable production Good forest management is essential for the soil Make great compost from domestic waste resources A method of increasing soil fertility and crop production Mulching protects and improves the soil Make good compost for the soil faster and easier An easy method of saving soil and water on sloping land Plant more trees on farmland to increase production without affecting yields of field crops
Make not just a fence, but a productive part of the farm
Double Digging chapter Forest Management chapter Living Fence chapter Sweepings Pit chapter Green Manures chapter Mulching chapter Compost chapter A-frame chapter Agroforestry chapter
Read On !
Subjects Related to Soil Conservation and Improvement
Let's See
1
how to make an A-Frame

Lay the sticks out in the shape of the English letter "A"
These pictures show how the A-Frame is put together. More details are given along with the colour photos.
The A-Frame is constructed by joining the legs, level stick and string as in drawings 1, 2 and 3 above. It is NOT essential that the long sticks which make the legs of the Aframe are exactly the same length, nor that the middle stick is exactly horizontal. It doesn't matter if lengths are different, or if the sticks are not exactly straight. As in the drawing below, some A-frames can be more uneven, but they all do the same work.
The most important part of the A-frame, so it can mark out contours accurately, is the relationship between the string and the horizontal stick. The way that this is done is shown in detail in colour photos 7 to 14
4 3 To join the pieces use nails or string

Chapter 4 - A-Frame
Now the A-Frame is ready to use

4
What is a
The Farmers' Handbook - "Forest, Soil and other Topics", Chapter 5 - Community Fund
Community Fund ?
A Community Fund can be started by village men and women agreeing to make a group, and collecting money from all the members of the group according to their capacity. When the group has an objective of making loans and charging interest as needed from this fund, this is usually called a savings and loans group. These Controlling your own finance groups can be made up of men and women, some are made up of women only. The members of the group discuss and decide on when to meet and how much money to collect. Usually they meet once a month, on the first Saturday, or any other day they decide on. Everyone agrees to pay an equal amount, which can increase over time. Members can then take a loan according to their needs. A rate of interest is payable on the loan, which increases the fund. This has proved to be very successful in allowing communities to control and improve their own local economy.
Why
make a Community Fund ?
How
to make a Community Fund ?
protection from the high interest rates of merchants to have access to funds at times of emergency to be able to pay for family committments, such as weddings, school fees, funerals, etc. to be able to take loans easily whenever needed so that marginal families with minimum incomes can get access to credit and cash to make managing the household's finances easier
In this chapter, first we'll look at selecting the group and how it manages itself. Then we'll look at examples of simple ways of keeping and managing accounts. Finally, we'll briefly look at some good ways of investing the fund, and see case studies of successful women's groups and their funds.
Where does savings money come from ? from a certain percentage of income taken at the start,
before any spending (produce, save, and then spend) from increasing the fund by income-earning work from giving up being lazy and improving work habits reducing unnecessary expenses reducing consumption of damaging items such as alcohol and cigarettes from community or social work, such as festivals, cultural programmes, bulk buying and marketing, etc.
Materials Needed to make a Community Fund

Discussing the business of the Community Fund This Chapter's Author : pens "piggy bank"
Mrs Malati Lakoul

World Education, Kathmandu, Nepal 2
trusting friends accounts books

Chapter 5 - Community Fund
money
How to start a group

The various responsibilities of the group should be Good divided up, so leadership that savings and credit groups can manage themselves effectively. Not everyone has the same skills, and it should be decided and agreed who is best to do which job.
Choosing the group's leaders

The group chooses the chairperson, treasurer and secretary by Group consensus, participation election, or by whatever method is appropriate. For example, here are 2 methods of selecting the posts : Method 1 The group selects people with the right qualities to play the leadership roles, who then state whether they wish to have the post. When there is consensus and everyone agrees, the posts are given. Method 2 A selection of suitable candidates are presented or present themselves. There is a vote, and whoever gets the most votes gets the post.
Things to consider when selecting members

Group leader (Chairperson)
able to lead the group able to manage the group successfully able to listen, and understand inputs from the group able to explain about the group and how it works to other people and groups.
How to keep the group's accounts ?

The keeping of the group's accounts means the group can keep a record of funds saved, loans given and interest earned, so the total amount of the fund is always known. The treasurer has the responsibility to keep the accounts clear and transparent. On the following pages are samples of a group's accounts.
Secretary Treasurer able to read and write able to read and write able to keep accounts able to explain about the group to others able to network with other groups 4
Keeping the group's accounts

To keep accounts of the group's savings, the chairperson records the names and savings of the group members, with each signing their name against the account. Everybody watches as accounts are written, and the accounts are read out as well. Below is an example of the records kept. Month April
S. Date No: 1. 1.4.01 Name
Savings and loans pass book

