TRANSCEND Pacific/Oceania: a philosophy and network for peace by peaceful means Tim Bryar & Lynda-ann Blanchard Centre

for Peace and Conflict Studies, University of Sydney, Australia Abstract: Conflict in the Pacific/Oceania region is complex, with multiple fault lines present that reflect ongoing structural and cultural violence, including social and economic class, gender, and generational issues that marginalize youth. Approaches to dealing with conflict are many and varied. This article briefly discusses one approach to dealing with conflict - the TRANSCEND approach to peaceful conflict transformation (Galtung 1999) - and how it may strengthen non-violent conflict transformation across the region. TRANSCEND is at once a philosophy of peace and one way of enacting peace. As a philosophy, TRANSCEND is an approach to transforming conflicts in a nonviolent way. As a way of enacting peace, TRANSCEND is a peace and development network for conflict transformation by peaceful means. The paper concludes with some possible starting points for a TRANSCEND peace and development network in the Pacific/Oceania region.

Introduction In mid-2009 we were invited to initiate the coordination of the Pacific/Oceania arm of the TRANSCEND Peace and Development Network. Through our studies in peace and conflict we had learned about the practice of the international TRANSCEND network and the theories of its director renowned peace scholar Johan Galtung and were immediately engaged by the idea. At about the same time, Mai TV in Fiji aired a story that highlighted the plight of a group of protestors at the Vatakaula Goldmine in Fiji, who had been protesting for almost twenty years against discriminatory work conditions and land tenure issues related to the mine. Some research questions began to emerge, including what does the fabric of peaceful conflict transformation in the Pacific/Oceania region look like? In what ways can civil society be supported in their efforts to wage nonviolent struggle against direct, indirect and structural violence in the region? More specifically, how might a regional network fluent in TRANSCENDs approach to conflict resolution with its pillars of research/advocacy, education/ training (grassroots) and media/dissemination, support the peaceful transformation of conflicts? This paper seeks to frame a research project that investigates the philosophy, language and practice of nonviolence affecting positive peace in the Pacific/Oceania region. In particular, the paper questions the role that the TRANSCEND method may have in helping to create a culture of peaceful conflict transformation and support nonviolent action in the region. Building positive peace in the Pacific/Oceania region presents significant challenges. Approaches to peacebuilding need to consider not only how to address the complexities of conflicts, including traditional and emerging power structures and the impact of the transition into the globalised world, but also the

potential negative impacts that some approaches may have on the existing conflict fault-lines.

Conflict in the Pacific/Oceania The Pacific/Oceania region (see Appendix 1) is a vast geographical, and often geopolitical, region consisting of great cultural diversity. The region can be defined in a number of ways, however most definitions include Australia, New Zealand and the various Pacific Island nations (United Nations Statistics Division 2010). The region has experienced significant violent conflict in its recent history, such as during World War II when many of the islands provided a battleground between Japanese and US forces. Since World War II the region has continued to hold strategic value,

