By: Vinny

Science Exam Review

1. Chemistry
Physical and Chemical Properties and Changes Chemical Change: a combination of 2 or more elements to produce a new compound. E.g. Mg + O2 MgO (Magnesium Oxide) Physical Change: a change in state or form, but no new substance is created. E.g. state changes; magnesium dissolves Clues for Chemical Changes y Colour change y New gas y New solid- precipitate y Heat produced y Light produced y Hard to reverse Periodic Table y Metals left side, non-metals right side, metalloids along staircase y Alkali metals(column 1), Alkaline earth (column 2), Halogens (column 17), Noble gases (column 18) y Columns same # of e in outer orbits y Periods- rows- # of orbits y Room temperature: black (solid), blue (liquid), red (gases) Ions and Chemical Reactions y Ion [giving away or receiving e (-)] charged atom y Giving away electrons (+) ion y Receive electrons (-) ion y Example: Li + O

Other examples include: o Mg + N= Mg3N2 o B + F= BF3

By: Vinny Atoms and Ions y ions are charged atoms y they become positive (+) by losing electrons y become negative (-) by gaining electrons y cation: positively charged ion y anion: negatively charged ion

Ionic Compounds y The transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal (left side to right side of periodic table) y formation of the positive and negative ions form a compound y dissolve in water- separate ions y conduct electricity y form ionic bond Molecular Compounds y composed of non-metals (right side of periodic table) no metals in them y form a covalent compound y dont transfer electrons y share electrons- no exchange y dont conduct electricity no ions y use prefixes like di and mono y fuels (hydrocarbons) p carbon- hydrogen compounds p methane CH4 Naming Ionic Compounds (no prefixes) y each column of elements has a charge to become stable p E.g., Column 1 all have a 1+ charge p Column 17 all have a 1- charge y write the symbols, put the ionic charge above the symbol p 1+ 2Na O y criss-cross valences p Na2O y Charges add up to zero- the charges disappear y ide- ending for 2 elements joined together p E.g., oxide y ate for 3 or more elements joined together p E.g., Sodium sulphate oxygen (sodium + sulphur + oxygen) Naming Molecular Compounds (no criss-crossing) y when naming use prefixes p PCl3 phosphorous trichloride y Never use mono for the first element

By: Vinny Examples: p H2O dihydrogen monoxide p CCl4 Carbon tetrachloride p PF5 Phosphorus pentaflouride

Polyatomic Ions y groups of atoms p E.g., OH, SO4 y behaves as if it is a single element y single overall charge for both p E.g., OH1y most end in ate y Examples: p Nitrate NO3 1p Chlorate ClO3 2p Carbonate CO32p Hydroxide OH1y You name them the same way you name Ionic compounds (with the crisscross) Molecular compounds and Fossil Fuels y fossil fuels is a another source of different molecular compounds y coal, oil and natural gas are the most common fossil fuels y these take millions of years to form from the partially decayed remains of ancient plants and animals y fossil fuels are called non-renewable resource because they are not formed as quickly as we are using them y when we burn fossil fuels, the energy stored within them heats our homes, powers our vehicles and can be harnessed to generate electricity y compounds extracted from fossil fuels are processed into petrochemicals y we use petrochemicals to make consumer products and industrial chemicals, including plastics, pharmaceuticals, and synthetic fabrics y There are so many uses for molecular compounds here are some: Crude oil and natural gas are then raw materials for a vast range of chemical products. p Natural Gas Processing o fuels and other products (helium and natural gas) o gases (methane, ethane, propane, butane) p Oil Refinery o Gases and liquids o fuels (gasoline, kerosene, jet fuel, heating oils) o Lubricants and other products (greases, waxes, solvents, asphalt, sulphur) p Petrochemical Plant o agriculture (fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides) o detergents o synthetic fibres

By: Vinny o inorganic chemicals (sulphuric acid, ammonia, nitric acid) o organic chemicals o other products (paints, varnishes, solvents, adhesives, explosives) o plastics o rubber Molecular compounds can be harmful when they are leaked for example the toxin trichloroethene. this is a great problem in Canada because it goes into the ground and contaminates the ground water but Dr. Edwards from the University of Toronto has discovered that pollutants are food for microbes so they use microbes to remove trichloroethene from soil the microbes convert the pollutant into ethane (relatively harmless gas) now this method is being used around the world

y y y y y y

Word and Chemical Equations y Chemical reaction: a process in which substances interact, causing the formation of new substances with new properties y Word Equations: a way of describing a chemical reaction using the names of the reactants and products y chemical equation: a way of describing a chemical reaction using the chemical formulas of the reactants and products y reactant: a chemical, present at the start of a chemical reaction, that is used up during the reaction y product: a chemical that is produced during a chemical reaction y Chemical reactions can either absorb or release energy y In the reaction below more energy is released than is absorbed. The word energy is therefore written on the right side of the equation, with the products y if energy is absorbed then it is written with the reactants y Diagram explanation: Reactants Word Equation: Chemical Equation: Yields Products iron (II) sulphide + energy FeS + energy

iron + sulphur Fe + S

Law of Conservation of Mass (READ PAGES 230-231) y In any given chemical reaction, the total mass of the reactants equals the total mass of the products. y Remember mass is neither created or destroyed in a chemical reaction Balancing Equations Rules of writing and balancing equations

By: Vinny 1. Law of conservation of mass p matter cannot be created or destroyed p the total number of atoms of each element must be equal on both sides of the equation p E.g., Na + Cl2 NaCl 2Na + Cl2 2NaCl 2. Metals by themselves stay as single atoms when not in a compound o E.g., Iron Fe 3. Nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen and Halogens exist in pairs o they are diatomic = 2 Noble gases exist as single atoms o they are monoatomic

4. Numbers can only be placed in front of an element or compound coefficient o E.g., 2Ca3(PO4)2 5. A coefficient applies to whole compound 6. look for common mathematical factors 7. Leave single elements to the last Example Remember the number of each element must be equal on both sides of the equation! Ferric chloride + oxygen 3+ 1Ferric oxide + chlorine

FeCl3 + O2 Fe2O2 + Cl2 FeCl3 + 3O2 2Fe2O2 + Cl2 4FeCl3 + 3O2 2Fe2O2 +6 Cl2 Types of Chemical Reactions 1. Synthesis- to join (create) A + B AB o Example: Mg + O2 MgO 2Mg + O2 2MgO 2. Decomposition- break apart AB A + B

Dont forget to balance

By: Vinny Example: CO2 C + O2 3. Single Displacement- it begins with a element + compound and equals a compound + element o