It's best to have a pass book for each member of the group. This can be copied from any other group or organisation who are keeping similar accounts. An example of the way accounts can be kept of savings and loans is given below.
Savings Passbook
at gn Si
S. Date No: 1. 1.4.01 2. 1.5.01 3. 1.6.01 Item April May June Savings deposited 10/10/10/Loan taken Total Savings 10/20/30/-
Group Ledger
Signature
Item In- Loan Loan Amount Amount in come taken left to in repay bank Group 200/-
e ur
Last months items 2. 1.4.01 Dhanmaya Aprils 10/saving 3. 1.4.01 Sunmaya Aprils 10/saving
Loans Passbook
210/220/1. 1.4.01 April S. Date No: Item Paid back Left Loan Interest taken to pay Loan Interest to pay 180/9/-
e ur at gn Si
note : due to lack of space not all accounts are written. After Dhanmaya and Sunmaya there are another 12 members whose savings are not shown, but the method is the same.
15. 1.4.01 Sita Aprils saving 340/-
Group ledger
Here, the accounts of members 16 to 20 are not shown

21. 1.4.01 Phulmaya Aprils saving 400/-
Phulmaya is the Treasurer 6

The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 5 - Community Fund
Saving and loan passbook

7
Providing loans from the fund Decide what type of work loans can be given for. Decide the amount of interest to charge, depending on the
type of loan. Decide how and when the loan will be repaid. Prioritise which types of loan are available. Discuss and decide regularly how to keep the group and its finances running well.
4. Managing the fund's ledger : How much does each member have? How much loan have they taken? How much is kept in the bank ? 5. Keeping the savings : Hold formal meetings; Provide details of accounts to the group. By using the loan to start a business, the local economy benefits, 7. When will loan repayment start ? while loan repayment How will the loan be paid off ? also increases the fund. When will the loan be paid off ? weaving 8. Plan for the future. Discuss how to get access to relevant techniques and resources to make programmes connected to areas of health, education, farming, etc. fruit shop 6. Agree interest rates : How much interest is charged on different types of loan ?
Coordinating the group's activities

1.The group meets regularly to make decisions. 2.Work is divided among the group. 3.Bylaws are made : how much to save ? (per member) when to save it ? (monthly, etc.) All decisions are recorded. Usually, the group members will meet once a month.
There are benefits to the group and the individual. 8

vegetable growing
skills training 9
Joining in community work related to the fund Why should an active and well run savings group only manage a fund ? They can also be involved in community work such as maintaining paths, drinking water systems and plantations. Women's ability and awareness increases. They can participate in making decisions about various community issues along with the men.
A success story of a community fund

In 1994 in Gauripara village in Bardiya district, of Western Nepal, the women started a savings and credit group. At first the members raised 5 rupees a month and invested this in various activities. They grew a potato crop, and raised pigs successfully. Then they rented some land and grew rice, which also produced well. Now they have started to build a community hall, and plan to open a community shop. Even though they invested this much, as of 2000 they still had over 50,000/- rupees left in the fund. Now this active and successful group also advises and teaches other groups.
Members of Gauripara Group
10
11
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 5, and chairperson of "Protect the Forest" women's group, Mrs Purnakala Gharti has experience in running her local group's community fund. Now let's read about what she says. We learned how to form the group from the Homestead ProMrs Purnakala Gharti gramme (JPP). First all the members raised 4 kg each of grain, then on the first of every month we meet and each pay 10 rupees into the savings. We give loans if someone has sickness, or runs out of food, and the loan is collected with a small interest. Up until May the interest was 2 rupees per hundred. Since May it's now one and a half rupees per hundred. At the moment we have 500 rupees in the fund, and 7000 rupees is out in loans. This has made things very easy for us. There's no need to take loans from the merchants, who charge interest at least 5 rupees per hundred. For one thing, we don't have to go searching for a loan, and we can use our fund. For another, when we pay the interest, it increases our own fund.
Farmers' Experience
Mrs Purnakala Gharti
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "Forest, Soil and other Topics", Chapter 6 - Land Design
Land Design ?
Farming is part of the body of rural communities. Everybody wants to make these communities more sustainable. Permaculture is the direct application of the principles of nature in the design of sustainPermaculture designer Govinda able human habitats. Sharma in his kitchen garden Design can make a farming system which relies on the observation of nature and the adaptation of nature's stability, fertility and resilience to create a sustainability which benefits not only people, but the whole earth. Permaculture is a way of designing which uses mainly local resources to help individuals and communities be self reliant and abundant. It is also a design system which helps us to run our lives and cultures in a sustainable way . Permaculture combines the best of natural systems, traditional skill and wisdom, community values, and modern technology. In this chapter we give an introduction to Permaculture and its principles, and how it is used in design. This chapter also combines all the other chapters of the Farmers' Handbook to help make households more sustainable.
Benefits of using Permaculture design

To repair degraded land and make it
productive again to produce more benefits from less land to protect basic natural resources of soil, water, biodiversity, etc. to reduce the cost of farm production to create sustainable life systems to design a sustainable agriculture.
Where can we see sustainability ?

