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GRAMMAR, MEANING & CONCISION: What is that you have to look for?

1. GRAMMAR: used should be correct (Various topics on grammar covered later)


2. MEANING: chosen sentence should present the authors intent in clearly & un-ambiguously

Meaning Errors: Choice of words e.g. Economic (monetary consideration) v/s economical (efficient, thrifty) ; though quiet close could alter the meaning Important cousin words Native of (person from) vs Native to (species that originated in) Such as (for instance) vs like (similar to) Must (absolute necessary) vs should (morally obligatory) Cost to (cost to X what he has to pay) vs cost of (how much somebody has to pay) IN GMAT should means Morally Obligatory and not likelihood Meaning Errors: Place your words Be careful of the position words; placement of words could change the meaning! Only the ministers vote on Monday vs The ministers vote ONLY on Monday English normally puts subjects in front of verbs Awkward: A referendum is a public vote through which is passed a law or other proposal Better: A referendum is a public vote through which a law or other proposal is passed Meaning Errors: Match your words Do the subject and the verb agree? Do they make sense together? (Subject-Verb Agreement covered later)

3. CONCISION: Stay economical. Choose less wordy and concise answer; if two answer choices are correct grammatically and in their meaning, choose the one thats less wordy. In GMAT Brevity is preferred Avoid Redundancy: If the word doesnt add to the meaning remove it. Wordy: they have difference over the way in which the company should proceed ahead Better: The differ over how company should proceed ahead

SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT NOTE: First things when you see a subject check if the verb and subject make sense together.

1. Look For Subject & Verb; Make sure that the sentence has both a subject and a working verb
Wrong: The electron named in 1894. Right: The electron WAS NAMED in 1894.

2. Spot the Fragment: A sentence starting with a connecting word (Because / which) and not containing
main clause (clause: a sentence that stands alone with its own subject and a verb) Because / Which are subordinators; they turn clauses they are attached to into Subordinate Clause (i.e. cannot stand by themselves) 3. Make sure the subject and verb make sense together. Wrong: The development of a hydrogen car will be able to travel hundreds of miles without refueling. Right: Once developed, a hydrogen car will be able to travel . . .

4. Eliminate the Middle men (i.e. far too many words in middle of subject & verb) and skip the warm-up (i.e
extra words and context in front of the subject)

Prepositional Phrases: Group of words headed by a preposition e.g. of mice, to the store, with her. You must eliminate / skip them when you find in a sentence. E.g. Near Munich, the houses of the road to Frankfurt is / Are gorgeous A noun in prepositional phrase cannot be subject of the sentence In the waning days of the emperors life, the conquest of new lands on the borders of the empire was / were considered vital. (note: new lands is a noun in a prepositional phrase) Prepositional Phrase = Preposition + noun Phrase = Preposition + (Determiner + noun) e.g. to the store = to (preposition) + the (determiner) + store (noun) Subordinate Clause Words because, where, which, who, that, when turn clauses they are attached to into Subordinate Clause i.e. cannot stand by themselves Like prepositional phrases, many subordinate clause attach themselves to the main clause and modify other parts of sentence or act like big adjectives, big adverbs or big nouns Example: When the auditors left, the executive who had been interviewed was /were glad Other Modifiers (Discussed in Detail later...) Look for ing form (Present Participle) and ed & -en form (Past participle) Commas are helpful sign too; since they separate a modifier from rest of the sentence Limping, the horse once considered one of the favorites was / were taken away

5. Subject and verb must agreement in number (i.e., singular vs. plural)

General Rule: Confusing subjects are usually singular. Subjects joined by AND become compound i.e. Plural Joe AND his friends ARE going to the beach. Be wary of Of Phrases (often singular) Wrong: The price of oil and other fuel components have risen. Right: The price of oil and other fuel components has risen.

Note: Despite And it is singular

Subjects joined by an ADDITIVE PHRASE such as along with, in addition to, as well as etc do not change verb to plural i.e. singular stays; do not make them compound. Remember, Only the word AND can change singular > plural The young bride, as well as her husband, were was amazed at the generosity of the guests Collective Nouns: Almost always singular Examples: Agency, army, audience, class, baggage, equipment, fleet, furniture. Majority, Minority use Plural verbs: If you want to indicate the many parts of the totality or when u want to show diff members are not united e.g. The majority of students in the class are hard workers use singular verbs: If you want to the "totality itself or when diff members are united e.g. This class of twenty students is the best in school Indefinites Pronouns (do not refer to anything in specific) ending with one, -body, -things, are considered singular. Such as anyone, anybody, no body, everything, something. Q. If anyone at InterCom Financial Advisers would have anticipated, or even suspected, the impending sale of the Koniko kelp processing plant, they would have advised owners of Koniko stock to unload all shares immediately. (A) If anyone at InterCom Financial Advisers would have anticipated (B) Had anyone at InterCom Financial Advisers anticipated (C) If any people at InterCom Financial Advisers would have anticipated (D) If any people at InterCom Financial Advisers had anticipated (E) If anybody at InterCom Financial Advisers anticipated

There are 6 EXECPTIONS to the above rule; SANAMM Some, Any, None, All, More, Most: These can be either singular or plural depending on the context. AS AGAINST SAID EARLIER, in case of SANAMM we should not skip the middle men (prepositional phrase) but refer to the prepositional phrase and look at the noun object of the of phrase to determine the number of subject Some of the money was or documents were stolen Some of the documents were stolen from the bank But NONE even with a plural subject can take singular verb !!

Subjects preceded by EACH or EVERY: Singular Every dog and cat has paws. Note: Despite And it is singular Each of these t-shirts is dirty But, No effect if EACH or Every follow the subject: They each are great tennis players. (they is the subject) . . . Either . . . Or, Neither . . . Nor: the verb agrees to the nearest noun / subject note: if either or neither is alone in a sentence, then they take only singular verb Quantity Words & Phrases

THE number of (singular/definite) v/s A number of (plural/indefinite) E.g. The number of hardworking students in this class is quite large E.g. A number of students in this class are hard workers Note; a number of is an idiomatic expression and is equivalent to some or many (of exception group of indefinite pronouns i.e. SANAMM, that take singular or plural depending on the context). Thus to determine the number of the subject we must refer to the subject in of prepositional phrase i.e. in above example students In addition to (1) SANAMM and (2) idioms such as a number of, we also have (3) fractions and percents as an exception to the rule of ignoring prepositional phrase E.g.: Half of the pie is blueberry and half of the slices are already gone (note: we have chosen noun in the of preposition phrase as the subjects - pie and slices - and then determined the number.

Subject Phrases and Clauses are singular: When subject is an ing phrase or a whole clause then subject is always singular. Having good friends is a wonderful thing. Whatever they want to do is fine with me. Caution People: Plural; Person: singular; Public: singular any people - plural Woman (singular) vs Women (Plural), Wife (singular) vs Wives (Plural) This / That (singular) vs These / Those (plural) TIP #1: If anything before the verb can be subject, then that thing will be the subject This advice mostly applies to sentences like this one: "A is/are B". specifically: In the sentence "noun1 is/are noun2", noun1 is the subject. In the sentence "noun2 is/are noun1", noun2 is the subject. for instance: The hardest part of the test was the last three questions; "hardest part" is the subject. The last 3 questions were the hardest part of the test; "last 3 questions" is the subject. TIP #2: If NOTHING in FRONT of the verb is eligible to be the subject, then its a Backward Construction E.g. On the table are two cell phones. "on the table is a prepositional phrase and therefore can't be the subject, so this is a backward construction. "Two cell phones" is the subject. E.g. Harder than anything else on the test were the last three questions; here "harder than anything on the test" contains no eligible subjects, so this is backward construction; "the last three questions" is the subject. Thus, when verb precedes the subject, FLIP the sentence to identify rights verb Wrong> There is a young man and an older woman at the bus stop FLIP> A young man and an older woman are at the bus stop Correct> There are a young man and an older woman at the bus stop

The period when the great painted caves at Lascaux and Altamira were occupied by Upper Paleolithic people has been established by carbon-14 dating, but what is much more difficult to determine are the reason for their decoration, the use to which primitive people put the caves, and the meaning of the magnificently depicted animals. sub after verb; is (v) the reason(Singular) 4

(A) has been established by carbon-14 dating, but what is much more difficult to determine are (B) has been established by carbon-14 dating, but what is much more difficult to determine is (C) have been established by carbon-14 dating, but what is much more difficult to determine is (D) have been established by carbon-14 dating, but what is much more difficult to determine are (E) are established by carbon-14 dating, but that which is much more difficult to determine is
TIP #3: When in doubt think singular

