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actually distribute evenly along with the stator winding. It is known that the winding of the Powerformer adopts graded insulation, which leads to vari- ous cable thicknesses in different por- tions of the winding and the uneven capacitance distribution. Improving the reliability of the differential protection of the Powerformer can be achieved by using a self-adaptive compensation methodology. The feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed scheme has been proven with test results. The subtransient reactance of the Powerformer is usually similar to, or slightly lower than, the total fault impedance of the conventional genera- tor and its transformer. Consequently, there is a relatively limited impact pro- duced by the replacement of a conven- tional generator by a Powerformer on the critical fault types governing circuit- breaker ratings in a realistic power sys- tem. The system modification requires an increase in the breaker capacity to allow the inclusion of a Powerformer into an existing system where the origi- nal breakers have been rated very low, according to IEEE standards. Future work should concentrate on other propertiesrather than critical fault typessuch as switching capability or transient recovery voltage.

Economy
Using the Powerformer in a certain power system has a significant effect on the plants overall cost. The cost reduc- tion is due to high efficiency, lower losses, and low environmental impact. A study has been carried out to show how a Powerformer could influence the economy of hydropower projects. The aim of the study was to compare the existing hydropower plant in India with a hypothetical plant with a Powerformer. The annual energy pro- duction is equal to 3,200 gigawatt- hours. There are four turbines, four generators, and 13 singlephase trans- formers. Four Powerformers replaced the four generators and the 13 single- phase step-up transformers. The total c o s t s a v in gs a s s o cia t ed

withPowerformers, resulting from lower building and maintenance costs, were estimated at 24% in addition to the increased annual power generation by 17 GWh (by 0.56%). Another study was carried out adopt- ing a new methodology for analyzing the generation capacity of power systems. The method is validated on the 24-bus IEEE-RTS system, augmented with realis- tic market and plant data, by using it to compare the financial viability of several generator investments applying either conventional or Powerformertechnolo- gies. The significance of the results is assessed using several financial risk measures. Comparative results of different risk indices have confirmed that the Powerformer is a better option within the set of assumptions used for this study. The results suggest that the Powerformer will be superior compared with its con- ventional generator counterpart. The dif- ferences in viability, however, are not large, and more work is required to confirm the observed trends.

Reliability and robustness

The Powerformer has higher avail- ability, more reactive power margin, and extra short-term overloading capac- ity. Several studies on its impact on the system dynamic behavior have been carried out. It has been confirmed that it can delay the system voltage collapse by several seconds. Similarly, its design is capable of producing perceptible changes on the system fault behavior. Table 1 shows that there are six Powerformers in operation: four are in Sweden, one in Japan, and another one in Canada, and all are running without any difficulties. The impact of a Powerformer on the composite system reliability has been examined and com- pared with the existing conventional generators using the 24-bus IEEE-RTS test system. A number of sensitivity analyses are performed, and it has been observed that the improvement in the steady state adequacy is largely attrib- uted to its higher availabilities. Its impact depends on its location, load level, and the system topologies. Operating history of a Powerformer is limited, thus longterm viability assessments are made sole- ly on the available cable data and some of the extensive laboratory testing by the manufacturers. In an attempt to evaluate the failure rate and reliability of stator windings, an electrical ageing test is conducted in a realistic Powerformer environment with an applied voltage of 220 kV cor- responding to 25 kV/mm of field stress to insulation. The calculated failure rate of the high-voltage stator windings is equal to 0.53 faults/100 generators-year and with this the mean time to failure becomes 1/0.0053190 years. If a major fault occurs inside the stator core, complete stator laminations need to be replaced. The mean repair time is esti- mated to be 13 days. The unavailability of the Powerformer stator winding is as low as 0.019%. Another independent finding sup- ports the estimated values which reveal that the failure rate of a Powerformer is significantly lower than the recorded failure rates of the conventional genera- tor in the hydropower plants in Nordic electricity generation and transmission systems. It is close to or lower than the recorded failure rates of the generators in the nuclear power plants in Sweden. Station-originated failures due to sta- tion components such as breakers, transformers and busbar sections can have a significant impact on overall power system reliability, where several potential points of failures can be elimi- nated. Powerformer arrangement should be more reliable for the long run. If failure occurs in a transformer, its replacement time can be very long, causing a high loss of power supply, especially if one transformer is serving for more than one generator. It is fairly logical to assume equal failure rates for t h e con v en t io n a l rotors andPowerformer rotors, because with minor modifications a conventional generator rotor could be converted to fit the Powerformer. The risk of voltage collapse requires that the system operator use all available reactive resources in the receiving area to maintain the voltage level. There is a need to boost the reactive generation from synchronous machines in the
Table 1.Existing Powerformer generators. Rated voltage Rated power Location Commissioning Type (kV) (MVA)