If we really want to create a sustainable lifestyle for ourselves, and for future generations, we must learn from places where systems are sustainable. These are the selfreliant, self sustaining, resilient, stable and productive natural systems of the world. An example of a sustainable natural system can be seen in a natural forest. But traditionally the forest is a dark, forbidding place, where crops can't be grown and tigers hide to take our livestock. That's why we are more accustomed to clearing forest in order to grow crops. But at the same time, most people understand that without the forest there is no life, because so much of what we need in life comes from the forest.
What is "Sustainable" ?
Nowadays the word "sustainable" is widely used, like "sustainable development", "sustainable economics", and so on. But we must only use this word when we understand it. What is a sustainable place like ? What do we gain from it ? A "sustainable" system is permanent, stable, resilient and self sustaining, never breaking down and always meeting the needs of its populations of plants and animals. Actually, in modern times people have never made a truly sustainable system, so where do we get our "sustainable" vision from ? If we wish to be truly sustainable, where can we go to learn how, when we have never done it ourselves ? Modern developement has given us billions of dollars and thousands of politicians and scientists, but still we are not sustainable. So where to go and what to do, to be sustainable ? 2
But have we ever thought how the forest is a teacher of sustainability ?
These training participants learn about sustainability from the forest

Chapter 6 - Land Design
Go to the forest and see ! The Forest needs no work but is always productive. The Forest never degrades itself, and is always growing. The Forest does not need fertilizing or irrigating, but it is
always fertile and moist. The Forest is warm when it's cold, and cool when it's hot. The Forest is permanent, resilient, and self reliable. And the forest is sustainable ! So how would it be if we could make our homes, communities and economies as sustainable as the forests ? To make our homesteads as sustainable as nature, we need to understand the importance of natural systems, and use that understanding in our lives. Permaculture is a way of designing the land using this knowledge.
Natural Systems and Permaculture Design

How is a Natural System Sustainable ?
What is a Natural System ? A Natural system is made up of living and non-living elements. In a natural system there are various elements, such as trees, shrubs, insects, ponds, rocks, birds, etc. These elements have their own different characteristics, habits and qualities. Some trees are short, some tall. Some are thick, some thin. Some need full sunlight, some grow in the shade. All the elements, with their own habits, live in a functional relationship to the other elements around them in any place. That is called a natural system.
Permaculture Ethics
Natural System
(1) Care of the Earth (2) Care of People (3) Recycling of Wealth
by design
4
elemen l loca charac ts' teristic nt s ironme env relationships between elements
In some languages, a system may have a different name if it is made by people, e.g. a farming system.
element
Principles of Natural Systems

Natural Systems follow a group of principles which enable them to be sustainable. By using the same principles in the design of farming systems, the objective is to work towards a sustainable agriculture. Permaculture is used as a design system to enable this.
Succession
Bare, degraded land will improve itself naturally. This process of regeneration is called succession. For example, when any bare land is protected, special ground cover plants called pioneers will grow first. They will start the soil improvement process. Then, larger shrubs and trees will grow. Eventually, a mature forest will develop, and the soil will have a new life. This principle is used to regenerate unproductive land into productive systems quickly, successfully, and at low cost. We can also use species that follow this principle, but are more useful for human needs. 1 2
Principles of Natural Systems and Permaculture Design
Succession Beneficial, functional relationships between elements Diversity Cycles and Re-cycling Use of local resources Each element performs multiple functions Each function is supported by multiple elements Stacking for efficient use of space Use of biological (living) resources Use of microclimate Energy efficient planning
There is information about the history and founders of Permaculture at the end of this fifth volume.
4 3
Permaculture design uses these principles to make agriculture more productive and sustainable. That's why the principles are the same for permaculture as for natural systems. 6
Beneficial, functional relationships

In nature, living and non-living elements are connected to each other. This is a relationship of cooperation, not competition. For example, birds eat seed and disperse it elsewhere in their manure. Also, bees take nectar from flowers, so helping pollination. In farming systems also, different elements can be related to each other. Anything that any one element needs can be provided by another element, and the outputs of that are used by something else. In the diagram below are examples of sixteen elements in a homestead. There are various connections linking the needs of one element to the outputs of another, in a way that helps the system to be sustainable.
be
int m
kitc
grap e
hen
igold
For example, the bee takes nectar from the peach flower, and the peach can produce better fruit from the pollination. Wormwood and nettle can help the bean, garlic, cauliflower in the kitchen garden by being used for mulch. Newly sprouting shoots of the peach can be rubbed on the cow to prevent skin parasites, while the cow provides manure to many elements in the system. Garlic, wormwood, nettle, marigold, etc. are all useful in the vegetable garden and orchard for companion planting, liquid manure and pest control. Design looks to put the right elements together in the right place, so that needs and outputs are met within the system. This reduces work and waste, and the need for external inputs, while increasing production. The right elements in the right place will create their own beneficial connections.
lemon gra ss
peach
cow
ne ttle
neem
Diversity
Nature is diverse, with many types of plants, animals and habitats. For example, though Nepal is a small country it has a huge diversity of climates and wildlife. The more diversity there is, the more beneficial relationships there are between the various elements in the system. This helps the system to be sustainable. An example of using diversity in farming is with mixed vegetable gardening, the integrated orchard, and agroforestry.
mar c
h fis
lic
au lifl ow
er
od wo rm wo
bank
gar
8
b ea n
Cycles and Re-cycling