A + CD
Element Metal o o

AD + C
Compound

Metals kick out metals non-metals kick out non-metals

4. Double Displacement-it begins with a compound + compound and ends with a different compound + compound

AB + CD AD + CB
5. Combustion o Combustion is a chemical reaction in which a fuel burns or reacts quickly with oxygen o products of this reaction are usually an oxide and energy o Example: Propane C3H8 o Complete combustion is a combustion reaction of hydrocarbons that uses all the available fuel and produces only carbon dioxide, water, and energy ; it occurs when the supply of oxygen is plentiful o If the oxygen supply is limited, incomplete combustion may occur, releasing carbon monoxide das and carbon (soot), in addition to carbon dioxide and water. An orange, flickering flame often indicates incomplete combustion. Corrosion y This is the breakdown of a metal as a result of chemical reactions with its environment Beneficial Corrosion y y corrosion of metal can be beneficial for example, when aluminum is exposed to air, it quickly corrodes to form aluminum oxide (one of the hardest substances known) Aluminum oxide tightly coats the underlying aluminum metal, preventing any further corrosion from occurring. This explain whys aluminum camping pans can be safely left outside in the rain, while cast iron pan rusts in matter of days

By: Vinny Rust y y y y y y y y y y

reddish-brown flaky material produced when metals containing iron corrode rust does not stick well to the underlying steel (unlike aluminum and copper) Rust is a very porous and readily flakes away from the surface of steel. As it does, fresh steel is exposed to further corrosion this process continues until the steel is completely corroded there are many causes for rust such as: the presence of air, water, and electrolytes, along with acidity and mechanical stress steel will not corrode if it is kept away from the water and oxygen which is why it lasts much longer in dry climates salt does not cause corrosion of iron but it speeds it up once it starts (it is an electrolyte that helps the rusting process) You can prevent corrosion by using corrosion-resistant material, protective coatings, and galvanizing A simple way to prevent corrosion is to cover the metal with a rust-inhibiting paint, chrome, or plastic coating but if the coating is chipped of scratched corrosion is inevitable Using corrosion-resistant materials is a great way to prevent corrosion. For example, most cutlery is made from stainless steel, an alloy of various elements, including iron, carbon, nickel, and chromium. Surgical-grade stainless steel, which is used to make medical tools and implants, contains enough chromium to make the steel corrosion-proof almost indefinitely. Another way of preventing corrosion is using galvanizing steel which is steel that has been coated with a protective layer of zinc which forms a hard, insoluble oxide. The corrosion protection remains intact even if there are nicks or scratches in the since layer. Galvanizing steel requires no maintenance which is also why it is better than paint.

Acids (H+ ions, react with metals and carbonates) and Bases (OH- ions, react with proteins) Acids y y y y y y y sour tasting compounds contain hydrogen water soluble compounds split up into ions when mixed with water o HCl (aq) H + (aq) + Cl(aq) react with metals to produce H2 good conductors of electricity (because produce ions) important in chemical industry: p sulfuric acid fertilizers, explosives, oil refining, electroplating p hydrochloric acid steel, stomach acid, batteries Common acids: p vinegar HC2H3O2 p carbonic acid- H2CO3 p Aspirin- HC9H7O4

By: Vinny p Car battery- H2SO4 Bases y y y y y y y bitter tasting water soluble feel slippery compounds contain hydroxide (OH) when mixed with water - OH ions are released o NaOH (aq) Na +(aq) + OH (aq) reacts with protein (hair, skin) Uses: p antacids p drain cleaner p soap p Windex p cooking (baking powder) react with carbonates to produce CO2 bases can contain OH -, HCO3

y y pH Scale y y y y y y y

scale to measure how acidic or how basic a substance is Log scale- each number goes up or down acidity by a power of 10 0 is the most acidic (battery acid) 14 is the most basic- alkaline (Drano) 8 is 100x less acidic than 6 or 100x more base 7 is neutral (equal conc. of Hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions) soil pH important p legumes (pH-7-10) p corn (pH-5-6) p potatoes and blueberries (pH- less than 5)

pH in cosmetics y y y y high pH in shampoos (basic) p dissolve cuticle and damage hair Low pH (acidic) restores hair if you want to straighten curly hair use a higher pH shampoo skin pH 5-6

Neutralization Reactions (the reaction of an acid and a base to form neutral products, an ionic compound (salt) and water) y Acid + Base p product that is close to neutral p H2O + salt (titration)

By: Vinny This can be applied to chemical spills in Northern Ontario antacids

y y

Acid Pollutants (sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, buffering) READ PAGE 286-290 Sulfur Dioxide y y y y y y y y Sulfur dioxide is a clear, colourless gas that has a strong, choking odour. Most of Canadas production of sulphur dioxide comes from industry which includes burning coal to generate electricity and the mining and refining of metals. Smelting is a process used to separate a metal from the ore extracted from the ground smelting involves heating the ore to high temperatures and collecting the molten metal during the process, any sulphur present in the ore reacts with the oxygen in the air, forming sulphur gas: S(solid) + O2(gas) SO2(gas) the same reaction tales place during the combustion of fossil fuels which generally contain some sulfur once in the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide reacts with more oxygen to produce sulfur trioxide: 2SO2(gas) + O2(gas) 2SO3(gas) then sulfur trioxide combines with water droplets in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid: SO3 (gas) + H2O (liquid) H2SO4(aq)

Nitrogen Oxides y y most of the nitrogen oxide emissions in North America are produced by vehicles that burn fossil fuels mostly gasoline the temperatures inside the internal combustion of a car or train are high enough for atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen to react to form nitrogen monoxide: N2(gas) + O2(gas) 2NO(gas) when nitrogen monoxide reacts with more oxygen it produces a toxic, reddish-brown nitrogen dioxide: 2NO(gas) + O2(gas) 2 NO2(gas) in the atmosphere, nitrogen dioxide combines with water to produce nitric acid and more nitrogen monoxide: 3NO2(gas) + H2O(liquid) 2HNO3 (aq) + NO (gas)

y y

Buffering y y y y y y Buffering capacity: is the ability of a substance to resist changes in pH it depends on substances in the soil that act like bases, neutralizing the acid if a soils buffering capacity is high, acids passing through the soil are neutralized before reaching nearby streams or lakes neutralization reactions use up buffering minerals in the soil so the buffering capacity eventually decreases the buffering capacity of a soil partially protects forests from the effects of precipitation If the soil has only a small buffering capacity it can only neutralize a small dose of acid. Then the soil loses valuable nutrients needed to for trees to grow properly.

By: Vinny

10

2. Tissues, Organs and Organ Systems

Cell theory 3 statements 1. All living things are made up of one or more cells and their products 2. The cell is the simplest unit that can carry out al life processes 3. All cells come from other cells; they do not come from non-living matter Eukaryote (true nucleus) and Prokaryote (no true nucleus) Prokaryote: a cell that does not contain a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles Eukaryote: a cell that contains a nucleus and other organelles, each surrounded by a thin membrane Cell Structures in Plants and Animals- organelles and their functions Organelle: a cell structure that performs a specific function for the cell Plant Cell: (Text p.30) Animal cell

Structure Cytoplasm

Diagram

Description y Fluid substance y Mostly water

Function y Storage until needed

Cell membrane

y y y

Flexible Double layer Semipermeable

y y

Nucleus

Spherical structure within the cell Contains genetic info that controls

Support cell Allows some substances to go into cell and blocks others out Controls all activity in the cell

