West Visayas State University La Paz, Iloilo City GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 1st semester AY 2011-2012 SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY 1.

Structuralism Introspective Psychology or Elementarism (1879) Wilhelm Wundt, Edward B. Titchener Purposes of study: Structure of the mind To discover all elements of which consciousness be composed. Its main concern was the study of what made up consciousness. Structuralist believed that the mind is made up of building blocks in the form of various types of sensation and perception. These building blocks could be discovered through introspection. Method used: Introspection It refers to the observation and recording of the nature of ones own perception, thoughts and feelings; looking into ones mind; a mental self analysis. Using the method of introspection involves reflecting to ones own feeling, then the subject report sensations, feelings and images through his own sensory experiences. Controversies arose as to the fallibility of introspection due to the fact it is not immediate but is an observational inferential process that takes time and is subject to errors of observation. By 1940, introspection disappeared from scientific psychology. 2. Functionalism (1898) John Dewey, William James, James Rowland Angell, Harvey Carr - chief proponents G. Stanley Hall, McKeen Cattell Purpose of Study: Function of the mind Study how the mind works so that an organism can adapt to and function in its environment Functionalism, was a protest against structuralism. It was not interested in the elements of consciousness but in the purpose which consciousness serves in life. The most important contribution of functionalism was changing the focus of psychology to learning, motivation and thinking and veered away from the structuralists emphasis on individual sensation and perception. Method used: Observation Functionalists believe in the objective method of observing behavior rather than the introspective method of observing awareness. COMMON WITH STRUCTURALIST & FUNCTIONALIST Both structuralists and functionalists still regarded psychology as the science of conscious experience. 3. Behaviorism (S-R Psychology) (1912) Leader & Founder: John B. Watson Followers: Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, B. F. Skinner, Gordon Allport Purpose of Study: Holds that the subject matter of psychology should be the objective observable actions of organisms. The only things which could be objectively

West Visayas State University La Paz, Iloilo City GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 1st semester AY 2011-2012 analyzed and quantitatively measured are overt responses emitted by organisms. The thing to be studied in psychology was behavior, not consciousness. They maintained that behavior could be explained in terms of reflex, conditioned reflex and that mans conduct was not due to consciousness but to stimulus. Responses are elicited by stimuli hence behaviorism is also known as S-R Psychology. Watson, argued that all behavior is a result of conditioning, and that the environment shapes behavior by reinforcing specific habits. Method used: Observation 4. Gestalt Gestalt is a word translated as configuration, form, pattern or organization. Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler Purpose of Study: Its fundamental principle states that The whole is more than the sum of all its parts. Interested primarily in perception and they believed that perceptual experiences depend on the patterns formed by stimuli and on the organization of experience. They believed that there are experiences that cannot be broken down into separate elements. We tend to perceive a whole configuration first, then its separate elements. They maintained that some things have to be experienced as wholes that they cannot be broken down further. Psychology should study and determine the whole or over-all pattern of behavior or experienced or perception of organized configuration than the specified elements that made it up. The importance of unity of behavior and consequently were convinced tat the segmental or fragmental study of small elements of behavior could never prove enlightening. Example: A song is recognized by learning its melody, not by learning a succession of individual notes.

5. Psychoanalysis (1900) Leader: Sigmund Freud Followers: Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Karen Horney Purposes of Study:

West Visayas State University La Paz, Iloilo City GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 1st semester AY 2011-2012 Emphasized the inner dynamics of unconscious motives Freud asserted that the sex urges in the unconscious constitute the main human drive. This is known as the libido theory. Many human desires are directed and complicated by unconscious motives which we are not directly aware of because they lie in the substrata of our consciousness but which are nevertheless powerful drives that may dominate our lives. Basic to Freuds theory is the conception that the unacceptable (forbidden, punished} wishes/desires of childhood principally libidinal (sexual) are repressed in our consciousness or get driven out of awareness. Repressed drives press to find expression in dreams, slips of speech, and in unconscious mannerisms. They are the reasons for many of our inner conflicts in life. Repression a defense mechanism in which certain painful thoughts or feelings are unconsciously withdrawn from awareness; the removal or denial from consciousness of thoughts or memories that are anxiety producing. Methods Used: Dream Analysis, Clinical Investigation, Free Association Free Association a method in which the patient learns to discuss embarrassing or painful thoughts simply by reporting whatever comes to mind; letting the patient freely associate on his thoughts and experiences, and with the help of the psychiatrist, analyze that causes of his difficulty. The disturbed subject may find catharsis (release, cleansing thru verbal expressions). Between 1911-1912 Freud and his adherents, Carl Jung and Alfred Adler had a split in their ideas and theories.