In nature, living things die and rot down. The nutrients they are made of are released back into the system for use by the plants. This cycle always runs, so elements which the forest needs, such as water and soil nutrients, are always made available, and never run out. In farming systems, the cycle of nutrients in agroforestry is shown below.
Use of local resources

The forest doesn't need to travel anywhere to find its basic resources. There are no transport costs to bring in its needs. The more a farming system relies on external inputs, the more are its costs of production, and the less sustainable the system is. This is a very important principle in achieving sustainability.
Cycle
Each element performs multiple functions

Tree leaves are cut and mulched on the land 2 1 3 2 Fodder and leaf litter are given to livestock to produce compost. In nature, each element perfoms several functions. A single tree will provide leaf litter, fibres habitats for birds and insects to live in, a support for climbmedicine leaf litter ing plants, protects the soil, and so on. Trees planted on the farm can fruit honey fodder also provide many benefits according to their firewood characteristics, such as fodder, mulch, medicine, etc. Extra windbreak fence benefits come by planting them in the right timber conserve place and in relation to water shade other elements, such soil as giving shade. In protection design, each element should produce at least 3 different benefits or functions Trees can meet all our needs within the system. Chapter 6 - Land Design 11
5 4 4 3 Compost goes back on the fields. Excess nutrients are taken up by the roots of the trees below the crops.
Trees use the nutrients to grow.
Another example can be seen in the kitchen garden. Waste water from washing can be used for irrigating the vegetables, and sweepings from the house and yard can be recycled as compost for the kitchen garden. Without cycles like this, it is very difficult to be sustainable. 10
Each function is supported by multiple elements

In nature, many elements combine to support any one function. For example, the function of maintaining soil fertility in the forest is provided by the leaves of trees, by soil bacteria, earthworms, bird droppings, dead animals, fungus, the wind blowing dust, etc. This principle is also related to diversity.
Stacking for efficient use of space

In nature one reason why there is such great production with such small input is that space is used very efficiently, and there are many elements in a small space. By stacking one species on top of another, more species can grow. In one forest, up to 7 layers can be seen :- a ground or weed layer, shrub layer, lower, mid and upper canopy layers, a climbing plant layer, and a root layer. Different species are stacked into this system, giving production from 10-20 metres below the ground to 30-40 metres above the ground. No space is wasted. Planting layers of trees and shrubs in farming systems is very productive. In the living fence, agroforestry and the integrated orchard, species are planted according to their size and shape, and whether they need shade or sun, to make many levels and produce many more benefits than a field of grain, which only uses a metre of vertical space.
There are many types of tree in the living fence
top layer of big trees In farming, this principle can be seen in the living fence, or hedge. The single function is for protection, and this is made up of many species of trees and shrubs (elements). So if one species of the fence is unsuccessful for any reason, other species will continue the function, so the protection is not lost. In mixed vegetable gardening, there are many varieties of vegetable growing together which all provide food. If insects attack one type, there will always be others to provide food, so production is not lost. This principle is used to reduce risk in the system. 12
The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 6 - Land Design
mid canopy layer lower canopy layer shrub layer ground layer 13
To recognise the state of the land, many things must be understood. What are the problems ? Where are important resources such as soil, water, fertility, money or time being lost from the homestead, or damaged ? If so, before trying out any new methods to increase production, a first priority is to protect and conserve those resources being lost.
livestock can get in here here is soil erosion soil erosion here low fertility for crops no toilet
damage from wind fertile soil collects at the bottom
washing water wasted
soil is bare raw compost no vegetables
no fruit
What are the resources on the land ? What techniques can be added to the farm ? Which resources need to be increased to get better production for less cost ? How can natural principles be used to do this ? There are many such questions. As design experience increases, it becomes easier to answer the questions, and farmers' capacity to make systems more sustainable will increase.
Examples of fruit and multi-purpose species for lowland and highland, suitable for different stacked layers Big trees :- mango, jackfruit, avocado, walnut, neem, chestnut, soapnut, oak, etc. Mid-canopy trees :- apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot, persimmon, etc. Low-canopy trees :orange, lime, banana, custard apple, guava, coffee, sea buckthorn, papaya, Gliricidia, mulberry, hazel, Lucaena, elder, etc. Bush layer :- cardamon, pineapple, napier grass, lemon grass, tumeric, broom grass, Crotalaria, Sesbania, etc. Ground layer :- sweet potato, taro, bean, groundnut, clover, comfrey, wormwood, chamomile, etc.
Use of microclimate
The climate inside and around the forest is different to the surrounding climate. There are areas of different moisture, temperature, and light levels. These small areas of diverse temperature, light and moisture are called microclimates. In farming, use can be made of microclimates by growing the type of plant that grows best in that particular place. Microclimates can also be created, for example by planting windbreaks or making ponds. Species are then selected according to their site needs. This also brings diversity onto the farm. 2 Inside a mixed vegetable bed. Because plants are densely planted the temperature at the ground 1 is cooler than at the top 2 . This is an example of a microclimate.
Use of biological (living) resources