S-V Agreement: ADVANCED: CONCISION Specific patterns of wordiness: Concision / wordiness is not a fuzzy subject. There are 7 concision patterns hinting what sorts of phrases are wordier then the other. Remember, an active verb is usually stronger & concise than an adjective or an action noun. V-A-N = Verb > Adjective (Adverb) > Noun / Noun Phrase

V-A-N Pattern #1: Prefer Verb over Action Noun Wordy: Her Decision (action noun) was to go Better: She Decided (verb) to go An Action noun, such as revolution or conception or decision, is a noun that expresses an action. Thus a short simple verb is stronger than a phrase with a relevant action noun V-A-N Pattern #2: Prefer That clause (with verbs) over series of phrases (with nouns) Wordy: the hypothesis about the composition of the universe as largely dark energy seems strange (long preposition phrases) Better: The hypothesis that the universe is largely composed of dark energy seems strange (that clause with a working verb) Idea Nouns, such as hypothesis, idea or suggestion, lend well to this pattern. the idea that. Since That clause contains verb, this pattern is same as VAN #1 i.e. Verb > noun (phrase) V-A-N Pattern #3: Prefer Verb to an adjective (with verb to be) Wordy: the signal is indicative of a problem (indicative = adjective, is = verb to be) Better: the signal indicates t a problem (indicates = verb) V-A-N Pattern #4: Prefer adjective over a noun (noun phrase) Wordy: I am of the conviction that they are right Better: I am convinced that they are right V-A-N Pattern #5: Prefer an Adverb to a prepositional phrase Prepositional Phrase = Preposition + noun Phrase = Preposition + (Determiner + noun) e.g. to the store = to (preposition) + the (determiner) + store (noun) Wordy: Oil prices have fallen to a considerable extent (To + a + considerable) Better: Oil prices have fallen considerably (adverb) Since, prepositional phrase contains noun this pattern is same as VAN #1 i.e. Verb > noun Concision Pattern #6a: Prefer an Adjective to an Adjective clause with be Wordy: Jim is a teacher who is admirable (sub-clause beginning with who + adjective) Better: Jim is an admirable teacher (admirable = adjective) Concision Pattern #6b: Prefer an Adjective to an noun clause with be Wordy: Jenny, who is a firefighter works here. (sub-clause beginning with who + noun) Better: Jenny, a fire fighter, works here (fire fighter = noun) Concision Pattern #7: Remove it is . . . . that . . . . Wordy: it is without fear that children should play Better: children should play without fear

Advanced: Concision: DO not make it too short; false concision is too short for its own good

Too Short Pattern #1: Prepositional Phrase When a noun is modified by a prepositional phrase, we can turn phrase into noun-adjective This process works best for of preposition A wall of stone A stone Wall of stone = Prepositional phrase and stone = noun Adjective . .. a sizable wolf population in the phrase "wolf population", wolf is actually an adjective, not a noun Noun Adjective: Noun placed in front of another noun and that functions like an adjective Exception #1: If preposition is not -of, avoid collapsing the prepositional phrase i.e. Keep the preposition phrase if required Too Short: I talked to the Boston Soldier (Boston = noun Adjective, but incorrect) Better: I talked to a soldier from Boston (from Boston = preposition phrase) Too Short: Aegean Sea Salt Better: Salt from Aegean Sea (not collapsed as it was not of prepositional phrase) Exception #2: do not collapse the -of preposition phrase if the First word is time period, quantity or measurement Too Short: Memorial Day Week Better: Week of Memorial Day Too Short: The Merger Year Better: The year of Merger Too Short: The Oxygen amount Better: The amount of oxygen

Too Short Pattern #2: Keep That of and those of Too Short: The Face I see in ads every day is a famous actor Better: The face I see in ads every day is that of a famous actor

Too Short Pattern #3: Keep That reporting verb

Reporting verbs announce, assert, believe, confess, demonstrate etc Reporting verbs various forms of be like, be certain, be sure, be convinced etc Reporting verbs take that; when you follow them with a clause (clause: a sentence that stands alone with its own subject and a verb. Clause that act as adjective are adjective clause and one that acts as a noun is noun clause) Too short: The study indicates the problem has vanished Better: the study indicates that the problem has vanished Exception: to this pattern is the verb say. Do not use that after say, said Wordy: People say that he is a nice man Better: People say he is a nice man

Good Example from OG based on above learnt rules: Despite the increasing number of women graduating from law school and passing bar examinations, the proportion of judges and partners at major law firms who are women have not risen to a comparable extent. (A) the proportion of judges and partners at major law firms who are women have not risen to a comparable extent (B) the proportion of women judges and partners at major law firms have not risen comparably (C) the proportion of judges and partners at major law firms who are women has not risen comparably (D) yet the proportion of women judges and partners at major law firms has not risen to a comparable extent (E) yet the proportion of judges and partners at major law firms who are women has not risen comparably

Correct answer is C: it follows rule VAN #5; preferring Adverb (comparably ) over prepositional phrase (to a comparable extent) Also, note that has is required instead of have, since proportion is singular. Lastly, we could have chosen option D; because it reduces the wordiness by changing noun clause (who are women) noun clause (Women Judge). But this option is wrong, because ts starts with yet with despite at beginning of sentence, yet is redundant

PARALLELISM NOTE: If you have identified that questions is about parallelism. Then first step should be to identify the MARKER. Well begin is half done LEARN TO SPOT PARALLEL!!! Comparable sentence parts must be structurally and logically similar i.e. they must be comparable elements; Anything in sentence can be made parallel to the similar parallel elements E.g. The employees were upset by the companys low pay, poor working conditions, and that they did not have enough outlets for their creativity Now, Low Pay and Poor working conditions are noun phrase (nouns: pay & conditions). But, that they did not have enough outlets for their creativity is a subordinate clause beginning with that, and not parallel to the other two noun phrases. SOLUTION: The employees were upset by the companys low pay, poor working conditions and shortage of outlets for employees creativity.

Marker Structure Marker And Both/And Or Either/Or Not/But Not Only/But Also Rather Than From/To Clause / clause Between / and Parallel Elements Element Nouns Adjectives Verbs Infinitives Participles Prepositional Phrases Subordinate Clauses

Structure X and Y. . . . X, Y and Z Both X and Y X or Y Either X or Y Not X but Y Not only X but also Y X rather than Y From X to Y That . . . that Between x and y

Example (Markers in Caps) I like BOTH cats AND dogs. The park was NEITHER accessible NOR affordable. I cleaned the basement AND washed the car. We would like NOT ONLY to hear your side of the story BUT ALSO to provide a response. I rock star left quickly, shunning his fans AND ducking into a car. Note: Present and past participle could also be parallel I left the money in the drawer RATHER THAN on the table. note: the preposition need NOT be same They contended that the committee was biased AND that it should be disbanded. note: parallel clauses SHOULD start with the same word

Verb Forms Some verbs or forms derived from verbs have more than two words; was opening, can lose, to increase. Its ok to split these expressions and make first word count for all the elements: They wanted to increase awareness and motivate purchases. (to for both subjects) The railroad can either lose more money or solve its problems. (can for both subjects) Caution: If to or can is after the marker then repeat it!! The railroad either can lose more money or can solve its problems.

Number Two Tells You What to Do Rule: In a series of 2+ elements, what you do on element #2 determines what you do with elements #3 and on. I like to swim, to run, AND to dance. (i.e. if to was mentioned before run then repeat it I like to swim, run, AND dance. Placement of the parallel marker Rule: Placement of the parallel marker may place a limitation on what words can be omitted from infinitive lists: Right: It is critical to suspend activities, notify investors AND say nothing. . . . The parallel marker AND appears after the first infinitive.

Wrong: It is critical EITHER to suspend activities OR notify investors. . . The parallel marker EITHER appears before the first infinitive. Right: It is critical EITHER to suspend activities OR to notify investors. (repeat to) Imp Example: Many house builders offer rent-to-buy programs that enable a family with insufficient savings for a conventional down payment to be able to move into a new housing and apply part of the rent to a purchase later. Correct: programs that enable a family with insufficient savings for a conventional down payment to move into a new housing and to apply. In the above case we cannot have just one to representing both move and apply. Thats because, to comes after the marker ENABLE. So it has to be; enable . . . .to move . . . to apply. Had to been before ENABLE then it would have been; to Enable. . . move ... apply

Parallel CLAUSES should start with the same word (parallelism super cedes concision). Wrong: I want to retire to a place WHERE I can relax AND THAT has low taxes. Right: I want to retire to a place where I can relax AND where the taxes are low. Wrong: A mastodon carcass, thawed only once AND which is still fresh, is on display. Right: A mastodon carcass, which has been thawed only once AND which is still fresh, is on display. Right: The students did poorly on the test more because they had not studied THAN because the material was difficult.