By: Vinny all cell activities contains chromosomes that have DNA When cell divides, DNA is copied so each new cell has a complete cell of DNA Power plants Contain enzymes that help convert stored energy into usable energy Cellular respiration Fat cells only have 1 or 2 mitochondria Make secrete mucus

11

Mitochondria

y y

Make energy available to the cells

y y

Golgi bodies

Endoplasmic reticulum

Vacuole (animal)

Animal vacuoles

3D network of branching tubes and packets Extends throughout the cytoplasm and is continuous from the nuclear membrane to the cell membrane Single layer of membrane enclosing fluid in a sac Animal cells have many small vacuoles

Collect and process materials to be removed from the cell (package proteins) Transport materials, such as proteins throughout the cells Assists with production and release of hormones Involved with muscle contraction Contain some substances Removing unwanted substances from the cell Maintaining

y y

By: Vinny often not visible

12

Cell Wall (plants only)

Vacuole (plants)

Plant vacuole

y y

Chloroplasts (plants only)

y y

Found outside of cell membrane Rigid but porous structure made of cellulose May last long after plant is dead Plants have one large vacuole Takes up most of space When full of water, turgor pressure keeps cells plumped firm If water level drops, vacuoles lose turgor pressure and cells become soft, until water is replaced Contain chlorophyll **plant cells can rely on mitochondria to metabolize glucose, like animals do**

internal fluid pressure (waste products) Provides support and protection form physical injury

Keeps plants stems and leaves firm

y y

Give leaves green colour Absorb light energy which is used in photosynthesis

Differences between plant and animal cells - Plant cells have a cell wall surrounding the cell membrane, and animal cells only have a membrane. - Plant cells contain chloroplasts which are used for photosynthesis. - Plant cells have a large vacuole (it's like a fluid sack), compared to an animal cell which has multiple vacuoles.

By: Vinny

13

-Animal cells are 'blobby', but cells in plants are more structured due to the cell wall, and form a lattice like structure which helps with rigidness. -Prokaryotes are found in plant cells and have no nucleus and eukaryotes are found in animal cells and have a nucleus. Cell Division (Asexual and sexual) y Asexual Reproduction: the process of producing offspring from only one parent; the production of offspring that are genetically identical to the parent. y Sexual reproduction: the process of producing offspring by the fusion of two gametes; the production of offspring that have genetic information from each parent. Reasons for Cell Division (reproduction, growth and repair) READ PAGE 36-37 Reproduction: y y Growth: y y y y y Repair: y y y y cell divides and reproduces which is helpful for repairing the loss of dead skin cells(replaced by new ones) your body replaces each red blood cell every 120 days if you break a bone, cells divide to heal the break all organisms need to repair themselves to stay alive as organisms grow, the number of cells increases which only happens if they divide and reproduce Diffusion: a transport mechanism for moving chemicals into and out of the cell, from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration Concentration: the amount of a substance (solute) present in a given volume of solution Osmosis: the movement of a fluid usually water, across a membrane toward an area of high solute concentration When part of an organism is damaged, the remaining cell divide to repair the injury it is necessary to reproduce and pass on genetic information along it is useful so that we can have a larger population

Cell Cycle and Mitosis y Cell Cycle: the 3 stages (interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis) through which a cell passes as it grows and divides y Interphase is the time between cell division when a cell grows y Mitosis:the stage of the cell cycle in which the DNA the nucleus is divided; the first part of the cell division y Cytokinesis: the stage in the cell cycle when the cytoplasm divides to form two identical cells; the final part of cell division Phases of Mitosis

By: Vinny

14

1. Prophase: The first stage of mitosis, in which the chromosomes become visible and the nuclear membrane dissolves Words to know Chromosome: is a structure in the cell nucleus made up of a portion of the cells DNA, condensed into a structure that is visible under a light microscope Chromatid: one of two identical strands of DNA that make up a chromosome Centromere: the structure that holds chromatids together as chromosomes 2. Metaphase: the second stage of mitosis, in which the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell 3. Anaphase: the third phase of mitosis, in which the sister chromatids separate into daughter chromosomes, and each moves toward opposite ends of the cells 4. Telophase: the final phase of mitosis, in which the chromatids unwind and a nuclear membrane reforms around the chromosomes at each end of the cell

Aging telomeres y Aging is complicated but scientists are researching the causes of aging. There are a lot of possible reasons here are some: p increasing number of faulty cells (can lead to Alzheimers) p errors during DNA duplication and cell division (can lead to kidney and heart failures) p Telomeres p centromere location y Telomeres are regions of DNA located at the end of each chromosome y their function is to protect the chromosomes from damage during cell division (like plastic at the end of a shoelace) y As a cell ages, telomeres get shorter y when telomeres get to short, cell division stops

By: Vinny Cancer Tumour y Tumour is a mass of cells that continue to grow and divide without any obvious function in the body

15

Benign y Benign tumour: a tumour that does not affect surrounding tissues other than by physically crowding them

Malignant y Malignant tumour: a tumour that interferes with the functioning of surrounding cells; a cancerous tumour

Mutation y Mutation is a random change in the DNA

Carcinogens y Carcinogen is any environmental factor that causes cancer such as, tobacco smoke; radiation such as X-rays and UV rays form tanning beds and sunlight; some viruses such as HPV and Hepatitis B; certain chemicals in plastic; and many organic solvents

Reducing Risk y y Pap test is a test that involves taking a sample of cervical cells to determine if they are growing abnormally There are many ways to reduce the risks of cancer and one of them is to make good lifestyle choices by eating a lot of fruits and vegetables and maintaining a healthy diet

Diagnosing Endoscope: y An endoscope is commonly used to screen for colon cancer y The endoscope is made up of a fibre-optic cable to deliver light, a tiny camera, and a cable that sends the images to a screen X-ray y y a mammogram is a specialized X-ray technique for imaging breast tissue X-rays can also cause DNA damage especially to a growing fetus, so women who are pregnant should not undergo X-ray examination

By: Vinny Ultrasound y

16

Ultrasound imaging uses ultra-high-frequency sound waves to create a digital image

CT or CAT scan y y MRI y y In an MRI, radio waves and a strong magnetic field create images with more detail than CT scan Computers can assemble the information into 3D models A CT scan allows the X-ray technician to take multiple X-rays of the body from many different angles. The images are then assembled by computer to form a series of detailed images

Examining Cells y y y y The next step is to examine a sample of suspected cancer cells under a microscope This is the only way to confirm a diagnosis of cancer Certain cell samples can be obtained easily, such as blood cell samples A sample of tumour cells may have to be removed surgically

Treatment Surgery y Surgery is physically removing the cancerous tissue Chemotherapy Chemotherapy is a method of treating cancer using drugs to kill the cells The drugs can be injected or taken orally(by mouth) Chemotherapy is often one of the first stages of cancer treatment Its aim is to shrink a tumour for surgical removal or for radiation treatment Radiation y y Cancer cells are easily damaged by ionizing radiation because they divide rapidly The DNA of many of the daughter cells is damaged by the radiation, so the cells cannot divide further Biophotonics y The technology of using light energy to diagnose, monitor and treat living cells and organisms

y y y y

Specialization of Cells- PAGE 58 Specialized cell: it is a cell that can perform a specific function