particularly for regional powers. For example, the US is currently negotiating the relocation of marines from its bases in Japan to its military bases in Guam (Natividad & Kirk 2010). Significant regional histories of violent colonisation and new forms of post-colonial violence for example through economic arrangements and mining operations have underpinned ongoing conflicts, such as in Papua New Guinea where recent protests over a proposed gas pipeline have turned violent (The Australian 2010). Transitions into and out of colonialism and into the globalised political economy have often exacerbated existing fault-lines, and created new ones located in the struggle between traditional and newly inherited cultural values. For example, some Fijians complain about their chiefs not because they want to abolish traditional forms of authority, but because they see some chiefs as selfishly taking advantage of traditional authority to further their own economic and political interests in newly emerging
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political economies (Finin & Wesley-Smith 2001). Such transitions present significant challenges to self-determination, land, economic and social rights and security in the region. Issues faced by the Chamorro in Guam and communities in the Marshall Islands as a result of US militarization of the region are prominent examples, as are self-determination issues for indigenous nations in Australia, West Papua, New Caledonia, and French Polynesia (for example see MacClellan 2005; Middleton 2009; Natividad & Kirk 2010; Ondawame 2010; Radio Australia 2010; Yamada 2004). There is research to suggest traditional cultures in the Pacific/Oceania region are rich with strategies for resolving conflict. Barnes (2002: 345) states that: Indigenous Polynesian cultural themes and their recent evolution are connected to the development of power and culturally appropriate tools to address the long-standing conflicts between indigenous peoples and modern government. Clements et al (2007) suggest it is beneficial to view the Pacific/ Pacific/Oceania region in terms of hybrid political orders where western style governments operate in parallel with traditional forms of governance. According to Clements et al (2007) recognizing the hybridity of political orders should be the starting point for any endeavours aimed at conflict prevention, security and development in the region. Similarly, in his activist-academic work, Ramesh (2010) proposes a model for building institutional structures in Fiji that promote enhanced inter-group contact and as a result, aid in the evolution of inter-group consensus and cooperation. Different approaches to conflict resolution include various theoretical underpinnings such as interest/needs based (see Burton 1990), power based (see Helvey 2004),
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rights-based (see Bhatia et al 2000) and development based approaches (see Sen 1999). Additionally, nonviolent practice in the Pacific/Oceania region includes a vast array of traditional approaches that stem from different cultural roots (Barnes 2002). Such diversity necessarily produces advantages and disadvantages for affecting positive peace in the region (see Appendix 2). For example, Barnett (2008: 82) suggests that Sens (1999) approach to development can be used to develop a theory of peace as freedom. In contrast, Sandbrook (2000) raises several key questions that have implications for how Sens approach can support the social, economic and political development of peace. Sandbrook asks [w]ill growth through market exchange alone vanquish mass poverty, or will its elimination require a concerted attack upon power structures protecting the privileged? (Sanbrook, 2000: 1079). This question highlights some of the complexities and overlapping dimensions to conflict and development in the Pacific/Oceania region. An approach which favours neoliberal politics and economics may be in conflict with traditional structures, systems and relations and may in fact further exacerbate already existing fault-lines such as economic or social inequalities. A social impact assessment conducted by the Pacific Network on Globalisation found that the policy and structural changes demanded by further capitalist reforms (e.g. free trade agreements) risk potentially long-term and irreversible social transformation impacts and social conflict (PANG 2008: 11). Such negative impacts are likely to have even greater consequences on the rights and freedoms of vulnerable groups in the Pacific, including women (Harawira 2001). The case of Timor Leste provides a sobering case of the challenges of peace and development. An estimated US$5,200 million has been spent in aid for East Timor,

one of the highest amounts per capita spent anywhere in the world.1 In spite of this, East Timor continues to be one of the least developed nations and security concerns continue to be an issue. While projects run by different organizations and sectors may affect some East Timorese citizens, the cumulative effect is not dramatically improving the quality of life in East Timor nor contributing to the sense of peaceful state-building. East Timorese President, Jose Ramos-Horta notes that: I dont see this money, the people in the villages dont see it, where this money was spent Some 3,000 studies and reports have been done on East Timor. We have been psychoanalysed from every angle If that money was really used for capacity-building in the proper way, every Timorese would have a PhD by now (Ramos-Horta 2009). Thus, approaches to peacebuilding in the region need to consider not only how to address the complexities of conflicts, including traditional and emerging power structures and the impact of the transition into the globalised world, but also the potential negative impacts that some approaches may have on the existing conflict fault-lines and building sustainable peace. Peace in the Pacific/Oceania There are several initiatives in the Pacific/Oceania region that seek to tap into the peace potential within local communities and cultures. Peaceful Dialogues Over West Paupa is a nongovernmental project which has been ongoing for more than ten years (Ondawame & Rees 2006). This project seeks to promote peace and human rights for the people of West Papua and to encourage dialogue as a conflict resolution strategy, as a viable alternative to escalating violent conflict. The project aims to establish relevant links with concerned NGOs, academics and parliamentarians in
1

This figure is from a briefing paper distributed by Lao Hamutuk, Timor-Leste Institute for Development Monitoring and Analysis in August 2009. See La'o Hamutuk. (2009). 'How Much Money Have International Donors Spent on and in East Timor?'