In nature, it is the living, organic resources which are responsible for running the system. Important functions such as making the soil fertile, distributing seed, conserving moisture, etc. are all served by living things. Trees, birds, worms and bacteria all work for the development of the system. For fertility and crop protection in sustainable agriculture, benefits from green manures, liquid manure, legumes, predator insects and companion planting are greater than chemical fertilisers and pesticides.
1 The sun side of the house 1 is hotter and dryer than the shaded side 2 . So, different plants can be grown having different light and water needs.
Urea
Legumes
UREA
Which is best ?
16
There's nothing new about using microclimates. The terraces in front of houses are traditionally kept on the sunny side. That makes them ideal for drying seed and vegetables, making pickles, etc. The sun gives free energy in this place. The shade side is good for shade-loving crops, or a nursery can be made. Chapter 6 - Land Design 17
Energy-efficient planning
1. Near the house 2/3. The fields 4. Grazing land 5. Forest
Areas of the farm are divided by zone. Inside the house is zone 0 and close to the house is zone 1. Zone 1 has techniques and systems that need more maintenance, such as the kitchen garden, which is visited 2-3 times a day for maintenance and harvesting. Various nurseries also belong in zone 1, because they need extra care, such as daily watering. By placing them near the house, less time and energy are used for harvesting or maintaining these systems. Below are more examples :zone number of visits suitable technologies and systems
1 - near kitchen garden, nurseries, waste water, the house 1 many sweepings pit, toilet, bees, etc. 2&3the fields 2 2 fewer 4 - grazing area 3 5- forest agroforestry (fodder, firewood, timber production, fruit trees, mixed with field crops, orchard, green manures, etc.
less soil erosion control, soil improvement, still plantation, integrated orchard, etc.
very forest management, wild and culti4 rarely vated herbs, education, etc.
0. Inside the house
Having the right Attitude

The principles descibed above are necessary to design a sustainable system, but most important is the attitude of the designer and user. As long as people don't have a deep desire to achieve the goals of sustainability within ethical guidelines, then no type of design can help to reach these goals. Some people feel that they can't make a difference by themselves, or are scared of making a change, or of losing resources. Chapter 6 - Land Design 19
In this diagram, the relationship of the house to other parts of a well designed farm is shown by the different thickness of the arrows. A thick arrow shows a frequent connection, and thinner arrow shows where less visits are needed. The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" 18
But good design can solve many problems. With the right attitude, problems can become solutions, and a progressive design will develop. We can also design to learn. People need to work together to find the right techniques and resources to solve their own problems and meet their own needs, as well as those of nature.
The effects of some of these factors are illustrated below in the farming system's cycle of rice production.
planting preparation consumption
growth harvest There are many parts to the cycle of crop production storage
Building Blocks of Design

When designing land to be more productive and sustainable, it is very important to understand the factors which can both limit, or aid, the progress of the design. Then the design can be adapted and changed in the early stages, so that no mistakes will prevent the objectives of sustainability being reached. Factors which can affect the design are divided into 2 groups - those which are visible, and those which are invisible. This is shown below :landscape soil vegetation energy economic traditions visible factors climate water livestock buildings culture political social belief 20
processing distribution marketing
Building Blocks of Design

invisible factors
communications
Many of the visible and invisible factors shown on the previous page will affect the crop production, and so they will determine the strategy which needs to be used in design. In the monsoon, there is more heat and water, and so sickness is more common. Yet this is the time when most human labour is required, and also when there are more pest problems. If communal oxen are not available, ploughing, planting and weeding work is delayed. When all these issues are sorted out, there may be a good crop, but then rats can destroy the crop in storage, or the price in the bazaar may be low, and all the work can again be wasted. So when making a design, all these factors must be considered. Which factors, at what stage, and where they may cause problems for production should be considered at the very start of the design process. Whether the solution to that problem can be solved with local resources or not, should also be considered early on. Chapter 6 - Land Design 21
The Design Process