AND is most common parallel marker No right answer omits AND in a list just before the last item. GMAT always inserts comma (,) before the and in the lists of 3 or 4 items. However, If you join 2 clauses with AND you can put and optional comma before the AND; doing so is especially recommended when the clauses are long, independent or both. Steps to handle a tough sentence with long groups of words (clauses, prepositional phrases etc) that themselves contain lists? Step 1) Clear the hierarchy by repeating words and adding commas Step 2) Flip the lists so that the longest item is last, if possible

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Wrong: She argues that the agency acts with disregard for human life AND property AND reckless abandon AND it should therefore be shut down Correct: She argues that the agency acts with reckless abandon and with disregard for human life and property, AND that it should therefore be shut down

Parallelism should not just be in form but also in meaning Wrong; Upon being nominated, this politician represents a step forward in rural-urban relations in this country Correct; the nomination of this politician represents a step forward in the rural-urban relations in this country i.e. it is the nomination, that is the step forward and NOT the politician himself. Superficial Parallelism vs. Actual Parallelism Sometimes you need to subordinate certain elements. Do not assume that all verb forms in sentence must be parallel. AT times only the list of subordinate activities to the main activity must be parallel. Do not make the main activity parallel too. E.g. Rob applied himself in his new job, arriving early every day, skipping, lunch regularly, AND leaving late ever night. This sentence is correct, as all subordinate activities arriving, skipping, leaving are parallel. Wrong: One need not change applied to applying thinking it would make sentence parallel; this would be incorrect as it would give equal emphasis to all activities, instead of making last three activities as subordinate activities to the main activity. Wrong: Wild pandas roam the forests and eat bamboo all day long. Right: Wild pandas roam the forests eating bamboo all day long.

Watch Out for Linking Verbs - These Can Present Hard-to-See Comparisons Imp: Verbs are action words that describe what subject does, but there is another class called linking Verbs that describe what the subject is or what condition it is in If you can substitute am, is, or are and the sentence still sounds logical, you have a linking verb on your hands Linking Verbs in to be form: is, are, was, were, am, been, be, being Other linking verb: appear, represent, resemble, seem, smell, taste Trick: to check if word is linking verb, see if when replaced with is, am or are the meaning stays the same. Then its a linking verb Treat any Linking Verb as a PARALLEL MARKER and make subject and object parallel The bouquet of flower WAS a gift giving of love The nomination of this politician REPRESENTS a step forward in urban-rural relations in this country Even an article before verb can highlight parallel form e.g. Q. Many criminologists argue that a substantial increase in the number of police personnel "walking the beat" should lead to lowering rates of crime, as well as lowering fears about public safety, a surge in public confidence in the police, and a lessening of the economic burden of street crime. . . .Correction: a lowering of crime rates, along with fears about public safety

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Similarly, OG 12, SC 28, correct: the cultivation, the harvesting and the exploitation . . . dont try and change cultivation to cultivating in order to match with harvesting. Article the highlights each item as a vocation and is enough to create a parallel

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ADVANCED: PARALLEISM

1. DO NOT Make Concrete nouns parallel to Action nouns Concrete nouns refer to things, people, place (the classic definition of a noun) Action nouns refer to actions like eruption, nomination, change, growth. Action nouns can
also be in form of Gerund Phrase.

2. DO NOT Make Simple Gerunds Phrases parallel to Complex Gerund Phrases Gerund is form of a verb thats ends with ing & has a force of a noun and a verb E.g. I think of retiring soon from business.
Retiring is a verb, being part of the verb retire. It is also a noun, because it is object to the preposition of so ing word after preposition is gerund

Simple Gerunds Phrases: they are noun the outside and verb on the inside. e.g. Tracking satellites accurately is imp for the space agency Tracking is gerund i.e. verb + noun. Tracking satellites accurately is a gerund phrase i.e. the whole phrase acts like a long noun. Imp: The words in gerund phrase are arranged in a way as if they follow a verb. As in we could say, He is tracking satellites accurately. Is being the verb. Complex Gerund Phrases: Unlike simple gerund (that are mix of noun & verb), Complex Gerund are noun thorough and through. The ing form is fully made into noun, often preceded by (1) article a, an, the OR (2) adjective. Thus two forms are: Article + -ing + of prepositions Adjective + -ing + of prepositions E.g. the accurate tracking of satellites is imp for space agency Thus, Never make SIMPLE and COMPLEX GERUND PARALLEL Wrong: I enjoyed drinking the water AND the wine tasting (or the tasting of wine) Right: I enjoyed drinking the water and tasting the wine Drinking is Gerund and drinking the water is gerund phrase. Like explained above. The words in gerund phrase are arranged in a way as if they follow a verb. As in we could say, He is tasting the wine..

3. Complex Gerunds CAB BE made PARALLEL to Action Noun (and not to simple gerund
phrase)

Q. The rebels demanded the withdrawal of government forces from disputed regions, significant reductions in overall troop levels, raising the rebel flag on holidays, AND a general pardon . Answer: The rebels demanded the withdrawal of government forces from disputed regions, significant reductions in overall troop levels, the raising of the rebel flag on holidays, AND a general pardon . The + verb + -ing + of + noun i.e. complex Gerund made parallel to Action nouns the withdrawal of and the raising of are parallel to action noun reduction

4. Working verbs CAN BE made parallel to other working verbs

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Working Verb: A verb that could be the main verb of a grammatical sentence. A working verb shows tense, mood, and voice, as well as number and person in some cases. It is different from Verbals that are verb form used as an adjective, adverb, or nouns. E.g. the plant both exceeded output targets and ran more smoothly than ever

5. Infinitives CAN BE made parallel to other Infinitives Note: Infinitive, too has a force of noun and a verb (like Gerund) and is represented by to form. Be care full of position of to in reference to the Parallel Marker Wrong: It is critical to suspend activities, to notify investors AND say nothing Right: It is critical to suspend activities, to notify investors AND to say nothing Right: It is critical to suspend activities, notify investors AND say nothing
Right: It is critical EITHER to suspend activities OR to notify investors Right: It is critical to EITHER suspend activities OR notify investors

6. Adjectives CAN BE made parallel to other adjectives, present participles or past participles Adjective: is a word with a noun thats adds something for its meaning Participle is that form of verb that partakes role of both verb and an adjective i.e. is a verb and
adjective combined. E.g "A retired officer lives next door." or "She was killed by a falling tile." Retired is a verb, being part of the verb to retire. It is also an adjective, because it qualifies the noun 'officer'. Falling is a verb, since it is part of the verb to fall, but it is also an adjective in that it qualifies the noun 'tile'. Types of Participles 1) Present Participle (-ing form); for the action thats going on OR is in-complete We met the girl carrying a basket of flowers 2) Past Participle (-ed form); represents a completed action. Blinded by dust storm they fell into disorder 3) Perfect participle; represents an action as completed some past time Having rested, we continued our journey

Q. Scientists have recently discovered what could be the largest and oldest living organism on Earth, a giant fungus that is an interwoven filigree of mushrooms and rootlike tentacles spawned by a single fertilized spore some 10,300 years ago and extending for more than 33 acres in the soil of a Michigan forest. Extending (present participle) and parallel to spawned (past participle)

7. Clauses CAN BE made parallel to other clauses provided they start with the same word
E.g. They contended that the committee was biased AND that it should be disbanded. Wrong: A mastadon Carcass , thawed only once AND which is still fresh, is on display Right: A mastadon Carcass , which has been thawed only once and which is still fresh , is on display

Note: in case when making, two or more prepositional phrases parallel, the first word need not be the same. I left the money in the drawer RATHER THAN on the table

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PRONOUNS A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun, so that we do not have that noun elsewhere in the sentence. In GMAT-land, a pronoun must refer to an antecedent noun IN THE SENTENCE. Subje ct I you he she it we you they Obje ct me you him her it us you them Possessive pronoun mine yours his hers its ours yours theirs Possessive adjective my your his her its our your their

Pronoun Case First person singular Second person singular Third person singular: masculine Third person singular: feminine Third person singular: neutral First person plural Second person plural Third person plural

TYPES OF PRONOUNS / PRONOUN CASE:

Subject / Nominative Case - are used to replace the subject in the sentence. o You can identify the subject because it is the thing which is DOING THE ACTION He works at the store. She loves to swim. Object Case - replaces a noun when that noun is the object of the verb o It is having the ACTION DONE TO IT I am going to her party. (I am the one going; "her" does not have its own verb.) I told him the secret. (I am the one doing the telling; I just told the secret to "him" but the
"him" does not have its own verb.)