Australia, West Papua, Indonesia and the pacific region. The resulting networks serve as a conduit for the dissemination of public information and as a key source of support for conflict resolution. Furthermore, the project undertakes research and produces publications to raise public awareness of the violent conflict between West Papua and Indonesia, with particular reference to the human rights implications and the threat to the stability of the South Pacific region (Elmslie et al 2010; Elmslie et al 2007; Wing & King 2005). This project aims to put in place concrete strategies to achieve the goal of peaceful dialogue between Indonesia and West Papua. These strategies consist of strengthening networks by addressing the information deficit on acknowledging threats to peace with justice (Rees 2003: 134-152) in West Papua through research, public awareness campaigns, and promoting education on conflict resolution. The Strictly Samoan Project is a community based project devised in 2008 in response to the disproportionately high incidence of youth crime and family/community violence occuring in the Samoan communities of outer western Sydney2. It included five visual art and social history exhibitions and a series of public events including traditional tattooing demonstrations, a Pacific artists forum, a kids Samoan costume workshop and a Pacific market. The centre piece was the Samoa Mo Samoa: The Story of the Mau exhibition drawn from the Alexander Turnbull Photographic Archives of the New Zealand National Library and which chronicles Samoas remarkable Mau Movement for Independence. Samoa was the first Pacific nation to achieve independence and the Maus strategy of highly organized nonviolent resistance is a political model of great significance and an achievement of which older Samoans are most proud. This collection of historic 2 see www.penrithregionalgallery.org/strictly%20samoan.php
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photos records the leading figures and key events of Samoa's little known political history from colonial rule to independence.

Peace Tourism in Timor Leste is an action-research endeavour that aims to engage youth in nation-building policy development and delivery. East Timor currently faces severe youth security issues as a result of youth under-employment and undereducation. The proposed project seeks to address these issues by developing a model of peace through youth tourism. This model will be community-led and developed through cross-institutional engagements with the Ministry of Tourism, Trade and Industry (MTTI), Secretary of State for Youth and Sport (SSYS), youth leaders and local businesses in Dili. The overarching goal is to address conflict caused by youth under-education and unemployment in East Timor through the development of a youth peace tourism industry. The project goal is to build the capacity of relevant ministries of East Timor to conduct effective stakeholder consultations to develop an effective community-led policy on peace through youth tourism in East Timor. Progressing this initiative involves patience and strategies for long term dialogue. Additionally, although nation- and peace-building within East Timor has relied heavily on a centralized state, some leaders have built alternative visions for peace. For example, Ramos-Horta developed the concept of zones of peace as an ideal model for peacebuilding: Going back many years, Ive reflected on what is the best way to bring peace to an entire country and maybe elsewhere in other parts of the world. You build peace block by block, zone by zone.3 From this perspective, peace through tourism may address local efforts to realise human rights and social justice (Higgins-Desbiolles & Blanchard 2010).
3

As cited on the Zones of Peace website, see . 'Zones of Peace Org.' from http://www.zonesofpeace.org/.

The Woman to Woman initiative involved a series of dialogues to link human rights and social justice with citizenship responsibilities, as Indigenous and non-Indigenous women in Australia came together in cross-cultural dialogue (see Blanchard 2001). Part of the myriad of activities associated with the Decade for Aboriginal Reconciliation, the project promoted a dialogue on citizenship responsibilities. When the Parliament - with unanimous cross-party support - enacted the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation Act 1991, it hoped the legislation would usher in a decade of reform and social justice for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. A complementary goal spelt out in the preamble to the legislation was that the Commonwealth seek a national commitment to progressively address Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander disadvantage and aspirations during the decade leading to the centenary of Federation. This commitment related to land, housing, law and justice, cultural heritage, education, employment, health, infrastructure, economic development and other relevant social justice issues. The Woman to Woman project promoted the view, that in conversations with each other aspirations for citizenship ideals can be given political literacy and the voices of the most marginalised citizens can be heard. In countries such as Australia, Indigenous women are among the most vulnerable yet they live by citizenship ideals of reciprocity. This community development project highlighted that learning from these women about their experiences and understanding of community and caring, partnership and interdependence enhances the process of reconciliation and contributes to the attainment of peace with justice.