The process of creating the design, and then implementing it, is a step by step approach which enables the design to reach its goals more easily. Following the design process helps with many decisions :- what to do first, which areas are most important, how to use the available technologies and any other resources, how the design grows in a natural way, and so on. A summary of the main steps in the design process is given below :-
When creating and implementing a design, it is a priority to repair damaged systems, and stop loss of resources from the existing system - this will give immediate results. Below are examples of how we can lose resources from farming :-
Farm losses compost dries out

in the sun nitrogen is lost to the air
nutrients in the soil are

lost if not used (leaching) all types of nutrients are lost deep in the soil
1. Gathering information about the people and the land involved in the design. Collect information
about the people's vision and goals, their resources, needs, constraints, capacity, costs, problems, skills, income, etc. that place is In the same way, very windy there is less collect information fertility about the site - the soil, water, climate, aspect, there is slope, vegetation, erosion microclimate, livestock, pests and diseases, erosion, expothere is sure to wind, and any over other relevant informagrazed tion about problems and resources. The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" 22
nutrients leak from compost

all types of nutrients can be lost
much time is wasted

gathering from the far away forest
waste water is not

used at home
soil is washed away

by rain
fire destroys nutrients in

the soil
wind dries out

moisture in the soil
nutrients in sweepings are lost
So we should discover leaks to the system early in the design process. Then, it can be decided what techniques are needed, when and where, to find the solutions and prevent valuable resources being lost. Chapter 6 - Land Design 23
2. Deciding which functions are needed

According to what we have found out about the people and the site, what are the needs of the design ? For example, increasing fodder and firewood production, growing more nutritious food, protecting from livestock, preventing soil erosion, protecting from wind, increasing fertility, earning more cash, etc. are all examples of the types of functions needed.
4. Placement
Where should the systems be placed for them to give maximum benefit ? They should be placed in beneficial relationship to each other, so that the needs of one are met by the outputs of another, instead of competing. The principles of nature can be used to help with this. For example, the nursery should be placed where there is shelter, water is near, and it is easy to care for the site. In the same way, the best places are selected for the compost, fruit orchard, fodder trees, etc.
3. Selecting techniques
To carry out the functions identified in 2, what methods are needed ? For example, agroforestry, living fence, beekeeping, fruit production, kitchen garden, compost making, mulching, home nursery, improvement in livestock management, seed production, green manures, etc. are all methods of providing for the identified needs of the farmer and the site. kitchen garden there livestock shed there living fence there
5. Species' selection
Finally, the best species to fulfil the needs of the site and the functions required are selected and placed, understanding their characteristics, yields and needs. For example, when selecting trees for the orchard, ask the following questions :do you know my flowering and fruiting times ? what are the marketing arrangements ? how much space do I need to grow ? what other problems may I face ? where is the best soil and climate for me ? 25
how to protect me from pests ? agroforestry there irrigation canal there path there
fruit trees there
dnvfb compost there Toxf

24
what can be planted underneath me for companions ?

6. Timetable
This work of implementing the design can't all be done at the same time. So it's good to arrange the work according to priority. Some systems can wait until later to establish. This will make the design much easier to implement. The most important systems to design and implement first are usually for site protection, access, water and soil improvement, as they all allow other parts of the design to develop.
Evaluation
As the design is being created and implemented, time should be spent evaluating progress against the aims and needs of the people and site. The design can be changed and adapted as necessary. Are the principles being applied ? What has changed ? What problems have been solved ? Will more problems be created ? Will the design help the people to reach their goals ? Questions like this should constantly be evaluated, and all stakeholders in the design should be consulted.
There are 2 types of place to implement a design :1. Where there is no production - like a degraded, bare site. 2. Where there is on-going production - e.g. a working farm. 1. Where there has been no production (such as degraded land), the design will definitely create productivity on that site. The design will help to create the best regeneration and production, in the shortest time. There are more details about this in the Soil Conservation and Improvement chapter. 2. Where there is on-going production (such as a working farm), that existing production should not decrease as the design is implemented and other types of production begin. Otherwise, the farmer or the community may have problems meeting basic needs in the short term. The design will help to improve and increase resources, reduce costs, and diversify production.
How to tell if the design is working ?

1 At first there is more work and less output from the investment 2 gradually, the work is less and production increases 3 later there is very little work and high, diverse productivity
Design cycle
evaluate change and improve design evaluate
26
change and improve
sustainable future
observation and gathering of information implement the design
make the design
27
From Nepal, Kavrepalanchowk district, Patlekhet VDC, Mr Govinda Sharma has used permaculture design on his own farm. Now let's read about his experiences. I took a Permaculture design course in 1991. After that I started to learn from friends, then started to put all that experience into practice. Now, I also Govinda Sharma help other organisations to make and implement designs. A farming system which is planned using this method is very productive, and easy to use. Instead of having just one crop, many diverse crops can be grown. Instead of just growing corn, I find it's better to mix beans, pumpkins, and plant fodder around the edges to give a higher total yield. At first, the other local farmers didn't accept what I was doing, but when they saw the crops I was growing, with only small extra inputs and mainly local resources after the start, they became interested, and have started copying some of the methods. They are understanding that you can reap the fruits of your investment, and that investment isn't just strength and sweat, it's also design.
Farmers' Experience
Mr Govinda Sharma
Glossary
This Farmers' Handbook can also be used by people who have just started to learn how to read and write, to help them increase these skills. That's why there may be some words used in the Handbook which are more difficult to understand. We have evaluated the books with many groups, and below is a list of some of the words they found difficult. Discuss the words and try to write down what they mean. You can add any other words that you and your group don't understand in the space available. Word Fallow Monoculture Habitat Legume Tap root Cambium Element Nutrient Shrub Terrace Secateurs Micro-organism Bacteria etc. Meaning
Word Pollination Biomass Mulch Pruning System Integrated Nature Micro-climate etc.
Meaning
Word Economic Diversity Bio-diversity Evaluation Scion Bud Rootstock etc.
Meaning
?
Scion
Some new plants
Sea Buckthorn
Adhatoda vasica
Velvet bean
Comfrey
Clover
Horsetail
Chapter 7 - Glossary and Other Topics
Your own word list