By: Vinny

17 Specialized cells have physical and chemical differences that allow them to perform one job very well

Animal specialized cells Red Blood cells: contain haemoglobin that carries oxygen in blood. The cells are smooth so they can easily pass through the blood vessels. Muscle cells: arranged in bundles called muscle fibres. They can contract, which makes the fibre shorter and causes bones to move. Fat cells: have a large vacuole which stores fat molecules. This is how it stores chemical energy. Skin cells: fit together tightly, covering the outside of the body to protect the cells inside and to reduce water loss. White blood cells: can move like an amoeba to engulf bacteria and fight infection. Nerve cells: log, thin, and have many braches. They conduct electrical impulses to coordinate body activity. Bone cells: collect calcium form food and allow growth and repair of bones. They build bone around themselves, creating the bodys skeleton. Sperm cells: able to move independently, carrying DNA from the male to join with an egg form the female. Photophores: these are in animals that are mainly active at night and the ones that live deep in the ocean. They can emit light. Plant specialized cells y y Some plant cells transport water and dissolved minerals throughout the plant Some plants cells dissolve sugars around the plant

Storage cells: contain special structures that store starch, a source of energy for the plant. Epidermal cells: cells on young roots that have hairs that absorb water from the soil. Guard cells: in the surface of leaves control water loss. Photosynthetic cells: contain many chloroplasts to collect energy form sunlight to make sugar for the plant Levels of Organization Hierarchy an organization structure, with more complex or imports things at the top and simpler or less important things below it Tissue a collection of similar cells that perform a particular, but limited, function. There are 4 functions:

By: Vinny Epithelial (skin, lining of digestive system) y y Thin sheets of packed cells Protection, insulation, inhibits dehydration

18

Connective (bone, tendons, blood) y y Held together by a liquid, solid, or gel Support

Muscle Tissues (skeletal, cardiac, smooth) y y Long cells called fibres Movement

Nerve Tissue (brain, sense, organs) y y Long, thin, cells with fine Branches carry electrical impulses

Organ a structure composed of different tissues working together to perform a complex body function. Each organ system is made up of highly specialized organs and other structures that work together to perform the overall function of the systems. Most organs work within a single organ system. Some organs, however, play a role in more than one system. Organ System a system of one or more organs and structures that work together to perform a major vital body function such as digestion or reproduction. They obtain oxygen and nutrients and eliminate wastes. They all sense and respond to their environment, grow and repair damage & reproduce. Stem Cells- cell differentiation (cord blood, transplantation, regeneration) PAGE 77 Cellular differentiation: is the process by which a cell becomes specialized to perform a specific function Stem cell: an undifferentiated cell that can divide to form specialized cells y y A stem cell divides into two daughter cells through the processes of mitosis and cytokinesis Each resulting daughter cell can develop into a different type of cell, based on which parts of its DNA are switched on ]they generally occur in clumps that differentiate into different tissue layers, such as epithelial, muscle, and nerve tissues There are two types: embryonic that can differentiate into any kind of cell and tissue stem cells that exist within specialized tissue (only able to differentiate into certain types of cells)

Cord Blood The blood found in the umbilical cord immediately following birth is a rich source of stem cells. These are not embryonic stem cells; they are more similar to tissue stem cells. They can develop into any of the various kinds of blood cells. Umbilical cord blood has a high concentration of these tissue stem

By: Vinny cells and is relatively easy to obtain. This collected blood could be banked in case it is needed later. Tissue Stem Cell Transplantation

19

Both cord blood and bone marrow stem cells are relatively easy to isolate. Its used to cure leukemia. Leukemia is a cancer that occurs in the bone marrow. The stem cells that differentiate into blood cells divide too quickly, resulting in non functioning blood cells. Chemotherapy can target and kill bone marrow cells and white blood cells. Healthy bone marrow cells are obtained from a carefully matched donor. The healthy stem cells are then injected into the patients blood. Regeneration Regeneration has the ability of a tissue to repair itself. Skin, muscle, and bone can regrow and heal after an injury. Not all cells regenerate. Digestive System- mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestine, liver, pancreas, gall bladder PAGE 80 (Textbook page 80)

Mouth process of breaking down food in 2 ways with teeth and tongue and chemically with chemicals called enzymes that break apart the molecules of food Esophagus muscles are a special type, called smooth muscle tissue, which can contract and relax without conscious thought. Movement is controlled by nerve tissue. Stomach holds food and turn it to continue the process of digestion. Produce digestive enzymes and acids. Mix the stomach contents mucous + acid (HCl) + enzymes, protein, acids kills bacteria Intestine intestine has cells that produce mucus. Also has many blood vessels interlaced through the other tissue 2 parts to the intestine: Small intestine is narrow and where most digestion occurs. Goblet cells release mucus, & nutrients diffuse through the wall of the small intestine and enter the bloodstream Large Intestine lining absorbs water from the indigestible food. Remaining solid matter is excreted as feces from the anus Accessory Organs

By: Vinny

20 The liver, pancreas, and gall bladder all help with the digestion of food by supplying digestive enzymes The liver produces fluid called bile, which helps breakdown fats in our food Pancreas produces insulin which regulates the concentration of glucose in the blood

y y y

Circulatory System- blood, heart, arteries, veins, capillaries, coronary artery diseases, heart attack (Textbook page 83)

The 3 main parts of the circulatory system are the blood, the heart, and the blood vessels. Blood: blood is a type of connective tissue that circulates throughout all parts of your body. The blood consists of 4 components p Red blood cells contain a protein called haemoglobin, which allows them to transport oxygen throughout the body p White blood cells they recognize and destroy invading bacteria and viruses. They are the only blood cell that has a nucleus p Platelets - tiny cells that help in blood clotting

p Plasma is a protein rich liquid that carries the blood cells along Heart: the heart is made up of 3 different types of tissues: cardiac muscle tissue, nerve tissue, and connective tissue. All of the cardiac muscle tissue in each part of the heart contacts at the same time. The muscles and nerves are covered by a smooth layer of epithelial tissues. This covering reduces friction and protects the heart from damage when the lungs expand and contract. The inner surface of the heart, where the blood to flow freely. Arteries y Veins y Is a blood vessel that returns blood to the heart. Is a thick walled blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart.