SUMMARY o When pronoun is being compared with subject we use subjective case. Alex is taller than I (am) My sister is taller than he. Alex loves Julia more than I (more than I love Julia). o When objects are compared use objective case pronouns Alex loves Julia more than me (Alex loves julia more than he loves me)
NUANANCE!! (not sure!!)

o The element of object can normally arrive only after the verb has been stated. Everybody except he came Everybody came except him

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In the first case, we have to say - everybody except HE came - because HE is part of the subject and is placed before the verb. In the second case, HIM comes after the verb and is the object of the verb and hence the object case him is rightly used.

Choosing Subject Case v/s Object Case

SUBJECT CASE o When the pronoun is being used as a SUBJECT, use Subject Case Jayden and I are playing tennis this afternoon. Jayden and she are playing tennis this afternoon. o Linking Verbs are followed by Subject Case It was he who represented the United Nations during the 1960s That must be she on the dock over there. o But, Than, As are followed by Subject Case No one could be as happy as I Peggy is smaller than I (am). they are taller than he (is) Whom were you expecting? Who else but he? OBJECT CASE o When pronoun is used as OBJECT: Direct Object: The policeman stopped Jayden and me Indirect Object: Wrong: Grandma left Jayden and I her rocking chair Ask yourself what pronoun form to use without adding the other person Grandma left me her rocking chair - and then, add the other person, without changing the form of pronoun - Grandma left Jayden and me her rocking chair. Object of Preposition: Grandma gave her rocking chair to Jayden and me about whom, of them (after prepositions) Except, No one but should be followed by Object case
NOTE:

When "I" is compounded with another subject, the "other person" or people get first position: Right: Jayden and I are playing. Wrong: I and Jayden are playing.

We, I, Our are the first person pronoun that do not have antecedent; because they are first person (the people speaking) The Deadly Five: Third Person Personal Pronouns: IT/ITS, THEY/THEM/THEIR (I2T3) The most common pronoun mistakes involve the 3rd person personal pronouns.

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Be especially wary of THEIR since it is often used in everyday speech to refer to singular subjects. Wrong: Whenever a student calls, take down THEIR information. Right: Whenever a student calls, take down HIS or HER information. Right: Whenever students call, take down THEIR information.

Relative Pronouns: relate a subordinate clause / relative clause to the rest of the sentence That, which, who, whom, whose, whichever, whoever, whomever Interrogative Pronouns: are used to ask questions. what, who, which, whom, whose note: whos only signifies contraction of who is and not possession

Demonstrative Pronouns: represent a thing or things: THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE. 1) You may use these pronouns as adjectives in front of nouns Nano-papers incorporate fibers that give THESE MATERIALS strength 2) Use "this" when something is nearby. Use "that" when something is a distance away. something is a distance away This book belongs to you. That dog is asleep. 3) You may use THAT /THOSE to indicate a NEW COPY or copies of the antecedent. The money spent by her parents is less than THAT spent by her kids Two Conditions: The new copy, with THAT / THOSE must agree in number with the antecedent: o Wrong: Her company is outperforming THOSE OF her competitors. o Right: Her company is outperforming THE COMPANIES OF her competitors. o Wrong: Our cat is cuter than those in the shelter o Right: Our cat is cuter than cats in the shelter

That & those indicating new copy must be modified i.e. to add description to indicate how new copy is diff from previous version 4) Contrast: Unlike, THAT or THOSE that indicate a New Copy, Other pronouns such as IT means the SAME ACTUAL THING: The money spent by her parents is more than IT was expected to be IMP NOTE:

This and these: should not be used in place of nouns. Use it, and them instead. Wrong: Her Products are unusual; many consider these unique Right: Her Products are unusual; many consider them unique That and those: do not use for nouns without modifying them Subject form of pronoun (i.e. he and not him) always comes after than or as. The man was always aware, sometimes proudly and sometimes resentfully, that he was a smalltown Midwesterner thrust into a world dominated by wealthier, better-educated, and more polished people than he.

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"They" or "it" should not be used without definite antecedents.

IMPORTANT RULES

1. The antecedent must exist and pronoun must refer to it: For a pronoun to be correct an antecedent
must exist and must be Working as a noun Wrong: Despite Beethovens traditional status as ladies man, he often dined out alone. Beethoven does not appear in this sentenceonly Beethovens traditional status Right: Despite his traditional status as a ladies man, Beethoven often dined out alone.

2. The antecedent & pronoun must make sense together: when you find an antecedent, always check that
it makes sense in place of a pronoun. Wrong: Although the term supercomputer may sound fanciful or exaggerated, IT is simply an extremely fast mainframe. Right: Although the term supercomputer may sound fanciful or exaggerated, IT simply REFERS TO an extremely fast mainframe.

3. The antecedent must be un-ambiguous: Every pronoun on GMAT must refer to one antecedent Wrong: Researchers claim to have developed new nano-papers incorporating tiny
cellulose fibres, which they allege give them the strength of cast iron. Right: Nano-papers incorporate fibers that give THESE MATERIALS strength. i.e., Nano-papers are a type of material.

4. The antecedent and pronoun must agree in Number: After spotting the antecedent you must ensure if
it agrees in Number with the pronoun Confronted by radical changes in production and distribution, modern Hollywood studios are attempting various experiments in an effort to retain ITS status as the primary arbiters of movie consumption. Change ITS to THEIRS WHO v/s WHOM

o If you find youve replaced who/whom with he, she, or they, then "who" is correct o If you find youve replaced who/whom with him, her, or them, then "whom" is correct TRICK: flip the sentence to check the answer. Ask who is subject? Me or I the king was me? flip me was the king (wrong) "the king was I flip I was the king (correct
The difference between who and whom is exactly the same as the difference between I and me, he and him, she and her, etc. Like whom, the pronoun him ends with m. When you're trying to decide whether to use who or whom, ask yourself if the answer to the question would be he or him. That's the trick: if you can answer the question being asked with him, then use whom, and it's easy to remember because they both end with m. For example, if you're trying to ask, "Who (or whom) do you love?" The answer would be "I love him." Him ends with an m, so you know to use whom. But if you are trying to ask, "Who (or whom) stepped on Squiggly?" the answer would be "He stepped on Squiggly." There's no m, so you know to use who. So that's the

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quick and dirty trick: if you can't remember that you use whom when you are referring to the object of the sentence, just remember that him equals whom. Who, like I, he, and she, is a subject - it is person performing the action of the verb. Whom, like me, him, and her, is an object - it is the person to/about/for whom the action is being done. Whom is also the correct choice after a preposition: with whom, one of whom AND NOT with who, one of who. Sometimes it helps to rewrite the sentence and/or replace who/whom with another pronoun so that you can see the relationships more clearly. This is who warned me > He warned me (not "him" warned me) Jack is the one who wants to go > He wants to go (not "him" wants to go) This is the man whom I told you about > I told you about him (not about "he") Lisa is the girl with whom I'm driving to Maine > I'm driving to Maine with her (not with "she") THAT vs WHICH The Position of comma That without , and which with , refers to noun immediately preceding it If there is comma before that or no comma before which then these could refer to anything. Which must directly come directly after comma (,) and it must refer to pronoun just before comma, except when it follows a preposition, as in the phrase in which. refer below, relative pronouns; where. . . The Tangible & Intangible That is for tangible things e.g. fan. Which is for intangible things e.g. feeling. If all options in sentence correction are same and choice is between that and which than make a choice based on tangible & in tangible. The Specific (Restrictive) & non-specific (Non-Restrictive) Imp Link: http://www.sentencecorrection.com/forums/index.php?showtopic=150 That is more specific eg that red car ,that big building Information after That is critical for sentence completeness. Without that information sentence is incomplete. Which; It is general e.g. car which are red, building which are big. Information after which is less critical to sentence. Q. The distance between the two runners, which is over 50 meters, cannot be made up with only three laps to go in the race. A. The distance between the two runners, which is over 50 meters B. The distance between the two runners, who is over 50 meters C. The distance between the two runners, whom is over 50 meters D. The distance between the two runners, that is over 50 meters E. The distance between the two runners, whoever is over 50 meters Explanation: We use "that" when we're giving information that's required to understand the sentence. We use "which" when we're giving bonus description - in other words, information that adds to the sentence, but isn't required to understand it. Also, that with , before it refers to nothing. It should have been without comma.