United Nations and governmental projects for conflict resolution and peace have also been prominent in the Pacific/Oceania region. The Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands (RAMSI)1998 to 2003 has recently been evaluated (McGovern 2010) raising the question of RAMSIs directive not to respond to social and economic needs and simply engage in a restore law and order policy. This research is presented within a peace with justice (Rees 2003) theoretical framework which evaluates the effectiveness of RAMSIs singular objective to end the ethnic violence as linked to negative peace (Galtung 1996:128). In contrast, positive peace is only possible if a government intervention policy and practice addresses the causes of conflict and violence, bringing about structural change in society according to the principles of human rights and social justice (Galtung, 1996:31-33). The UN Emergency Peace Service (UNEPS) project aims to provide an alternative approach to regional assistance initiatives that is inclusive of building positive peace (Herro and Rees 2006).

So how do we begin to unpick the weave of the complex fabric of conflict and its resolution in the Pacific/Oceania region in order to activate peace potential (Arai 2010) in the region? Let us begin with peace.

TRANSCEND: A network for peace, development and the environment Johan Galtung, is widely regarded as the father of academic peace studies. As a Norwegian mathematics professor in 1959, he founded the International Peace Research Institute in Oslo and in 1964, led the process to establish the first academic journal devoted to peace studies the Journal of Peace Research and assisted in the founding of the International Peace Research

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Association (IPRA). The ensuing body of work on the subject of peace studies includes authoring more than one hundred books. Johan Galtung is a theoretician and an empiricist. His seminal texts Peace By Peaceful Means (1996) and Searching for Peace (2002) insist on peace as a process and propose theories to enact nonviolent conflict resolution. Galtung (2004: viii); Conflicts do not exist at higher or lower levels. All conflicts are born equal and have the same right to be processed, with transcendence (going beyond) and transformation, so that the parties can live with them. Geopolitical conflicts are not on a higher level because statesmen and diplomats have high social status. All conflicts are equal: they are deeply serious for everybody concerned. Conflicts are not a game to be won or lost, but are often a struggle to survive, for well-being, freedom, identity -- all basic human needs. While Galtung's academic research promotes visions and formulas for peace, this theorizing informs a concrete and constructive peace practice (Galtung 2008). In 1993, he co-founded Transcend - A Peace, Development and Environment Network as an association to promote conflict transformation by peaceful means. The TRANSCEND method rejects conventional methods of conceiving conflict and conflict resolution (as exemplified by RAMSI above) as limiting. Furthermore, Galtung (1990:292) is specific about defining all forms of violence as avoidable insults to basic human needs and says that "[v]iolence is present when human beings are being influenced so that their actual somatic and mental realizations are below their potential realizations." (Galtung 1969:168). TRANSCEND a philosophy of peace and development For TRANSCEND, the formation of conflict can be described by Attitudes, Behaviours and Contradictions the ABC triangle (see Appendix 3) involving any
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According to

number of parties with any number of goals. While conflict can start at any corner of the direct-structural-cultural triangle (Galtung 1990:300), incompatible goals are considered to be the root of conflict, affected by attitudes and affecting behaviours. TRANSCEND philosophy and practice also recognises that underlying the visible attitudes, behaviours and contradictions are invisible attitudes, behaviours and contradictions (deep culture) that influence the surface level conflict. TRANSCEND also recognizes that underneath attitudes, behaviours and contradictions are deep attitudes, behaviours and contradictions that influence the surface level conflict. For example, deep culture that subordinates women and youth may influence attitudes towards violence against women and the exclusion of youth from decision making.