Here you can add any of your own words which are difficult to understand, and keep a list to ask someone who may know what they mean.
Practical Literacy
1.Why Literacy ?
To learn to read, write and calculate is a priority to many. There are good reasons for this. If you are literate you can correspond with friends and relatives who live far away, you can read labels, books, signs, contracts, and you can make bigger calculations if you know how to write them down on paper. Furthermore, for many people being literate makes them more respected by others who believe that being illiterate means being ignorant. You never need to ask others to read for you, and you can't be cheated by being made to sign something you don't understand. It will also increase your self confidence.
word in the book
meaning
2. Production
However, for many small farmers, learning to read and write may not be their highest priority. Their main concern is to make ends meet - to produce enough to meet the needs of their family. This means that poorer farmers often drop out of adult literacy classes (and many children drop out of school), because most people believe that literacy isnt the solution to their daily problems.
4. How ?
The PLP course starts by participants describing their own situations, past and present, using maps, trend lines, ranking etc. From these descriptions words are chosen by the participants, and their spelling is learnt. Very basic reading and writing skills are learnt at this stage. On one day participants will learn and practice how to establish and manage various techniques such as waste water management, grafting, terrace improvement, etc. That evening, or on the next day, they can read about the method from the Handbook, and write their own words about what they have done. These can gradually be formed into sentences as comments and evaluations of the method, or to make stories, proposals and reports.
Hot Bed Nursery

1 Class work 2 Discussing words
3. Why Practical Literacy ?

In Practical Literacy we combine meeting the basic needs of the family with the benefits of learning to read and write. During a Practical Literacy Programme (PLP) the participants will learn both reading, writing and calculation skills, and learn about farming and household techniques. This means that they can improve their farm production, and their general well-being.
Practical work 6
The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" Chapter 7 - Glossary and Other Topics
Illustrations Can talk with anyone Can write letters, notes, ideas, etc.
The producers of the Farmers' Handbook gratefully acknowledge the work of the following individuals and institutions whose illutrations have been used in the publication.
Though most illustrations for the handbook are made by Grihasthi Communications, some illustrations have also been taken from :
Empowered and self confident
Can read books, labels, signs, letters, etc.

8
Can listen and understand
* Clip Art Book, CERID * A Farmer's Primer on Growing Soybean on Riceland, IRRI * Management of Forest Nurseries, HMG/UNDP/FAO * Religious and Useful Plants of Nepal and India, Majupuria & Joshi * A Handbook of Gravety-Flow Water Systems, IT Publications * Common Tree Species, HMG/UNDP/FAO * Tropical Leaf vegetable in Human Nutrition, Kononklijk Instituut voor Tropen * Focus, GAD, Denmark * Agroforestry in Dryland Africa, ICRAF * Regeneratice Agriculture Technologies for the Hill Farmers of Nepal, NERRA & IIRR * The Grafter's Handbook, CASSEL * Plant Propagation, Royal Horticultural Society, UK * Instant Illustrations, UNICEF/Nepal * Tropical Field Crops, Evan Brothers Limited * The Fruit Expert, ExpertBooks * Monocotyledons, Longman * Dicotyledons, Longman * Farm Implements for arid and tropical regions, FAO * Permaculture, A Designers Manual, Tagari Publications * Queen Rearing Simplified, Cook * Beekeeping for Honey Production in Sri lanka, R W K Punchihewa * Zambian beekeeping Handbook, GVS * Beekeeping Trainer's Resource Book, ICIMOD, Nepal * Pollination Management of Mountain Crops through Beekeeping, ICIMOD * World Education, Kathmandu, Nepal. * United Mission to Nepal, Kathmandu * Christine A. Sobel, ECHO, U.S.A. * World Neighbours, Kathmandu * Roland Bunch, COSECHA, Honduras, Central America. * Green Manures p.22 photo Eric Holt-Gimenez * Mike Feingold, Bristol, UK * Volume Cover drawings by Motilal Pauja, Thati Gaun, Lekh Pharsa VDC, Surkhet We hope that we have remembered all & not violated any corpyright rules. We trust that using these illustrations for a non-profit publication to benefit farmers worldwide and published on a limited scale will not offend any of the illustrations' copyright owners.
What is
Permaculture ?
Nepal Permaculture Group