Capillaries y is a tiny walled blood vessel that enables the exchange of gases, nutrients and wastes between the blood and the body tissues

By: Vinny Coronary Artery Disease y y y y y

21

coronary arteries are blood vessels that provide blood to the heart tissue these vessels can become partially blocked with plaque (a deposit made of fat, cholesterol, calcium etc. that usually circulate in the blood) causes: genetic information, poor lifestyle choices (high-fat diet, smoking, less exercise) symptoms: tiredness, dizziness, pain or burning sensation in chest or arms problem can be diagnosed by angiogram (a special X-ray), in which fluorescent dye is injected into bloodstream, then dye shows up on X-ray image

Heart Attack: y y y y y coronary arteries can become completely blocked then heart muscle cells no longer receive oxygen and nutrients they need to function so heart stops pumping and heart tissue starts to die Symptoms: chest pain/pressure, shortness of breath, nausea, dizziness etc. Can be diagnosed with blood test and electrocardiogram The electrocardiogram (ECG) measures the electrical signals created by the heart as it beats e.g.:

Respiratory System (Textbook page 91) Respiratory system: the organ system that is made up of the nose, mouth, trachea, bronchi, and lungs; the system that provides oxygen for the body and allows carbon dioxide to leave the body y Air enters through mouth and nose, passes through the pharynx (throat) and travels down the trachea (windpipe) y Trachea separates into 2 braches, bronchi y Some epithelial that line the trachea and bronchi produce mucus y Epithelial cells have cilia (hair like projections) y Cilia help move mucus and filter out any foreign material y Bronchi deliver air to lungs

By: Vinny Gas Exchange

22

Oxygen enters the bloodstream in the lungs by diffusion. Carbon dioxide leaves the blood in the same way. Each of the bronchi branch again & again, ending in tiny air sacs called alveoli. The alveoli have very tiny walls. Each is surrounded by a network of capillaries. Oxygen and carbon dioxide have only to diffuse through two thin walls: the walls of the capillaries and the walls of the alveoli. It switches the oxygen to CO2 Breathing Breathing involves alternately drawing air into the lungs (inhalation) and then pushing air out (exhalation). This process involves muscles that move the ribs, making the rib cage expand and contract. Breathing also involves the diaphragm and the muscles between the ribs increase and decrease the volume of the lungs. The pressure inside them also changes. Breathing is controlled by a part of the brain that detects the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood. As the level of carbon dioxide increases, the brain sends signals to the diaphragm, the muscles between the ribs, and the heart. Tuberculosis: y y y y y y SARS y y y Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Symptoms: high fever, short breath, dry cough, sore throat, headache, muscle pain, and exhaustion Chest x-ray show evidence of pneumonia and cell samples are taken from patient Infectious disease Caused by bacteria that enter your body when you breathe Bacteria grow in lungs, can spread to body Chest X-ray is one of the best test used to diagnose this Medical technicians may examine samples of stomach or lung secretions Symptoms: fever, cough, weight loss, tiredness, chest pain

Organ Transplantation y Some organs that can successfully be transplanted include: heart, liver, lung, pancreas, and intestines y Transplantable tissues include: cornea, skin, bone, bone marrow, tendons, and blood vessels

Benefits y Recipient can live a healthy, normal life y Donor has the satisfaction is knowing that they saved someones life y Medical researchers gained a lot of new knowledge

Risks y

Rejection; the recipients immune system may recognize the new organ as a foreign material and try to destroy it Patient will need to take drugs to prevent the immune system from rejecting new

By: Vinny tissue or organ With immune system suppressed by drugs the body ability to fight off infections is reduced

23

Living Donor Organs y y y y Organs from living donors include: a kidney, a lobe of one of their lungs, or a part of their liver. Living donor lung transplantation requires 2 donors, each giving one lobe Kidney transplantation only requires 1 donor In the case of a liver transplantation, doctor remove one lobe form donor and transplant to recipient. Live has ability to regenerate or grow gain. Over time, the transplanted lobe will form new tissue and function. The donors liver will also regenerate new tissue to replace the removed portion

Deceased Donor Organs y y y Donor or donors family gives consent to donate organs after death Organs must be checked to determine whether they are healthy and undamaged Medical professionals take into account blood and tissue types, age and location of donor, and how long recipient had been waiting for a transplant

Xenotransplantation y y It is the process of transplanting an organ or tissue from one species to another Heart valves from pigs have been used to replace damaged human heart valves. However these valves have been chemically treated to kill cells so they are no longer considered living tissue

Musculoskeletal System (PAGE 99)

Consist of the bones, ligaments, and cartilage

Connective Tissue y Bones consist of cells within a matrix of minerals and collagen fibres. Canals inside the bones contain nerves and blood vessels. y Ligaments are tough, elastic connective tissues that hold bones together at the joints.

Ligament

By: Vinny

24

Cartilage is a dense connective tissue found in the ear, nose, esophagus, the disk between our vertebrate and joints Fibres provides a strong, flexible, low friction support for bones and other tissues.

Muscles y y y y y y y Skeletal muscles that is attached to the bones by tendons, allowing the movement of body parts The main role of the skeleton is to provide structure and support for our bodies and anchor points for our muscles Some bones protect the soft internal organs and brain Skeletal muscle is used for voluntary movements of the body, such as walking When muscles contract in response to signals from the nervous system, they exert a force. They move one or both of the bones to which the muscles is connected 650 muscles 40% body mass

A MUSCLE

Nervous System PAGE 140 Nervous system: the organ system that is made up of the brain, the spinal cord, the peripheral nerves; the system that senses the environment and coordinates appropriate responses p Central Nervous System consist of the brain and spinal cord. The nerves that carry signals between the central nervous system and the body make up the peripheral nervous system. Peripheral nervous system relays information about the internal and external environments to the brain. It also relays instruction from the brain to other parts of the body to control many of the bodys functions and responses.

By: Vinny

25

p peripheral nervous system can divided into groups: o nerves that control the voluntary muscles o nerves that carry information from the sensory organs, such as the eyes, ears, taste buds o nerves that regulate involuntary functions such as breathing, heartbeat, & digestion Neurons y y neurons are communicators , their structure enables them to send information around your body they do this by conducting electrical signals-nerve impulses-form one area of the body to another

Myelin y y the axons of some neurons are covered by fatty material called myelin myelin is insulation (like on electrical wire) that prevents electrical impulses form passing to the wrong neuron

Nerve Cell

Interactions between Systems y Take an example of the circulatory and digestive system y The digestive system breaks down food into small molecules, that can pass through the walls of the digestive tract y Without a circulatory system, only the tissues right next to the digestive tract would receive nutrients. So the circulatory system provides a way to transport nutrients to all tissues in the organism

By: Vinny

26

y y y y

The musculoskeletal system uses the circulatory system to deliver constant supply of oxygen and nutrients and it must remove wastes These wastes enter the blood by diffusion through capillary walls and are carried away for disposal The blood collects waste products as it travels through all the bodys tissues. The blood passes through the kidneys and the unwanted toxic substances are removed (urine). FOR MORE INTERACTIONS GO TO PAGE 110

Systems in Plants Shoot System y It is the system in a flowering plant that is specialized to conduct photosynthesis and reproduce sexually; it consists of the leaf, the flower, and the stem

Leaf y y y y y y y Flower y y y y y y y y Stem y y It supports the branches, leaves, and flowers and provides a way to transport materials Contains significant amounts of vascular tissue for carrying substances to and from roots, leaves, flowers, and fruit. Flowers are specialized structures developed for sexual reproduction They contain male or female reproductive structures, sometimes both Male reproductive structures produce pollen grains; female reproductive structures produce eggs Eggs are fertilized by pollen then the female flower parts form seeds In most flowering plants, the seeds are contained within a specialized structure called a fruit Pollination occurs by wind or animals Mosses, ferns, and coniferous trees are not flowering plants Conifers are all wind pollinated and they produce pollen and seed in specialized cones In photosynthesis, tissues in the leaf use carbon dioxide, water, and light energy to produce glucose and oxygen. The glucose is used for plant growth, cellular respiration, and energy storage PHOTOSYNTHESIS Chlorophyll Light energy + carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen The cell structure that actually performs photosynthesis is an organelle called chloroplast Chloroplasts contain flat, disc-like structures called thylakoids Thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana These stacks act as solar collectors, using chlorophyll in the membranes of thylakoids