Conflict does not always lead to physical violence, and for TRANSCEND the emphasis is on harnessing the energy present in conflict for positive and peaceful outcomes rather than destructive ones. Preventing the physical violence associated with conflict includes an understanding of other forms of violence that can underlie conflicts. The TRANSCEND approach explains violence beyond simply direct physical violence. Rather, as well as violent actors, conflict includes structural violence (Galtung 1990:292-4) and cultural violence (Galtung 1990:296). Structural violence includes exploitation, repression, exclusion and alienation of groups of people, such as through colonialism, militarism, patriarchy and globalization (Galtung 1990). Structural violence kills millions of people each year, such as through starvation and ill-health and can be found in the political, economic, and cultural policies and power structures in society. For example, the high rates of tuberculosis on the island of Ebeye in the Marshall Islands may be understood from a structural violence perspective as stemming from US militarism (Yamada 2004). Cultural

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violence refers to collective attitudes, values and beliefs that justify structural and direct violence as being acceptable (Galtung 1990). Terms such as just war and manifest destiny, are some examples of cultural violence, and often traditional forms of hierarchical power in the Pacific are used as justification for exploiting newly developed political and economic systems, such as through land leasing arrangements (Finin & Wesley-Smith 2001). Understanding violence and conflict as outlined above clearly shows that creating peace requires more than simply ending physical violence (i.e. negative peace). Peace in the TRANSCEND approach is defined as the ability to handle conflict with empathy, nonviolence and creativity (Galtung, Jacobsen & Brand-Jacobsen 2002, p. xiv). Thus peace is defined more broadly than simply the absence of war and violence, to include the presence of positive elements within and between individuals and societies that increase the abilities of those individuals and societies to address conflict in order to make and sustain peace by peaceful means. Importantly, this perspective highlights the opportunities for conflict transformation that exist well before physical violence occurs, such as by addressing structural and cultural causes of violence. For example, the options available for building peace go far beyond orchestrating ceasefires and the signing of peace negotiations to include solutions such as more equitable economic development, the development of peace cultures through peace education and deepening democracy. Thus TRANSCEND suggests several key elements for creating peace (see appendix 3). Added to these are the dynamics of: Peacebuilding before the violence starts to create peaceful actors, structures and cultures; Peacekeeping and peace zones to minimize and stop violence; and Reconciliation to heal and rebuild societies

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following violent conflict. Together, this philosophy, language and practice becomes the TRANSCEND model for creating peace by peaceful means (Galtung & Jacobsen 2000).

TRANSCEND a network for peace and development The implementation and promotion of the TRANSCEND approach to conflict occurs via a network for peace and development. As a network, TRANSCEND consists of invited scholars and practitioners from around the world who are committed to working for peace by peaceful means. Following the model outlined above, TRANSCEND members in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Europe have been working across more than twenty program areas (Galtung, Jacobsen & BrandJacobsen 2002). The main activities undertaken by the network have focused on extensive dialogues as a conduit to stimulate creativity and locate suitable nonviolent outcomes and processes for transforming conflict (Galtung, Jacobsen & BrandJacobsen 2002). For example, TRANSCEND member Tatsyua Arai conducts annual dialogues with young professionals from China, Taiwan and the US to search for peaceful solutions to the conflict between China and Taiwan (Arai 2010). Dialogue is central to implementing the TRANSCEND approach to conflict. As Brand-Jacobsen and Jacobsen (2002:77) describe: dialogue is vital, inviting participation and insight from a variety of actors and drawing on their own knowledge and experience of conflict and conflict transformation rather than importing from abroad [and furthermore] [o]nly when dialogue, as the foundation on which peace is to be built, is brought together with peace theory and peace actiondoes an authentic peace process develop.