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On the GMAT, you'll almost always see "which" in one of two situations: After a comma, introducing non-essential descriptive information; or As part of a prepositional phrase (e.g. "in which", "of which", "to which"...) So, if the word (i.e. that/which) appears in the main part of the sentence and isn't preceded by a preposition, "that" is pretty much always going to be the best choice. More Explanation Walk on the left side of the street until you reach the third house that is red. Walk on the left side of the street until you reach the third house, which is red. o Do the two sentences above lead you to the same house? Not really!! o The first sentence leads you to the third RED house on the left side of the street. This may be the third house on the left side of the street (if the first two are also red) or it may be the eighth house on the left side of the street, or the tenth house, etc. o The second sentence always leads you to the THIRD house on the left house on the street. This house happens to be red. Whos vs Whose Who's: Who's is a contraction of who is or, less commonly, who has. Who's watching TV? Do you know who's going to speak? Whose: Whose is the possessive of who or, somewhat controversially, which. Whose book is this? Do you know whose car this is? NOTE; apostrophe creates contractions. Without it, its possession; apostrophe on 99% of English words indicates possession, but on this one simply indicates a contraction. TIP: If you can replace the word with who is or who has, use who's. If not, use whose. Also same for, Its vs Its Special Pronouns Rogue pronoun refers to no one e.g. It is a bright day; the sentence is correct & it refers to nothing. It here is acting like a Placeholder / The Expletive Implied pronoun; He is taller than I (am); here am is implied

ADVANCDED: PRONOUNS THERE: Means in that place. Wrong: Antarctic oil may be worth drilling for, if wells can be dug THERE Right: Oil in Antarctica may be worth drilling for, if wells can be dug THERE Note: There CAN BE used as a dummy pronoun; There is a cat at the door. Correct! Reflexive Pronouns: ITSELF, THEMSELVES Used to refer directly back to the subject. The panda groomed itself. Reciprocal Pronouns: EACH OTHER, ONE ANOTHER Used to indicate interaction between parties. Not interchangeable with THEMSELVES.

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Wrong: The guests at the party interacted with THEMSELVES. Right: The guests at the party interacted with ONE ANOTHER. SUCH and OTHER/ANOTHER Often combined with another noun to indicate an antecedent. SUCH means like the antecedent. After the land use agreement surfaced, the commission decided to subject any SUCH contracts to debate in the future. OTHER/ANOTHER means additional of the same type - not necessarily exactly alike. After the land use agreement surfaced, the commission decided to subject any OTHER contracts to debate in the future. ONE v. THEY/THEM ONE: Means an indefinite copy or indicates a single, indefinite part of a collection. After walking by the chocolates so many times, Roger finally had to eat ONE THEY/THEM: Indicates definite selection of an entire object or collection. After walking by the chocolates so many times, Roger finally had to eat THEM. Note: One can take both Single and Plural Antecedent!! DO SO vs. DO IT DO SO: Functions as a pro-verb because it can refer to an entire clause or action, including a verb, its objects, and its modifiers. This pro-verb can appear very far from its antecedent (often at the end of a sentence). Do so For Action (to change verb) Dhalsim did not eat dinner quickly, but his brother DID SO. Alternatively: Dhalsim did not eat dinner quickly, but his brother DID. DO IT: The pronoun IT must refer to an actual noun antecedent. Do it for Noun (replace noun) Dhalsim failed to do the homework, but his brother did IT.

Helping Verbs Can be Used as Pro-Verbs (BE, DO, HAS/HAVE) Can be used to stand for longer verbs or verb phrases. I have never seen an aardvark, but my father HAS. o IMP: The first instance of the verb should match the helping verb in tense. If you need to change tenses, repeat the whole verb in the new tense. Wrong: I have never seen an aardvark, but last year my father DID. Right: I have never seen an aardvark, but last year my father saw one.

Placeholder IT: (used when we want to move complicated subjects to the end of a sentence). Used to postpone infinitive subjects. IT is futile TO RESIST temptation. Used to postpone THAT-clause subjects. IT gave us encouragement THAT we scored at all. o Used to postpone infitive or THAT-clause objects. She made IT possible for us TO ATTEND the movie. Avoiding Pronouns Altogether Wrong: After roasting the deer, the hunter started a fire and then searched for a tree to hang IT from.. . .. Problem: IT could refer to either deer for fire o First way to avoid pronoun is to Eliminate Pronoun Altogether

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Right: After roasting the deer, the hunter started a fire and then searched for a tree to hang THE DEER from. o Second way, is using a GENERIC SYNONYM may be preferable to repeating the noun. Better: After roasting the deer, the hunter started a fire and then searched for a tree to hang THE MEAT from. i.e., deers provide a type of meat. Right: Nano-papers incorporate fibers that give THESE MATERIALS strength. i.e., Nano-papers are a type of material. Nuances of Pronoun Reference: Key considerations o Number: The antecedent must agree in number (singular or plural). o Gender: The antecedent must agree in gender (masculine, feminine, neuter). o Repeats: Presumed to refer to the same antecedent i.e., every IT and ITS should refer to the same thing o Proximity: The pronoun should normally refer to the closest eligible antecedent. o Case: The pronoun and antecedent should agree in case if they are in parallel structure. i.e., antecedent and pronoun should serve similar functions in their respective clauses. if the antecedent is the subject of one clause, the pronoun should be the subject of the other.

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MODIFIERS Modifiers modify something or someone in a sentence

Adjective and Adverb are ONE WORD modifiers

An Adjective modifies ONLY noun or pronoun An Adverb modifies everything else BUT a noun or a pronoun Adverb often modifies meaning of a verb, but can also add to meaning of another adjective, another adverb, a preposition, a phrase or even a whole clause. Adjectives and not adverbs following Linking Verbs such as feel

1. NOUN MODIFIER
They modify who did it and not how it happened

Phrases or clauses that modify noun are called noun modifiers - modifier that modifies noun i.e. the subject AND not that modifier is made of noun. A noun used to modify another noun is called appositive; An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that renames another noun right beside it. The appositive can be a short or long combination of words. Look at these examples: The insect, a cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table. The insect, a large cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table. The insect, a large cockroach with hairy legs, is crawling across the kitchen table.

Position of Noun Modifiers A NOUN and its MODIFIER should TOUCH each other. W: Jim biked along an old dirt road to get to his house, which cut through the woods. R: To get to his house, Jim biked along an old dirt road, which cut through the woods. If the noun being modified is not in the sentence DANGLING MODIFIER error! Wrong: Resigned to the bad news, there was no commotion at the office. Right: Resigned to the bad news, the office workers made no commotion at the office. Pay particular attention to opening modifiers, which appear at the beginning of a sentence! A present participle (ING form) at the beginning of a sentence often leads to a dangling modifier Wrong: Using the latest technology, the problem was identified. Right: Using the latest technology, the engineer identified the problem. Watch Out for Modifiers Trying to Modify Possessive Nouns Wrong: Unskilled in complex math, Bills score on the exam was poor. Right: Unskilled in complex math, Bill did not score well on the exam. Watch out for possessive nouns paired with abstract nouns such as development Wrong: Only in the past century has origamis development, a ceremonial activity invented millennia ago, into a true art form taken place.

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Right: Origamia ceremonial activity invented millennia agohas developed into a true art form only in the past century.

Noun Modifiers with RELATIVE PRONOUNS Noun modifiers are often introduced by relative pronouns. Such modifiers are called relative clauses. Relative pronouns are: which, that, who, whom, whose, where, when

Who must modify people (that cannot modify people) Who is used as the subject of the verb in relative clause The scientists that who made the discovery were rewarded. Whom must modify people Whom is used as a object of the verb in relative clause the security guard who whom we met was nice. Whose can modify both people and things e.g the town whose water supply was . . . Right: . . . the town WHOSE water supply was contaminated. Which must modify things Where can be used to modify a noun place e.g. area, site, country or Chicago. o But where CANNOT modify metaphorical places such as condition, situation, case, circumstance. Note: for such metaphorical cases, use in which Wrong: We had an arrangement WHERE he cooked and I cleaned. Right: We had an arrangement IN WHICH he cooked and I cleaned. When and in which can be used to modify noun event or a time, such as period, age, 1911 or decade

Essential vs. non-Essential modifier Put commas between non-essential modifiers and their nouns This house, recently painted green, is Jims (this is enough to identify which house) Put NO commas between essential modifiers and their nouns The house painted green is owned by lees (green is essential to identify which house) o Punctuation distinguishes between essential &non essential modifiers; If you have choice between which and that: Use which and comma if the modifier is non-essential Use that and no comma if modifier is essential o Note: other relative pronoun such as WHO, can be used as essential and non-essential modifiers by use of commas I met with Bill Clinton, who is a lawyer. (, makes it non-essential) The name Bill Clinton is enough to identify which person I'm talking about. who is a lawyer is therefore extra information. I met with the man who is a lawyer. In this case, "the man" is not enough information to identify which person I'm talking about--who is a lawyer is therefore necessary information. People that are well informed know that bordeaux is a French region whose most famous export is the wine which bears its name. - That cannot be used for people. So use who - which without , makes it non essential. Replace with that WHICH v/s PRESENT PARTICPLE (-ing)

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Always test the which clauses and make sure that which refers to noun / noun phrase / pronoun immediately preceding it. Which is used for only a NOUN immediately preceding it; never to refer an entire clause o You can replace the wrongly used which with the present participle (-ing) W: crime has recently decreased in our neighbourhood, which has led to a rise in property values . . .which is modifying neighbourhood (noun) due to proximity Crime has recently decreased in our neighbourhood, leading to a rise in property values Note: Use of ing form, after a comma works best when to express the result in the main clause. o bringing, leading . . . but there has to be comma before the participle in ing form Q. The use of lie detectors is based on the assumption that lying produces emotional reactions in an individual that, in turn, create unconscious physiological response. A) that, in turn, create unconscious physiological responses. B) that create unconscious physiological responses in turn. C) creating, in turn, unconscious physiological responses. D) to create, in turn, physiological responses that are unconscious. E) who creates unconscious physiological responses in turn. Why not C; because creating seems to refer back to lying and thus not highlighting the sequence . . but if used as participle, creating would have to be preceded by a comma.