Porjus 1998 Hydro 45 11 Eskilstuna 2000 Thermal 136 42

Porsi 2001 Hydro 155 75 Holjebro 2001 Hydro 78 25 Miller Creek 2002 Hydro 25 32.8 Katzurazawa 2003 Hydro 66 9
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receiving area. Powerformers have a better overload capability than conven- tional generators, so the Powerformers proved their robustness under voltage collapse. In 2001, statistical records revealed that the first Powerformer, located in Porjus, Sweden, accumulated more than 13,700 hours of successful operation without any disturbances. The unit has been synchronized to the grid more than 150 times and has been subjected to thermal and electrical cycling. Thorburn and Leijonalso presented a case study of upgrading Powerformer rated voltages. Powerformers with a rated voltage of 245, 345, and 420 kV are being considered.

Extensive tests on the first Powerformer, including heat run test, load rejection, efficiency measurements, and short-circuit tests on the terminal at 100% magnetization, have been con- ducted to evaluate its performance and behavior. The response on the auxiliary winding during a short-circuit test on the main winding revealed that the Powerformer is robust. In addition, the second Powerformer, located in Eskilstuna, Sweden, has undergone workshop tests and has suc- cessfully operated at 177 kV during an over-excitation test. In 2000, the Powerformer stood the sudden short-cir- cuit test under 100% of rated voltage. As expected, the currents at the test were close to 1,000% of normal load current. This is the highest possible current, which may flow from Powerformer in case of faults in the transmission net- work. The unit also performed well when subjected to a sudden single phase-to-ground fault. In this case, the voltage on the two healthy phases tem- porarily exceeded 175% of normal oper- ating voltage. This is the highest possible voltage, which may stress the insulation of the stator winding in case of faults in the cable connecting the Powerformer to the transmission network. Voltage collapse, loadability, and sta- bility studies were made on the Swedish test systems by examining the effects of removal of step-up transformers at select- ed generator busses (i.e., direct connec- tionPowerformers to the high voltage bus). The 100% overload for up to 30 minutes was observed with reinforced rotor cooling. Three power systems were used in the studies of the 32-bus Swedish test system. The results indicate that the location of the Powerformer has a notice- able impact on the loadability and loca- tion of voltage collapse in the system. As discussed earlier, the electric field is fully confined to the cable. So in the Powerformer, the bracing of the coil ends is reduced to simply support- ing the cables constituting the over- hang (whose surface is held at ground potential) such that the vibrations of the coil ends are minimized. The forces exerted on the end windings are highly reduced during operation of the Powerformer compared to the conven- tional generator. This is due to its lower rated current for a given output power.