Carl Jung regarded personality as the strongest force in determining

behavior- denying Freuds libido theory. To Jung, men and women are either extroverts or introverts, and his school is sometimes called the Analytical School. Alfred Adler believed that the strongest human urge is not sexual emotion, but the unconscious attempts of the individual to overcome the feeling of inferiority. The theory is known as Individualism. 6. Purposivism (Hormic Psychology) (1915) William McDougall Purpose of the Study: Stressed that behavior cannot be understood adequately without understanding his goals.. that man is dynamic, striving, purposeful, and creative. Hence, mans behavior cannot be adequately understood without considering his goals. According to McDougall, the secretion of ones hormones is responsible for the motive force that propels one to strive towards the attainment of ones goals. Placed an importance on hormones in life, it was called Hormic Psychology. 7. Scholasticism St. Thomas Aquinas. Believes on the dual nature of man with body and mind/soul. It must developed a sound mind and a sound body, a sound mind in a sound body.

West Visayas State University La Paz, Iloilo City GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 1st semester AY 2011-2012

Perspectives of Psychology An approach, a way of looking at a topic When the different schools strengthened their position, the different perspectives developed Ideas about the nature of humanity, nature of science and the topics and methods that psychologists should emphasize

1. Biopsychological Perspective Combines physiology, especially physiology of the brain and psychology attempts to relate overt behavior to electrical and chemical events taking place inside the body Th e underlying assumption of biopsychology is that for every behavior, feeling and thought, there is a corresponding physical event that takes place in the brain The goal of biopsychology is to understand the relationship between these two realms Neurological processes that underlie behavior and mental processes Question asked: What changes occur in the brain during learning? What happens to the chemistry of the brain in mental illness? What happens in the brain when a person commits a violent act? Hippocrates interest in the relationship between the brain on one hand and behavior and consciousness on the other Biopsychologists operate on the brain in order to change behavior. They also study the changes that occur in the brain during certain behaviors. Roger Sperry Split Brain Theory James Olds and Roger Sperry theorized that much of human and animal behavior can be explained in terms of bodily structure and biochemical processes Biopsychologists found that different patterns of electrical activity occur during relaxation, sleep, and waking To be sure, we are a long way from a complete understanding of the relationship of the brain to human behavior and mental processes.

West Visayas State University La Paz, Iloilo City GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 1st semester AY 2011-2012 Nevertheless, the psychological perspective holds great promise for understanding behavior and perhaps improving the human condition. Modern brain scientists bow know that the left side of the brain is verbal and rational brain. It thinks serially and reduces thoughts to numbers, letters and words. It deals with language and helps analyze information given to the brain. The right side of the brain deals with visual activities and plays a role in putting things together. It is the nonverbal and intuitive brain. It thinks in patterns or pictures (the whole) and does not comprehend details, whether numbers, letters or words. Ex. The right hemisphere sees a house but the left hemisphere says Its Johns house. Brain Image Techniques: MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging PET Position Emission Tomography CT Computer Tomography

2. Psychodynamic Perspective Its underlying assumption is that unconscious forces are important influences on behavior It stems from the work of Freud and his followers called Neo-Freudian who consider how human behavior drives are modified by the demands of reality and moral restrictions Freuds ideas are consistent with philosophical viewpoints that see human beings as irrational and motivated by biological drives, not all of which are noble His central assumptions were that human beings were born with unconscious drives that seek some kind of outlet or expression from the very start Its important idea is that repressed behavior will be manifested indirectly; socially unacceptable behavior were sublimated, that is channeled into some kind of approved or even highly praised behavior Dreams, slips in speech, memory and mannerisms may indirectly express repressed drives Psychological disorders are treated by making the patient aware of his unconscious feelings. In this way, patients would understand themselves better and would be free to choose effective responses to the world they face.

West Visayas State University La Paz, Iloilo City GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 1st semester AY 2011-2012 This perspective gave rise to psychoanalysis approach to therapy, in which free association and dream analysis play an important role.

3. Behavioral Perspective Its key assumption is that if psychology is to be a science, it must study only that which is observable behavior Its roots can be traced back to the work of Ivan Pavlov. Thorndike proposed the laws of effect which holds that when a behavior is followed by satisfaction, it is stamped out BF Skinner emphasized that consequences of behavior, reward or punishment, are critical in determining future behavior John B. Watson launched behaviorism, a philosophy of psychological study which holds that only observable behavior is the proper subject for psychological inverstigation.