2. VERB MODIFIERS (Adverbial modifier)


Modifiers that answer questions about how it happened, when it happened, where, and why and do not modify who did it Noun modifier (adjective modifier with present participle using) o Using the latest technology, the engineer identified the problem. Adverbial modifier o Jim ran towards the end zone, faster and harder than he had ever run before. o Touch rule does not apply to Verb Modifiers But, if there are multiple noun/subject then Adverbial modifier would modify closest noun /subject Summary:

o Adverbial Modifier: modify how it happened. Do not modify who did it No touch rule o Noun Modifier: modify who did it should follow touch rule o Appositive: modify a noun should follow touch rule

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ADVANCDED: MODIFIER Exceptions to the Touch Rule (in case of Noun Modifier) (i.e., necessary or short phrases between antecedent and pronoun)

1.

2.

Appositive: although a relative clause should touch (touch rule discussed below) the noun, but its ok to have an APPOSITIVE between the noun and a relative clause. Jim buys biscuits made with sugarfree, an artificial sweetener, which tastes as sweet as a corn syrup. Explanation: In the above sentence the appositive phrase i.e. an artificial sweetener modifies the word sugar free. This does not affect link between which and sugar free; although we have learnt), even though which always refers to noun immediately preceding it. A Mission-Critical Modifier Falls Between (often an Of-phrase that defines the noun). In these cases, the modifier modifies the entire noun phrase. He had a way OF DODGING OPPONENTS that impressed the scouts. Without the modifier of dodging Opponents the noun way is meaningless. The clause that . . . modifies the entire noun phrase a way of dodging and not just the word opponent. Thus of dodging opponents Mission crictical Kelp is a natural fertilizer that has become popular among growers of heirloom tomatoes, who generally are willing to pay a premium for organic products The clause that . . . correctly modifies fertilizer who . . . modifies the growers, despite the mission critical modifier inbetween of heirloom tomatoes Note: MCM is different from comma + which Exception rule, in that, MCM also applies to that, who or other modifiers)

3.

4.

5.

A Short Non-Essential Phrase Falls in-between and is Set Off by Commas. I love dogs, such as corgis, that eat a lot of food. o IMP: subject before comma, should confirm with modifier Wrong: Having lived in Tahiti for several years, where life was slow and relaxed, Paul Gauguin had difficulty readjusting to the hectic pace of Paris upon his return. Right: Having lived for several years in Tahiti, where life was slow and relaxed, Paul Gauguin had difficulty readjusting to the hectic pace of Paris upon his return. A Very Short Predicate Falls Between, Shifting a Very Long Modifier Back. Right: A new CEO has been hired who will transform . . . Wrong: A new CEO who will transform . . . has been hired. The Modifier is Part of a Series of Parallel Modifiers, One of Which Touches the Noun. In heraldry, the term tincture refers to a color emblazoned on a coat of arms and labeled with a special French word. Labeled . . . modifies colour even though its not next to it. This is so as the phrase, labeled . . is parallel to emplazoned, and is next to the word colour. Possessive Nuances Do not choose OF Xschoose either OF X or Xs. o Wrong: The orca, a relative of the blue whales, is found throughout the globe. o Right: The orca, a relative of the blue whale, is found throughout the globe. Avoid the plural possessive form (-S) Subgroup Modifiers: Use them, when you want to describe Part of a larger group

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Three rights ways: A. This model explains all known subatomic particles, SOME only recently discovered. S B. This model explains all known subatomic particles, SOME OF THEM only recently discovered. SOT C. This model explains all known subatomic particles, SOME OF WHICH / WHOM WERE only recently discovered. SOWW In place of SOME, we can substitute SANAMM pronouns We can also use many, each, either, neither, half, one OR any other pronoun that pics the subgroup. Just remember the Three Correct Syntax given above Q. In good years, the patchwork of green fields that surround the San Joaquin Valley town bustles with farm workers, many of them in the area just for the season. (A) surround the San Joaquin Valley town bustles with farm workers, many of them (B) surrounds the San Joaquin Valley town bustles with farm workers, many of whom are (C) surround the San Joaquin Valley town bustles with farm workers, many of who are (D) surround the San Joaquin Valley town bustle with farm workers, many of which (E) surrounds the San Joaquin Valley town bustles with farm workers, many are OA is A. SOT rule applied Three wrong ways: A. This model explains all known subatomic particles, OF WHICH SOME WERE only recently discovered. (awkward) B. This model explains all known subatomic particles, SOME OF THEM WHICH WERE only recently discovered. (wordy) C. This model explains all known subatomic particles, SOME OF WHICH only recently discovered. (needs to be SOME OF WHICH WERE)

Relative Clause v/s Participle: PRESENT Participles get their Tense from Main Verb of Sentence A. They do not necessarily indicate PRESENT TENCE I saw a man cleaning the steps (Cleaning takes place in past) I see a man cleaning the steps (Cleaning takes place in present) I will see a man cleaning the steps (Cleaning takes place in future) B. Thus is you want the cleaning to take place at a different time from seeing, then use the relative clause Wrong: I see the man cleaning the steps yesterday Right: I see a man who cleaned the steps yesterday (use of relative clause with who) Absolute Phrases o Absolute phrase = noun + a noun modifier. o By using absolute phrase, one can connect two complete sentences without using which. o Absolute Phrase do not modify what the touch, but they modify the main clause in some way

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TENSE, MOOD, VOICE Verb Tense: Indicates when the action of the verb takes place Verb Mood: indicates what the writer believes about or wants to do with the action (imperative / subjunctive) Verb Voice: indicates who or what is doing the action (active / passive) TENSE: http://gmatclub.com/forum/gmat-grammar-book-verbs-96445.html

1. Simple tense if used to express eternal states or frequent events Jim plays cricket (simple Present) Jim Played cricket (simple Past) Jim will play cricket (simple Future) C. Verbs that express general states do not take continuous forms. E.g; know, signify This inscription is signifying signifies emperors birth D. Sentence with more than one action do not necessarily require more than one verb. she walked to school in the morning and ran home in the afternoon (both simple past) 2. Progressive Tense indicates action happening right then Jim is playing cricket (present continuous) Jim was playing cricket (past continuous) Jim will be playing cricket (future continuous) E. Do not use present continuous for general definition Cherenkov radiation is light that particles are emitting emit when they are travelling
Travel faster than speed of light F. Do not use present continuous tense to indicate future actions Jim is meeting will meet Jane for lunch tomorrow G. You can use 'past continuous to highlight a background event, while you use simple past to describe the important foreground event e.g she was playing with her friends when baby sitter arrived e.g. she played with her friends when baby sitter arrived In this case the action played took place after the baby sitter arrived and not parallel in the background. 3. Perfect Tense

Present Perfect Tense: Still in Effect A. Continued Action: Is used when action started in the past BUT continued into the present Present Perfect = has / have + Past Participle Participle of a regular verb such as walk, live is achieved by adding ed. We have lived in this village for three days (still living) Irregular verbs have unique participle, such as gone & seen for go & see e.g. they have known each other since 1988 B. Continued Effect of completed action: When action is over BUT its effect is still relevant to the present moment The child drew a square in the sand o The action of drawing is over, but its effect the square itself is still there IMP: When you use since use Present Perfect

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With the within phrase use Present Perfect Within past five minutes. . . .within last ten days But for Specific completed time use Simple Past Jimmy has travelled all over the world in 2008 Past Perfect Tense: the earlier Action o Use past perfect when sequence has to be highlighted AND the earlier event has bearing on the latter event. o Use past perfect for the earlier action A simple past for later action o Past perfect = Had + Past Participle The film had started (past perfect) by the time we arrived (simple past) Thus TWO situations when to use Perfect Tense (Past or Present) A. Present Perfect: When action began in the past continues into the present OR its effect does. B. Past Perfect: When action began in past precedes another, AND you need to clarify or emphasize the sequence.