Objection on Powerformer technology

Objections on Powerformertechnol- ogy by designers of conventional gener- ators generally fall under one of three headings: efficiency, cable technology, and possible applications. Using a circular conductor will mean that the cable occupies a larger volume within the stator. This will result in a larger, more expensive machine. Also, iron losses will be higher, offsetting the savings in transformer losses. However, the generator will be larger, but the step-up transformer has been eliminat- ed. Using Maxwells equations it is pos- sible to show that, in terms of energy produced per unit volume, the Powerformer must be more efficient. Again, iron losses in the conventional generator are indeed higher, but the low-current nature of the Powerformer design means that these extra losses are more than offset by lower stator copper losses and lower ventilation losses (the result of reduced demands on the airbased cooling system). Generally, it is estimated that an optimized Powerformer design will be between 0.5% and 1.5% more efficient than a conventional generator and its step-up transformer solution. XLPE cable, especially at 400 kV, is a relatively new product. There are serious doubts over its long term suitability as stator windings. Also, the cable is very stiff, especially at higher voltages, mak- ing it difficult, if not impossible, to bend the cable at the end regions. However, the cable in the machine XLPE is rated for continuous operation at 90 C, with the capacity to operate at up to 130 C for several hours. In normal operation, the Powerformer windings are kept at 70 C. The machine capacity to operate at a higher temperature (higher current), without harm for short periods means that it can play a valuable role in system management, as a controllable source of real and reactive powers. It is believed that when the adop- tion of Powerformers becomes more common, reliable data can be obtained regarding its impact on power systems. Fair and reliable judgment on this new technology can be convincing to power utilities.

Conclusions
Powerformers, wound by XLPE power cables without sheath, represent a break- through of high-voltage power genera- tors, where they provide direct connec- tion to the high-voltage power grid with- out going via a step-up transformer at voltage rating up to 155 kV. Powerformers enable very clean and compact power plants that are not only economical, reliable, and environment friendly but also more efficient than con- ventional ones. Powerformers are fitted with conven- tional rotors, while the stator consists of a laminated core. The cross- section of the slots decreases toward the rotor since each winding turn requires less cable insulation closer to the rotor.

The cooling system of the stator core in a Powerformer is also based on a new concept, where an indirect system cools the stator core by axially inserted water pipes made of high-density XLPE. The use of a cylindrical conductor yields an even distribution of the elec- tric and the magnetic fields, which is a prerequisite for a high-voltage electric machine. On the contrary, the conven- tional generators use rectangular con- ductors that lead to overstressing the

SEMICONDUCTOR DESCRIBES A MATERIAL WITH RELATIVELY HIGH RESISTIVITY, IN THIS CASE XLPE DOPED WITH CARBON. SUCH A SEMICONDUCTOR IS, MORE ACCURATELY, A RESISTIVE CONDUCTOR.
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insulation and the magnetic materials, and a high rate of electrical failures. To mitigate partial discharges in Powerformers, the XLPE cables (stator windings) are fitted in the stator slots with a certain amount of clearance. A good contact is kept between the outer semiconducting layer of the XLPE cables and the slot walls via fixation hoses.

Additional magnetic losses in the Powerformer conductors can be mini- mized by subdividing the conductor into mutually insulated strands. The majority of the strands may be insulat- ed. To ensure equal electrical potential in the strands and the inner semicon- ducting layer, one or more of the strands in the outermost layer may be noninsulated. The limitation of the Powerformer output voltage is set solely by state- of-the-art high-voltage XLPE cable technology (stator windings). The cable insulation of the Powerformer cannot withstand the similar tempera- ture as the insulation materials in con- ventional machines. The criterion of temperature in the available cables for design practice is 70 C. It is expected that Powerformers with voltage rat- ings up to 420 kV can be realized in a decade.

Read more about it

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About the authors

Ibrahim A. Metwally (metwally@ squ.edu.om) earned an M.Eng. and Ph.D. in high-voltage engineering. He is a pro- fessor with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Mansoura University. R.M. Radwan (roshdyradwan@ yahoo.com) earned a B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering and a Ph.D. in electrical engineering. He is a fulltime professor in the Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University. A.M. Abou-Elyazied (abouelyazied@ gmail.com) earned B.Sc. and M.Sc degrees in electrical engineering. He is a Ph.D. student in the Department of Electrical Energy, Systems, and Automation