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Thus, TRASNCEND can be understood as peace praxis. The process that the development of a praxis for peace provides is the transformation of underlying structures and causes of violence through promoting a plurality of visions, voices and creative alternatives to violence (Brand-Jacobsen and Jacobsen 2002). Thus, it is in this context that the peace work done by TRANSCEND members revolves around four key activities: action (advocacy)/research, education/training (grassroots) and dissemination/media. Galtung, Jacobsen & Brand-Jacobsen (2002: xix) give the example of peace museums to explain how the four activities work together for implementing peace programs: Action is to stimulate or build a peace museum. Education/training would include participants who want to know more about peace museums or work in them. Dissemination would inform about existing and future peace museums. Research would explore artifacts to exhibit in peace museums and investigate the causes and consequences of peace museums. Other TRANSCEND Regional Networks are active in researching, disseminating, educating and implementing various programs in their regions. For example, TRANSCEND Nordic has been active in conducting conflict transformation dialogues, the outcomes of which are posted on the TRANSCEND Nordic website4. Additionally, TRANSCEND Nordic facilitates training in peaceful conflict transformation through its Sabona Peace and Schools program. In the Middle East, TRANSFORM (The Interdisciplinary Centre for Conflict Analysis, Political Development and World Society Research) is currently building a network of Facilitators for Peace in the Middle East and is developing a methodology for Social

4 See www.transcend-nordic.org
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Transformation in Conflict supported by the dissemination of TRANSCEND's approach of pursuing peace by peaceful means (TRANSCEND 2010). Pacific/Oceania TRANSCEND In summary, TRASNCEND is a way of understanding peace, conflict and development and a strategy for creating a more peaceful world. Through linking academics and practitioners working across programs and regions reinforces peace activities and strengthens opportunities for peace by peaceful means by unlocking and enhancing the peace potential within people, communities and society. Many civil society peacebuilding activities are already taking place in the region addressing the complexities of conflict by employing the strategies of action/research,

media/dissemination and education/training. Activities aimed at building peace in the region are targeting a variety of themes, including: human rights, self-determination and democracy (such as Peaceful Dialogues Over West Papua Project); women, peace and human security (via peace journalism actions such as FemLINK Pacific); youth and generational conflict (such Peace Tourism in Timor); non-military approaches to security (such as UNEPS) and war abolition (such as the Pacific Concerns Resource Centre).

It is proposed that a TRANSCEND Pacific/Oceania network can further strengthen such activities by providing a guiding framework and a means for peaceful conflict transformation in the region. A proposed starting point for a Pacific/Oceania

TRANSCEND is to establish an online network of databases about conflict and its resolution across the region. The aim of establishing such a network would be to connect and reflect in order to strengthen a philosophy, language and practice of

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peace by peaceful means in the Pacific region. As Galtung, Jacobsen and BrandJacobsen (2002:xi) note: Peace is a revolutionary idea; peace by peaceful means defines that revolution as nonviolent. That revolution is taking place all the time; our job is to expand it in scope and domain. Building positive peace in the Pacific/Oceania region requires attention to structural and cultural violence that are present both between and within countries in the region. The TRANSCEND approach to conflict and its transformation provides one philosophy for understanding peace in the region as well as a strategy for promoting equitable social, economic and political development. The tasks required for peace by peaceful means are many. Developing a network (of databases) to share tasks and experiences; evaluations and reflections; histories and innovations; and to reflect on processes and practices is a staring point. In this way we can bank our knowledge, pool our resources and create our regional literacy about what it means to achieve peace by peaceful means.

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Appendix 1 : Map of the Pacific-Pacific/Oceania Region

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Appendix 2 : Applying diverse theories to conflict and its resolution in the Pacific/Oceania Region Approach Interest/Needs-based Power Based Theorists Burton Galtung Lederach Foucault Helvey Sharp Rees Examples Clements et al. hybridity of governance structures. Vatukoula Goldmine action (Fiji). Key Issues Assumes compatibility of interests is possible and desirable. Violent government responses; conflicts with traditional structures and relations; lack of knowledge, financial and human resources. Inadequately recognizes power relations; often dominated by elite interests and regional powers (eg, Australia, corporate interests); dominated by security and economic sectors. Requires complex legal systems; international laws may not be recognized by traditional societies; Solutions are determined by outside third parties. Often do not address structural and cultural violence.

Development Based

Sen Barnett

AusAID NZAID UNDP

Rights Based

Bhatia et al Parlevliet

Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Solomon Islands); Land rights commissions.

Traditional Based

Barnes Traditional elders and societies

Forgiveness ceremonies; He Au Papa 'olelo(Hawaii); Waitangi Tribunal (New Zealand).

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Appendix 3: ABC Conflict

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