Remember A. Do not use past perfect tense to represent long ago, without a later past moment. Even long ago moment can be represented by Simple Past An asteroid struck the earth millions of years ago.

B. Past Perfect is used to establish sequence of events i.e. the earlier event should somehow
have bearing on the later event. BUT in case the sequence is already obvious we do not need a past perfect. Rather use simple past for all verb. Jim had driven drove to store and brought a cake

C. Clauses linked by and & but do not require Past Perfect as a general rule. Mary drove to the store and Jacob bought some milk D. If the words before & after, indicate the sequence clearly, the use of Past Perfect tense
becomes unnecessary. Laura locked the deadbolt before she left the room Exception: when you have to show a continued action in past (not a point of time in past)

E. The later past event need not be a Simple Past Tense verb. You could simply choose a date or
another time reference. By 1930, Ford had been producing cars for several years. e.g. Before independence in 1947, India had been a colony of the British, who

relinquished power only after a long struggle by the native people. F. Use perfect (past or present perfect) only when necessary. GMAT prefer simplicity: Jane learned about an epoch in which dinosaurs had walked the earth Although had walked does take place before the event learned, the earlier action
does not have a direct bearing on the later action. i.e. Thus sequence of time does not need to be emphasized

Imp: Tense Sequence

1. Do not mix: Present Tense with Conditional Tense Wrong: Jimmy believes (present) that the trip would (conditional) be wonderful. 2. Do not mix Past tense with Future tense 29

Wrong: Mary believed (past) that the trip will (future) be wonderful 3. You can mix: Present with Future Right: Jimmy believes (present) that the trip will be (future) wonderful. 4. You can mix: Past with conditional Right: Mary believed (past) that the trip would (conditional) be wonderful Correct use: Helen would feel better is she swallowed this pill. (Simple Past Conditional) Helen will feel better if she swallows the pill. (Simple Present Future)

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Mood Indicative Mood: Used to express facts and opinions. He goes to the library often. Imperative Mood: Used to give orders or give requests. Go to the library. Subjunctive Mood Hypothetical Subjunctive: To expresses a hypothetical condition unlikely or unreal conditions It Occurs after if, as if, as though For the verb to be the form - were - is always used. (instead of was) If I were a rich man To overcome my fears of germs, I will think about disease as though it were harmless NOTE: The sentences with if do not always use the Hypothetical Subjunctive. A sentence with if condition and a then outcome can follow several tense moods.

o When using should to express a hypothetical condition, the verb paired with should must be in root formthat is, the infinitive minus the word to. Should the rain stop before noon, the baseball game will resume." Thus, should [the rate] continue is correct.
Command Subjunctive: To express a desire, intention, command, recommendation, request, resolution, or advice. o Words to Look For: ADVISABLE, DESIRABLE, ESSENTIAL, FITTING, IMPERATIVE, IMPORTANT, NECESSARY, URGE, URGENT, VITAL. o Syntax: Bossy Word + THAT + subject + Command Subjunctive (base form) o BARE FORM : infinitive to be without to No s in the third person singular We propose THAT the school board DISBAND We bossy word + THAT + board (subject) + Disband (Command Subjunctive) o We cant say to disband i.e. no to o And no s after DISBAND o Do not use SHOULD in the sentence that has command subjunctive EXCEPTION: Not every Bossy Word uses command subjunctive. But use to + bare form (without s) Vice President WANTS he TO GO to the retreat (yes, we need -to with WANT) Subjunctive Demand Dictate Insist Mandate Propose Recommend Request Stipulate Suggest Only Infinitive Advise Allow Forbid Persuade Want (AAFPW) to + bare form Either /Or Ask Beg Intent Order Prefer Urge require

SPECIAL MENTIONS o Bossy word Prohibit takes from

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Agency PROHIBITED him FROM WORKING on weekend (idiom: prohibit from) o Avoid Command Subjective after whether I like ice cream, whether it be is chocolate, vanilla or strawberry
Other construction: Command subjunctive is possible with construction it is x x conveys urgency It is essential that Jim be ready before noon Advisable, crucial, necessary, preferable, urgent, vital. NOTE: you can also use To VOICE

Active Voice: Subject of the sentence performs the action Passive voice: Subject of the sentence has an action performed on it by someone or something.

Passive voice is formed by form of the verb to be followed by past participle The pizza WAS EATEN by students (was is form of to be, eaten is past participle) Do not use other verbs besides to be, such as get to form the passive voice Wrong: the pizza got eaten by hungry students Cautions: Use BY only for actual doers of the action Use THROUGH or BECAUSE OF when you want to describe instrument or means Prefer Active Voice over Passive Voice for brevity & simplicity

Imp: The passive voice is also required when the non-underlined portion of the sentence contains the person or the agent performing the action preceded by the word BY. Thus, If there is a by in non-underlined portion, then passive voice is required The launch WAS seen around the world by the people of all ages, all races & all religions Thus, if the agent / people who do something to the subject are in NONUnderlined area, Passive Voice is required e.g. 13, pg 122 SC

ADVANCDED: TENSE

When to use which verbal? Participle v/s Infinitive Present Participle express result Investors sold the stock rapidly, causing panic However, present participle does not tell anything about the intention. It only tells the end result. In E.g. do not know the intention of the Investors Infinitive express Intention Investors sold the stock rapidly to cause panic However, with infinitive we know nothing about the result of the intention. In e.g. we do not know if the Panic was cause, despite the intent of the investors

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COMPARISION LIKE

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Use LIKE when you want to focus on 2 nouns (not their actions) Like Means similar to i.e. it highlights SIMILARITY Use LIKE to introduce IMAGINARY comparisons (to liken)
Elements being compared must be parallel (nouns to nouns) Like must be followed by a noun or pronoun stick to this rule. Like her brother, Jim aced the test Jim aced test similarly as his brother though not necessarily in same manner

6. Like can be followed by gerunds (Verbal noun) e.g. swimming, running Like swimming, running is a great sport

Note: The only time you will see an -ing word that functions as a verb in a sentence is if that -ing word is immediately preceded by some form of the verb "to be." (E.g. I was swimming..). If some form of "to be" is not right before -ing word, then -ing word is not functioning as a verb. Instead, it is functioning as a noun/gerund, adjective/participle, or adverb, depending on the sentence

Q. More than thirty years ago Dr. Barbara McClintock, the Nobel Prize winner, reported that genes can jump as pearls moving mysteriously from one necklace to another. we need to use like because we want to compare nouns; similarity in the pearls and genes AND not the pearls moving and genes moving i.e. not the manner (A) as pearls moving mysteriously from one necklace to another (B) like pearls moving mysteriously from one necklace to another (C) as pearls do that move mysteriously from one necklace to others (D) like pearls do that move mysteriously from one necklace to others (E) as do pearls that move mysteriously from one necklace to some other one

AS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Use AS when you want to focus on 2 nouns doing 2 actions - VERBS / WAYS As means in a similar manner i.e. it highlights EQUALITY "As" is also used as a substitute for "in the capacity of"
Elements being compared must be parallel (clause to clause) Use As to introduce REAL comparisons

Use AS to compare two clauses; phrase with a working verb stick to this rule (ref.
e.g)

As her brother did, Jim aced the test (notice; did has been added. Its the working word) Q. During an ice age, the buildup of ice at the poles and the drop in water levels near the equator speed up the Earths rotation, like a spinning figure skater whose speed increases when her arms are drawn in. We WANT to compare actions (the way that the Earth's rotation speeds up, as well as the skater's rotation); thus we need to use as. But for as we need a working verb in main clause. (A) like a spinning figure skater whose speed increases when her arms are drawn in No working verb; a spinning figure skater is verbal phrase with Gerund spinning Working verb increases is in subordinate clause whose not in main clause (B) like the increased speed of a figure skater when her arms are drawn in. Wrong comparison (C) like a figure skater who increases speed while spinning with her arms drawn in Its not the skater who does it. We need to compare the result (D) just as a spinning figure skater who increases speed by drawing in her arms Working verb increases is in the subordinate clause who not in main clause (E) just as a spinning figure skater increases speed by drawing in her arms

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OA is E. Working verb increases is in the MAIN clause 7. Just AS can replace in the same way that 8. Do not use like to introduce examples, use such as (such . . as could have something in
between)

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Keep Comparisons Parallel Logically Parallel: Must compare logically comparable things (i.e., like elements). Wrong: Jims build, like his brother, is broad and muscular Somebodys build cannot be equal to some bodys brother Right: Jims build, like his brothers is broad and muscular