Regional Contact Addresses
Nepal Permaculture Group :- registered in 1995 to promote sustainable development, NPG is a national network of over 250 individual and 8 organisational members. It works in education, research, capacity building and networking of permaculture related activities. If readers of this Handbook are interested to learn more about any of these, or other, technology information, they can contact NPG through any of the following regional membercontacts. Own country's networks
The word Permaculture was first used in 1973 by Bill Mollison and David Holmgren, from Australia. Permaculture is an English word, made up from the words Permanent and Agriculture. Because agriculture is our primary producer of food, clothing and shelter made from natural resources, and these are the material and economic base for society as a whole, it can also be taken to mean a permanence in culture itself. Permaculture is a system of design. It takes it's methods from observation of the stability, diversity, resilience and productivity of natural systems, to benefit people and all living and non-living things in a sustainable way. Permaculture makes Natural excellent use of local and Systems biological resources to create systems which foster self reliance, Permaculture through an ecological Design agriculture, Modern Traditional balanced with the Wisdom local economy and Knowledge society. In fact, there is not much new in permaculture. It's a synthesis of the understanding of natural systems, traditional wisdom, and modern scientific and applied knowledge. It takes the best of all of these to assist in creating/living a life with more quality and choice. The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics" 10
1. Eastern Region
2. Mid Region
Durga Niroula, Women's Development Organisation, Biratnagar nbs@brt.wlink.com.npc
3. Western Region
Padya Kiran Rana, TOLI, Pokhora. Tel: 061-23370 toli@mos.com.np
Basanta Ranabhat, Ecological Service Centre, Chitwan Tel: 053-23663, 24574 Fax: 20135, 20482 ecoce@mos.com.np
4. Mid and Far Western Region

Himalayan Permaculture Group, P.O. Box 19121, Kathmandu, Nepal c/o ATA (01) 5549774 nepal@atasia.org.uk
5.
4.
3.
2.
1.
Map of Nepal 11
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The following useful educational materials for farmers are also published in Nepal and available from Grihasthi Communications,
Farmers' Workshop on Loss of Genetic Biodiversity and Seed Saving
Video "Our Seeds, Our Life"
Herbs for Health Herbs for Women's Health Let's Stop Using Poisonous Chemicals
Distributors :Nepal Permaculture Group, P.O. Box 8132, Kathmandu, Nepal. Tel: + 977 1 252597 npg@earthcare.wlink.com.np Posters on Health
Contact
The effects of modern development on traditional systems in Ladakh Common Local Herbal Medicines for Health Herbal Medicines for Women's Health
Video "Ancient Futures" Books on Health

Chris Evans Jakob Jespersen - Farmers' Handbook

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Inside the House

easy to read practical robust based on local resources sustainable techniques

Why a Farmers' Handbook ?

Structure of the Chapters :

5 volumes 792 pages

Inside the House

The Farmers' Handbook

Introduction to this Volume Diet & Nutrition

.............................. Household Hygiene ..........................

Hay Box Stove ............................................... 5

Chapters are separated by a yellow page

The Farmers' Handbook this Volume's Introduction

Evaluation & Feedback

Structure of the Handbook

5. Hay Box Stove

Distributor and main contact addresses

Diet and Nutrition ?

Common problems of poor diet in the home and village

Kwashiorkor thin, emaciated

3. Vitamin "A" Deficiency

To and EnerTo be Clever and Energetic use Iodized Salt

To get health from nutrition we need both knowledge and resources.

1. Foods Which give Energy (Carbohydrates)

Food for the body's growth

Food to protect the body (fruits)

Food to protect the body (vegetables)

2. Foods Which Help the Body to Grow (Proteins)

Food for Energy

3. Foods which Protect the Body(Vitamins & Minerals)

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House"

Chapter 2 - Diet & Nutrition

Free Nutrition from the Forest

What, is this Poor People's Food ?

Amla for sale collected from the forest

Chapter 2 - Diet & Nutrition

Rice de-husked by hand or pre-boiled

Millet contains more calcium than

When eaten together, grain and

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House"

Chapter 2 - Diet & Nutrition

For a Balanced Diet

2 Foods for the

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House"

Additions to the Normal Diet

Leafy vegetables can be dried in the

Making pickles means vegetables can

when cooking leaf vegetables add a

Good Food and a Healthy Family

Chapter 2 - Diet & Nutrition

After childbirth a mother should drink 5 teaspoons of

Similarly, old people cannot digest

While a mother is pregnant, and just

The best milk for suckling infants is

Once a baby stops drinking its mother's milk it should be

one part Soya bean

Then grind the baked grains and pulses separately.

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House"

What does it do? keeps eyes healthy

keeps skin soft helps to prevent disease from spreading

anaemia, lack of digestive juices

Vitamin B group Vitamin C

malnourishment (crying, Marasmus, Kwashiorkor, etc.)