4. Humanistic Perspective It developed as reaction to the psychoanalysis and behaviorists. Its argument is that the two perspectives have theoretical elegance and impressive explanatory power, but that the person seems to get lost. Individuals are dissected into conditioned responses and on unconscious drives while the whole human being his feelings, experiences, needs and problems seems to be pushed drive. It emphasizes the whole person and the importance of the whole persons subjective experience Its central aspect is need for self-actualization It emphasizes the fact that people can choose, and if society gives them more freedom, people will gladly and ably take responsibility for their own lives and make the best of them It assumes that there is goodness in all human beings; the structure of society, its pressures and restrictions accounts for some people being aggressive The two important figures in Humanistic Psychology are A. Maslow and C. Rogers According to them, the reasons why so many people are aggressive, frightened, passive, and dissatisfied much of the time is that of the structure of the society According to this theory, all human beings are basically decent and good. They are troubled because they have not developed in a nurturing and supportive environment. Consequently, people need help in discovering themselves and in starting on the path toward self-actualization. Humanistic psychologists are active in the encounter group movement. Encounter group is a form of interaction that emphasizes becoming aware of

West Visayas State University La Paz, Iloilo City GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 1st semester AY 2011-2012 ones inner feelings and experience, taking responsibility for ones life, and pursuing life actively and productively According to humanistic psychologists, honest communication and the sharing of feelings and experiences in encounter groups facilitates the selfactualizing tendencies within each of us. Abraham Maslow is known for his comprehensive hierarchical theory of maturation. This theory emphasizes that basic motives such as the need for food, water, safety and affection must be satisfied before people can develop their potentials. Carl Rogers has written extensively about how people can become themselves and how they can relate to others in helpful and communicative ways. Human nature is naturally positive, creative, and growth seeking.

5. Cognitive Perspective It refers to the way we process or transform information about the world around us Cognition includes the mental processes of thinking, attending, remembering and the like Cognitive psychologists want to know how we organize, remember and understand everything we experience It views human being as extremely active processors of information Cognitive psychologists frequently create small experimental tasks that allows them to determine how past experiences influences the way people think Cognitive psychology has been applied to helping people overcome psychological problems Rational emotive therapy Sometimes people have irrational beliefs which adversely affect their entire views of themselves and their relations with others. Cognitive therapies emphasize changing irrational beliefs so that people can achieve greater selfacceptance and improved interpersonal functioning.

West Visayas State University La Paz, Iloilo City GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 1st semester AY 2011-2012

METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 1. Introspection a method of mental self-analysis wherein the psychologist studies himself, records his feelings and experiences, analyzes these and later interprets them. It was introduced by St. Augustine. 2. Observation the most widely used method in the study of behavior. Kinds of Observation a. Uncontrolled or Informal Observation it does not follow any particular scope of behavior. It is casual, the psychologist is free to observe any activity that arises without formally recording such behavior. b. Naturalistic Observation also called Field Study Method. Subjects are observed in their natural environments. The observer does not attempt to interfere with the natural behavior of the subjects. c. Controlled or Formal Observation it follows certain requirements or specifications delimit the activity of the observer. 3. Life-History Method it is the extensive study of individuals by tracing the development of a particular form of behavior. Three basic forms of life history method: a. Daybook method sometimes called the diary of development. It is careful recording of day to day activities. Used in child study and development. b. Clinical method the extensive study of all or part of the life history of the individual. It contains information concerning emotional and personality adjustments of a person, also called case-history method. All possible data are gathered from the individual, the parents and other s who knew the person. c. Biographical method is the analysis of the records of peoples lives as written by themselves and/or others. 4. Survey Method or Group Method it uses data obtained from respondents through written questionnaires or interviews. The respondents are chosen so as to constitute a representative sample. This method is used in obtaining norms, surveys or opinion polls. 5. Correlation a statistical technique devised by Sir Francis Galton, is the method psychologists use to see if two variables are associated or related in some way. 6. Statistics or Statistical Method it deals with the collecting and handling of numerical data and making inferences from such data. A knowledge of methods of statistics is needed for understanding the tests utilized to appraise individuality, as in intelligence tests, personality tests and other kinds of appraisal devises.

West Visayas State University La Paz, Iloilo City GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 1st semester AY 2011-2012 7. Experimental Method it is the study of behavior inside the laboratory under controlled conditions. It involves variables which can be measured quantitatively. Variables may be either independent or dependent.