Structurally Parallel: Must have similar grammatical structure. Wrong: I like to run through forests more than I enjoy walking through crowds Right: I like to running through forests more than I enjoy walking through crowds

Omitting Words

o In a sentence possessing noun can be singular or plural, regardless of whether the implied
possessed noun is singular or plural. A singular plural combination is correct grammatically but ensure that its logical Right: My (singular) car is bigger than jacobs (plural) o One can omit units, verbs and even whole clause from second comparison, as long as there is no ambiguity Right: I walk faster than Jimmy (walks) Right: I walk as fast now as (I walked) when I was younger o You may need to add helping words such as be, do and have to remove ambiguity (IF ANY) Right: Jim eats more carrots than he does Cabbage (of course cabbage must be the object and not another person who eats less carrot then Jim does) Wrong: Jim eats more carrots than xulato (we dont know is xulato is object or subject) Right: Jim eats more carrots than xulato does (add helping word does to clear ambuigity) Comparative and Superlative Forms o Use the Comparative Form when comparing two things (e.g., shorter, more, less, better). o Use the Superlative Form when comparing more than two things (e.g., shortest, most, least). Do not compare an adverb that ends in -LY by changing the ending to -ER. Instead, add MORE. Wrong: Adrian runs QUICKLY. He runs QUICKER than Jacob. Right: Adrian runs QUICKLY. He runs MORE QUICKLY than Jacob. Do not use a COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVE unless you have the word THAN in the sentence. o Wrong: With winter coming, I will have HIGHER energy bills o Wrong: I will have HIGHER bills OVER last year. o Right: I will have HIGHER bills THAN last year. Hugo is widely acknowledged to be our best employee, because he works harder and more creatively than anyone else is the company best is correct as it Hugo vs all other (and not just one). Next, harder compares well with more creative as both are comparative form (& not superlative) NUMBERS in COMPARISONS Use TIMES . . . AS . . . AS . . . to relate quantities by multiplication. o Wrong: The man is FIVE TIMES FATTER THAN his son. Rationale: This technically means the man is six times as fat as his son! o Right: The man is FIVE TIMES AS FAT AS his son. Use TIMES without AS or THAN to indicate direct multiplication. o The cost of a ticket is $12, SIX TIMES the cost ten years ago.

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o The concert was attended by 300 people, twice the previous attendance. Use MORE THAN or LESS THAN to relate two quantities by addition/subtraction. o Wrong: I am TEN years AS OLD AS you. o Right: I am TEN years OLDER THAN you.

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Odds & Ends 1. CONNECTING WORDS

Coordinating Conjunctions: And, but, or. These three words, along with for, nor, yet, so are Two independent clauses should be separated by comma and FANBOYS (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So) or by a semicolon. comma + coordinating; can link two main clauses to form a grammatically correct sentence. I need to rest, BUT dont have much time Subordinators: are connecting words such as although, because, before, after, since, when, if , unless, that , though, while - that create subordinate clause and connect to main clause with a comma Remember: Correct sentence always has one main clause (a group of words that stands as a complete sentence), has a subject & a verb and it does not begin with a subordinating conjunctions such as because or if Imp Comma + coordinating conjunction, allows two main clause to co-exist as equal I need to relax, because I have so many things to do (contradicts the above explanation!!) subordinator, reduces one clause to a subordinate clause Although I need to relax, I have so many things to do Cautions: Use connecting word only once Wrong: Although I need to rest, Yet I have so many things to do

but except in is ok; refer OG 12, Q116

Clause should be connected by a sensible connecting word Use AND to show unity in two clauses e.g. She is not interested in sports , but and she likes watching sports tv Use YET to highlight the contrast and so on. e.g. She is interested in sports and but likes watching sports tv

2. CONNECTING PUNCTUATIONS

COMMA Non- essential modifiers are set off by comma; essential modifiers are NOT separated by commas Essential: this car purchased last year us Chevy Non-essential: this car ,purchase last year ,is Chevy Do not use comma before and to separate two verbs that have same subject Either eliminate the comma Jim walked to school , and later ate his meal Or add another subject, creating a second main clause Jim walked to school, and he later ate his meal Comma by itself cannot connect two complete sentences (clauses) wrong: Jim walked to school, later ate his meal SEMI-COLON

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Connects two closely related statements Each statements must able to stand alone as an independent sentence (clause)

Cautions 1. You must preserve the intent. If between the two sentences to be connected with a semi colon it appears that author intended to subordinate one part to the other, then preserve that intent.

Wrong: The dam has created dead zones; fish have disappeared Right: The dam has created dead zones, where fish have disappeared

2. ; is often followed by conjunctive verb / other transition expression. Such as however,


therefore or in addition. this way we can modify the bare relationship that a semi colon implies. Jim & Mary are inseparable; therefore, we never see them apart (not , therefore) Unlike conjunction (but, and etc), you must use semi-colon and not comma in front of conjunctive verbs / transition expression One Difference between Subordinator and conjunctive verb is that subordinator must be placed at start of the subordinator clause, whereas conjunctive verb can be placed in middle of a clause 3. A minor use of semi-colon is to separate items that themselves contain commas e.g. I listen to earth, wind & fire; and blood, sweat & tears. COLON Provides further explanation of what comes before it You should be able to insert the word namely or that is after the colon Note: What comes before colon should be able to stand alone, but unlike Semi-Colon what comes after colon does not have to be able to stand alone Wrong: I love listening to: pop & rock Right: I love listening to many kinds of music: pop & rock Cautions 1. Whatever needs explanation should be placed as close to the colon as possible W: 3 factors affect rate of reaction; concentration, surface area & temperature R: the rate of reaction is affected by 3 factors; concentration, surface area & temperature 2. Difference between semi colon and colon ; connects to related independent clauses, but 2nd does not necessarily explain the first. Whereas, Colon always connects a sentence with further explanations DASH

You can use dash as an emphatic (extra attention) comma, semi-colon or colon

Important 1. You could use dash to separate an appositive from an item in a list e.g. my 3 best friends jim, mary, & joe and I went skiing without dash it would appear there are 7 people 2. You can use dash to restate or further explain earlier part of sentence.

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Note: Unlike colon, the dash does not need to be immediately preceded by part that needs explanation Post MBA compensation for investment bankers tends to surge far ahead of that for management consultants by tens, if not hundreds, of thousands of dollars The phrase by tens . . . further explains the word far in the sentence

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3. QUANTITY

Rule #1; Words used for countable things v/s uncountable Countable: the ones that can be counted like one hat, two hat are: HOW MANY? Many, not many Few, fewer, fewest Numerous, number of

Un-Countable: the ones that cannot be counted like one patience, two patience are: HOW MUCH? much, not much little, less, least amount great, greater Caution: Do not use less / lesser for countable items; use few / fewer wrong: discount is available on 10 items of less right: discount is available on 10 items of fewer

Rule #2; Words used to relate two things or more Use correct form Use comparative form (better, more, less) when comparing two things or people Use superlative form (best, most, least) when comparing three or more people

Use correct distinction Use between when discussing two things Use among when discussing three or more things

Rule #3; Correct use of number

The number of is singular A number of is plural NumberS / numberS of CORRECT (i.e. without the articles in front) Use when the quantities of numbers is larger; not the number itself The rare Montauk beaked griffin is not extinct; its numbers are now suspected to be much greater than before. When the technique known as gene-splicing was invented in the early 1970's, it was feared that scientists might inadvertently create an "Andromeda strain," a microbe never before seen on Earth that might escape from the laboratory and it would kill vast numbers of humans who would have no natural defenses against it. (A) it would kill vast numbers of humans who would have no natural defenses against it (B) it might kill vast numbers of humans with no natural defenses against it (C) kill vast numbers of humans who would have no natural defenses against it. OA (D) kill vast numbers of humans who have no natural defenses against them (E) kill vast numbers of humans with no natural defenses against them The numberS of / A numberS of INCORRECT

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But it can be correct too!! In the rare circumstance when you are literally talking about multiple, different numbers New Jersey's is one of the five highest number of reported cases of Lyme disease in the United States. (A) New Jersey's is one of the five highest number of reported (B) New Jersey's is one of the five highest numbers in reporting (C) New Jersey has a report of one of the five highest numbers of (D) New Jersey has one of the five highest numbers of reported. OA (E) New Jersey reports one of the five highest number of

Rule #4; Increase & decrease v/s greater & less Increase and decrease express the change of one thing over time Greater & less signal comparison between two things Note: avoid duplicity The price of gold fell by more than 20% decrease (decrease is redundant) Also an IMP Question: Q 12, pg 198

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