Root System

By: Vinny

27 It is the system of a flowering plant, fern, or conifer that anchors the plant, absorbs water and minerals and stores food It typically grows below ground Examples include: radishes, carrots (the roots are used for nutrient storage), sweet potatoes, sugar beet, ginger etc.

y y y

Dermal Tissue System y y y y y y y y It is the tissues covering the outer surface of the plant Do not occur within the plant Includes epidermal and periderm tissues Epidermal tissue (epidermis): a thin layer of cells covering all non-woody surfaces of the plant Most epidermal leaf cells produce a layer of wax, called the cuticle, that helps waterproof the leafs surface Some epidermal leaf cells are adapted for defence, they have hair like structures that contain chemical irritants Some epidermal root cells have long extensions called root hairs to help absorb water and minerals form the soil Periderm tissue: tissue on the surface of a plant that produces bark on stems and roots

Vascular Tissue System y y y y y it is the tissues responsible for conducting materials within a plant it transports the water, minerals and other chemicals around the plant like a network of tubes, that reaches from the roots, up the stalk, and through the leaves there are two types: xylem and phloem xylem: is a vascular tissue in plants that transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the leaves and stems of the plant p they are hollow tubes with rigid walls p have no cytoplasm, nucleus, or other organelles p mature xylem cells are no longer living tissue phloem: vascular tissue in plants that transports dissolved food materials and hormones throughout the plant p under certain conditions, food materials are transported downward from the photosynthesizing leaves to the stem and roots p made up of elongated cells that are alive and functioning

Ground Tissue System y y y y they are all plant tissues other than those that make up the dermal and vascular tissue systems they perform variety of functions such as in the green parts of the plant, they manufacture nutrients by the process of photosynthesis in roots they store carbohydrates in stems they provide storage and support

By: Vinny Photosynthesis Light energy + carbon dioxide + water Chlorophyll glucose + oxygen

28

Specialized tissue and Cells in a Leaf y Palisade layer: a layer of tall, closely packed cells containing chloroplasts, just below the upper surface of a leaf; a type of ground tissue y Close packing helps palisade cells capture as much incoming light as possible y Spongy Mesophyll: a region of loosely packed cells containing chloroplasts, in the middle of a leaf; a type of ground tissue y Spaces between the spongy mesophyll cells permit gasses to move around within the leaf y Cuticle: a layer of wax on the upper and lower surfaces of a leaf that blocks the diffusion of water and gases y Stomata: (stomate: singular) an opening in the surface of a leaf that allows the exchange of gases p Majority of plants have most or all of their stomata in the lower surface of the leaf p This location reduced water loss, provides more surface area for photosynthesis , and reduces the chances of airborne viruses, bacteria, and fungal spores from entering the leaf p When it is open carbon dioxide can enter and oxygen can be released y Guard cell: one pair of special cells in the epidermis that surround and control the opening and closing of each stomate p The guard cells can either bend outward, causing stomata to open, or they can collapse inward, causing stomata to close p Have a mechanism that responds to light levels which helps them close the stomata at night when carbon dioxide is not needed because there is no light for photosynthesis Plant Growth Apical and lateral meristems y Apical meristem: undifferentiated cells at the tips of plant roots and shoots; cells that divide, enabling the plant to grow longer and develop specialized tissues p When they first divide in the tips of the roots, many of them begin to elongate p As they elongate, they differentiate into specialized cells of the dermal, ground and vascular tissue systems Lateral meristem: undifferentiated cells under the bark in the stems and roots of woody plants; cells that divide, enabling the plant to grow wider and develop specialized tissues in the stem p They form 2 cylinders, one inside the other, that run the full length of the shoots and roots

By: Vinny

29 p As plant grows in diameter, the outer lateral meristem produces new dermal tissue, called cork, to replace old epidermal cells p Inner lateral meristem produces new phloem tissue on its outer surface and new xylem tissue toward its interior p Many plants do not have lateral meristem so their stems and roots cannot grow any thicker once the first tissues formed by the apical meristems have matured

Vegetative Reproduction y y It is the process in which a plant produces genetically identical offspring from its shoots or roots Examples are strawberry plants that reproduce vegetatively by sending out shoots called runners across the surface of the soil

Tissue Culture y Tissue culture propagation: a method of growing many identical offspring by obtaining individual plant cells from one parent plant, growing these cells into calluses, and then into whole plants Calluses: clumps of cells which can be separated over and over again, producing unlimited number of growing cell masses p Chemicals can be added to each callus anytime p These chemicals act like plant hormones and trigger the callus cells to begin the processes of growth and differentiation and the end result is a new plant

3. Light and Geometric Optics

What is light? y Light travels through the vacuum of outer space y Light does not require a medium for transmission, instead it is transferred through radiation y Electromagnetic waves: radio waves, X-rays, microwaves, radar, and ultraviolet light Electromagnetic Spectrum READ PAGE 466 for Types of waves (microwaves etc.) Electromagnetic spectrum: the classification of electromagnetic waves by energy DIAGRAM:

By: Vinny Colours and Visible Light y White visible light is composed of continuous sequence of colours, called the visible spectrum y Has seven distinct colours: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet y Newton was the first scientist to discover that seven distinct colours were visible in white light How is Light produced?

30

Incandescence (diagram on the leftsorry I couldnt find one so I had to make one quickly): y y high temperature wire a lot of heat- inefficient

Electric Discharge: y y Current through a gas (neon, xenon, halogen) Lightening

Phosphorescence: y y Glow in the dark (phosphor) Absorb UV light and store it, releasing it later

Fluorescence: y Absorb UV light and immediately release visible light (fluorescent clothing-dye)

Chemiluminescence: y Chemical reaction- light (glow sticks)

Bioluminescence: y Chemiluminescence in living organisms (fish, fungus, bacteria, fireflies, glow worms)

Triboluminescence:

By: Vinny By scratching, crushing (quartz, winter green mints)

31

y LED y y

Device that allows electric current to flow in one direction, done by using semiconductor like silicon Conductors allow currents to flow in any direction, while semiconductors make currents flow in one direction LEDS Dont require a filament Does not produce much heat as a byproduct More energy efficient Used as Christmas lights, indicator in electronic devices, illuminated signs, traffic, street lights, perhaps lighting in homes ICANDAESCENT BULB Inefficient because only 5-20% of electricity going through is converted to visible light, the rest is heat Requires a filament

y y y y

Lasers Light Amplification Stimulated Emission of Radiation y y y Concentrated One direction One wave length p Same

colour

y y y y y

Same frequency Very intense Pure in colour Could damage eyes (burn a hole) Used in DVD remote, laser printer, scanners, copy machines

The Ray Model of Light y y y Transparent: when a material transmits all or almost all incident light; objects can be clearly seen through the material (for example clear glass/windows etc.) Translucent: when a material transmits some incident light but absorbs or reflects the rest, objects are not clearly seen through the material (sort of like a shower door/ blurry glass) Opaque: when a material does not transmit any incident light; all incident light is either absorbed or reflected; objects behind the material cannot be seen at all (for example wooden door)

DIAGRAM ANGLE OF INCIDENCE= ANGLE OF REFLECTION

By: Vinny

32

*Basically the incident ray comes and hits then reflects on the other side of the normal on the same angle.*

Terminology y Image: reproduction of object y Perpendicular: right angle of 90 y Normal: ray perpendicular to mirror y Incident ray: coming into mirror y Reflected ray: leaving mirror y Plane: flat y Angle of incidence: the right angle between the incident ray and the normal y Angle of reflection: the angle between the reflected ray and the normal The Laws of Reflection 1. Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection 2. Reflected and incident ray are on the same plane/surface 2 TYPES OF REFLECTION p Specular- smooth, shiny (disco balls, very still water, flat aluminum foil

By: Vinny

33

p Diffuse- rough, dull (sheet of paper, water surface with waves, crumpled aluminum foil)

Images in Plane Mirrors A. Light Ray Method (more complicated, but will be asked on test to do) Basically, you have an object on one side, then you take every vertex (two lines meet) and draw two rays from each point to the mirror (on any angle), then find the reflected ray (make sure this is on the same side as the ray you drew)after you find the reflected ray (by measuring the angle of the ray you drew from the normal)then extend the lines of the REFLECTED ray behind the mirror until they meet(because thats where your brain sees it, not actually there) that is how you find the first point. Do the same to find the second point (and so on), andthen join in the space in between.This might be a little confusing so look at the diagram (it is colour coated with the words). (Obviously it isnt perfect because I drew it on paint)

B. Perpendicular Lines (Way easier) Basically, draw a straight line from a point of the object to the mirror and measure it, then draw a line on the other side of the mirror of the same measurement and that is your first

By: Vinny point.Do the same with the rest of the points,and fill in the space. (This is also color coordinated and not perfect because drawn by me on paint, but pretty close)

34

Acronym SALT SALT: when you describe the properties of an image, you need to examine 4 characteristics: p p p p Size: compare the image to object; is it same size, smaller, or larger Attitude: which way is the image oriented compared to the object; upright or inverted Location: location of image (behind or same side as object) Type: real or virtual

REMEMBER: an image in a plane mirror is always the same size as the object (Size), upright but laterally (horizontally, reverse order) inverted (Attitude), behind the mirror (Location: the same distance behind as the object as in front), and virtual (Type). Curved Mirrors y Concave (converging) mirror: a mirror shaped like part of the surface of a sphere in which the inner surface is reflective, like this:) Image can be real or virtual y Convex (diverging) mirror: a mirror shaped like a part of the surface of a sphere in which the outer surface is reflective, like this: (Image is always virtual Centre of curvature: the centre of the sphere whose surface has been used to make the mirror Principle axis: the line through the centre of curvature to the midpoint of the mirror Vertex: the point where the principle axis meets the mirror Converge: to meet at a common point Focus: the point at which light rays parallel to the principal axis converge when they are reflected off a concave mirror Real image: an image that can be seen on a screen as a result of light rays actually arriving at the image location Diverge: spread apart

y y y y y y y

By: Vinny LOCATE IMAGE IN CONVERGING MIRROR Basically there are 2 ways to do it, sometimes the easy way works and sometimes it doesnt, you have to try both (I always try the easy one first), but I will show the hard way first (make sure you know your definitions because I will be using those in here). THIS IS HOW I THINK OF FINDING AN IMAGE,BUT FOR COMPLETE INTRUCTIONS THE RULES ARE ON PAGE 497 HARD WAY 1. 2. 3. 4. Draw a principal axis That will reflect through the focus point Take the tip of the arrow/ object and go through to vertex Now this is why its not as easy, you have to measure the angle of the line (with a protractor) at the vertex and make the same angle reflecting under 5. Where the two lines join is the tip of the arrow/object, then fill in the space

35

EASY WAY CURVATURE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

WORKS WHENEVER THE OBJECT IS AT OR AFTER THE CENTRE OF

Draw principal axis That reflects through focus Go from tip of arrow/object through the focus Reflect parallel to the principal axis Wherever the two lines meet, is the tip of the arrow/object, fill in the space

By: Vinny

36

REMEMBER!!! y IMAGE INFRONT OF THE MIRROR AND UPSIDE DOWN IS REAL

Many uses such as: car headlight, flashlight, searchlight, reflecting telescope, satellite dishes The imaging properties of a converging mirror (USING SALT): *C= centre of curvature, F= Focus) OBJECT Location Beyond C At C between C &F At F Inside F IMAGE Location Between C &F At C Beyond C IMAGE Behind mirror

Size Smaller Same size Larger NO Larger

Attitude Inverted Inverted Inverted CLEAR Upright

Type Real Real real PRODUCED! virtual

LOCATE IMAGE IN DIVERGING MIRROR THERE IS ONLY ONE WAYTHESE IMAGES WILL BE BEHIND THE MIRROR Since the image is going to be behind the mirror, you will need a focus behind the mirror, to do that measure the distance from the focus to the mirror, and use that same distance to make a focus behind the mirror.THIS IS HOW I THINK OF FINDING AN IMAGE,BUT FOR COMPLETE INTRUCTIONS THE RULES ARE ON PAGE 500 1. Draw principal axis, this time the light will reflect back 2. From the principal axis, take the point where it touches the mirror and extend it back through the focus, behind the mirror 3. Take the tip of the arrow and draw it to the vertex, measure the angle 4. Reflect the same angle under 5. The reflected ray from the vertex will extend backwards, behind the mirror 6. Wherever the 2 rays behind the mirror meet is the tip of your arrow, object, fill in the space

By: Vinny

37

REMEMBER!!! y IMAGE BEHIND THE MIRROR, RIGHT SIDE UP IS VIRTUAL

The imaging properties of a diverging mirror: y A convex mirror ALWAYS produces a smaller virtual image

Many uses such as: side mirrors on cars, security mirror in stores Refraction p This is when light changes direction when travelling one medium to another p E.g. speed of light: 3 x 108 m/s (meters per second) Water: 2.26x 108 m/s Acrylic: 1.76 x 108 m/s

RULES OF REFRACTION 1. The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal all lie in the same plane. The incident ray and refracted ray are on opposite sides of the line that separates the two media (medium, e.g. air water) 2. Fast medium to slow (air water) Light bends toward the normal Slow medium to fast (water air) Light bends away from the normal Index of Refraction p Ratio of light in a vacuum and the speed in a medium

By: Vinny n= index of refraction c= speed of light in a vacuum (this is always 3 x 108 m/s) v= speed of light in a medium So, your equation is n= c/v USE THIS your hand the stuff you want to find out ** n , v (inversely related) ** E.g. Calculate the speed of light in Quartz Given: c= 3 x 108 m/s (this has to be MEMORIZED) v= ? n= 1.76 (this will be given on the test in a question to find v) Calculation: v= c/n = 3 x 108 m/s 1.46 =2.05 m/s x 108 ***At this part just divide 3/1.46 and put the 108 after in the answer*** TRIANGLE: cover with

38

E.g. Calculate the index of refraction for vinegar Given: c= 3 x 108 m/s (this has to be MEMORIZED) v= 2.30 x 108 m/s (this will be given on a test in a question to find n) n= ? Calculation: n= c/v n= 3 x 108 m/s 2.30 x 108 m/s ** The 108 m/s crosses out with each other**

By: Vinny Critical Angle REMEMBER Critical angle: the angle of incidence that results in an angle of refraction of 90

39

In the diagram above, the critical angle is when the angle of incidence is at 50 , it refracts at 90 . Since the medium is going from slow fast (water air) anything above the critical angle refracts away from the normal. Anything below the critical angle will reflect on the other side (on the same angle). Total Internal Refraction y Total internal reflection: the situation when the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle **IMPORTANT: a larger critical angle = more refraction, less reflection (as shown in the diagram above) a smaller critical angle = more reflection, less refraction Uses: a diamond is sparkly because it has a low critical angle, most of the light rays reflect instead of refract Phenomena Related to Refraction Depth: PAGE 535 y Apparent depth is the depth that an object appears to be at due to the refraction of light in a transparent medium

By: Vinny

40

y y y

objects under water always appear to be nearer to the surface than they actually are. This is what makes fish in water appear to be closer to the surface than they are. for same reason, legs of someone standing water appear to be shorter apparent depth is an optical illusion

Mirage: PAGE 537 y y y y y y y a mirage is a virtual image that forms as a result of refraction and total internal reflection in Earths atmosphere a mirage can appear when light is travelling from cool air into warmer air the index of refraction decreases as the air gets warmer this results in light bending farther away from the normal as the air temperature continues to increase eventually total internal reflection occurs in the lowest (hottest) air layer light ray travels up form hottest layer into cooler layer above and is gradually refracted toward the normal as the temperature decreases light ray eventually enters eyes

Shimmering: PAGE 537 y y y y y shimmering is caused by light being refracted as it passes through air of different temperatures moonlight passes through layers of air that have different temperatures in the coldest air layer, light travels more slowly so a light ray going through this layer bends toward the normal as the light ray continues travelling downward toward the warmest layer (just above the lake), its speed increases, so the light ray bends farther and farther away from the normal eventually total internal reflection occurs in the lowest warm air layer, this results in multiple virtual images of Moon on the waters surface

Rainbow: PAGE 538 y produced by water droplets in Earths atmosphere 1. refraction as light enters the raindrop (going form air to water) resulting in dispersion 2. partial internal reflection when this light hits the back of the raindrop 3. Refraction as the light now exits the raindrop (going form water to air). This is the light that your eyes see, which you perceive as a rainbow 4. your brain projects these light rays backwards and forms a virtual image of the spectrum: a rainbow

**you can only see a rainbow when the Sun is behind you** Lenses y

Converging lens: a lens that is thickest in the middle and that causes incident parallel light rays to converge through a single point after refraction. Real or virtual images created.

By: Vinny Diverging lens: a lens that is thinnest in the middle and that causes incident parallel light rays to spread apart after refraction. Only virtual images created.

41

Images in Lenses Converging THERE IS ONLY ONE WAY...DONT CONFUSE THIS WITH MIRRORSTHIS IS LENS To find an image in a converging lens: 1. 2. 3. 4. Draw a principle axis This reflects through the vertex Take the point of the principal axis on the other side and go through the focus Wherever the two lines meet, that is your image, in this case it is the tip of the arrow, fill in the space Converging lens can produce real and virtual images, but in this case it is real because it is inverted. And the image is behind the mirror.

The imaging properties of a converging lens *F= focus, 2F= 2x the focus length* OBJECT Location Beyond 2F At 2F between 2F &F At F Inside F IMAGE Location Between 2F &F At F Beyond 2F IMAGE Behind mirror

Size Smaller Same size Larger NO Larger

Attitude Inverted Inverted Inverted CLEAR Upright

Type Real Real Real PRODUCED! Virtual

Uses: the camera (p. 567), the movie projector (p.568), the magnifying glass (p. 568), the compound microscope (p. 569), the refracting telescope (p. 569) Diverging Lens THERE IS ONLY ONE WAY To find an image in a diverging lens: 1. Draw a principle axis 2. This reflects through the vertex 3. Take the point of the principle axis (on the same side) it reflects back to the focus

By: Vinny 4. Wherever the two lines meet is the tip of the arrow, fill in the space

42

This image is virtual and in front of the lens

The imaging properties of a diverging lens: The image is always smaller, upright, virtual and on the same side of the lens as the object. The human brain perceives it as virtual by extending the diverging rays backwards to a virtual source. Lens Application Camera: PAGE 567 y y y y a camera take slight form large, distant objects, and forms smaller, real images on either film in traditional camera or the sensor in a digital camera this means that the object must be located at more than twice the focal length of the lens (beyond 2F) a traditional film camera uses flexible roll film to capture images today digital cameras use light sensitive device made of silicon called charge-coupled device (CCD)

Movie Projector: PAGE 568 y y y y opposite to a camera projector takes a small object (the film) and projects a large, inverted, real image on a screen because the image is larger it must be located between F and 2F the film must be loaded into the projector upside down so that what you see on the screen is upright

Magnifying Glass: PAGE 568-569 y y y simple converging lens which the object is located between F and the lens no real image is produced at this object location refracted rays diverge, but human brain extends rays backwards and produces and enlarged, virtual image located on the same side of lens as the object

Compound Microscope: PAGE 569 y an arrangement of two converging lenses

By: Vinny produces 2 enlarged, inverted images: one real and one virtual real image formed by objective lens; cannot see this image because it is in body of tube (between the eyepiece and lenses) virtual image is formed by the eyepiece lens; this is the larger, virtual image you see

43

y y y

Human Eye

The camera and eye are very alike: y y y The camera has a diaphragm that controls the amount of light entering it, the iris has this function The hole in the iris is called a pupil, comparable to the aperture in a camera, and is where light enters the eye A camera has a converging lens to refract light to form a sharp image. The eye also has structures (lens and cornea) that cause light to converge

Eye Focusing Problems Farsightedness- hyperopia p See things farther away well but not up close p To fix this use a converging lens to focus light on the retina, positive meniscus

With lens

Near sightedness- myopia

By: Vinny p See up close not distant p To fix this use a diverging lens to diverge light to focus on retina, negative meniscus

44

With lens Presbyopia p As people get older they find it harder to read because eye lens loses elasticity p Can be corrected by converging lens Contact Lens y Positive-meniscus: a modified form of the converging lens shape y Negative meniscus: a modified form of the diverging lens shape y Contact lens: a lens that is placed directly in the cornea of the eye