Maximum power point tracking

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Current-voltage characteristics of a solar cell at a particular light level, and in darkness. The area of the yellow rectangle gives the output power. Pmax denotes the maximum power point Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is a technique that solar inverters use to get the maximum possible power from the PV array.[1] Solar cells have a complex relationship between solar irradiation, temperature and total resistance that produces a non-linear output efficiency known as the I-V curve. It is the purpose of the MPPT system to sample the output of the cells and apply a resistance (load) to obtain maximum power for any given environmental conditions.[2] Essentially, this defines the current that the inverter should draw from the PV in order to get the maximum possible power (since power equals voltage times current).

Classification
There are three main types of MPPT algorithms: perturb-and-observe, incremental conductance and constant voltage.[3] The first two methods are often referred to as hill climbing methods, because they depend on the fact that on the left side of the MPP, the curve is rising (dP/dV > 0) while on the right side of the MPP the curve is falling (dP/dV < 0).[4]

[edit] Perturb-and-observe (P&O) method

Main article: Perturb and observe method This method is the most common. The algorithm perturbs the operating voltage in a given direction and samples dP/dV. If dP/dV is positive, then the algorithm knows it adjusted the voltage in the direction toward the MPP. It keeps adjusting the voltage in that direction until dP/dV is negative. P&O algorithms are easy to implement, but they sometimes result in oscillations around the MPP in steady-state operation. They also have slow response times and can even track in the wrong direction under rapidly changing atmospheric conditions.

[edit] Incremental conductance (INC) method

Main article: Incremental conductance method This method uses the PV array's incremental conductance dI/dV to compute the sign of dP/dV. INC tracks rapidly changing irradiance conditions more accurately than the P&O method. However, like the P&O method, it can produce oscillations and be confused by rapidly changing atmospheric conditions. Another disadvantage is that its increased complexity increases computational time and slows down the sampling frequency.

[edit] Constant voltage method

Main article: Constant voltage method This method makes use of the fact that the ratio of maximum power point voltage and the open circuit voltage is 0.76. The problem with this method arises from the fact that it requires momentarily setting the PV array current to 0 to measure the array's open circuit voltage. The array's operating voltage is then set to 76% of this measured value. But during the time the array is disconnected, the available energy is wasted. It has also been found that while 76% of the open circuit voltage is a very good approximation, it does not always coincide with the Maximum power point.[5]

[edit] Fill factor

Main article: Fill factor The fill factor, more commonly known by its abbreviation FF, is a parameter which, in conjunction with the open circuit voltage and short circuit current of the panel, determines the maximum power from a solar cell. Fill factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum power from the solar cell to the product of Voc and Isc.[6]

[edit] I-V curve

Solar cell I-V curves where a line intersects the knee of the curves where the maximum power point is located.

PV cells have a single operating point where the values of the current (I) and Voltage (V) of the cell result in a maximum power output. These values correspond to a particular load resistance, which is equal to V/I as specified by Ohm's Law. The power P is given by P=V*I. A PV cell has an exponential relationship between current and voltage, and the maximum power point (MPP) occurs at the knee of the curve where dP/dV=0. At this point the characteristic resistance equals that of the load resistance.[7][6] Maximum power point trackers utilize different types of control circuit or logic to search for this point and thus to allow the converter circuit to extract the maximum power available from a cell.

[edit] MPPT placement

Traditional solar inverters perform MPPT for an entire array as a whole. In such systems the same current, dictated by the inverter, flows though all panels in the string. But because different panels have different IV curves, i.e. different MPPs (due to manufacturing tolerance, partial shading, etc.) this architecture means some panels will be performing below their MPP, resulting in the loss of energy.[8] Some companies (see power optimizer) are now placing peak power point converters into individual panels, allowing each to operate at peak efficiency despite uneven shading, soiling or electrical mismatch.

[edit] Operation with batteries

At night, an off-grid PV power system uses batteries to supply its loads. Although the battery pack voltage when fully charged may be close to the PV array's peak power point, this is unlikely to be true at sunrise when the battery is partially discharged. Charging may begin at a voltage considerably below the array peak power point, and a MPPT can resolve this mismatch. When the batteries in an off-grid system are full and PV production exceeds local loads, a MPPT can no longer operate the array at its peak power point as the excess power has nowhere to go. The MPPT must then shift the array operating point away from the peak power point until production exactly matches demand. (An alternative approach commonly used in spacecraft is to divert surplus PV power into a resistive load, allowing the array to operate continuously at its peak power point.) In a grid-tied photovoltaic system, the grid is essentially a battery with near infinite capacity. The grid can always absorb surplus PV power, and it can cover shortfalls in PV production (e.g., at night). Batteries are thus needed only for protection from grid outages. The MPPT in a grid tied PV system will always operate the array at its peak power point unless the grid fails when the batteries are full and there are insufficient local loads. It would then have to back the array away from its peak power point as in the offgrid case (which it has temporarily become).

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT). It extracts additional power from your PV array, under certain conditions. This article explains the process by a mechanical analogy, for people who do not understand basic electricity. The function of a MPPT is analogous to the transmission in a car. When the transmission is in the wrong gear, the wheels do not receive maximum power. That's because the engine is running either slower or faster than its ideal speed range. The purpose of the transmission is to couple the engine to the wheels, in a way that lets the engine run in a favorable speed range in spite of varying acceleration and terrain. Let's compare a PV module to a car engine. Its voltage is analogous to engine speed. Its ideal voltage is that at which it can put out maximum power. This is called its maximum power point. (It's also called peak power voltage, abbreviated Vpp). Vpp varies with sunlight intensity and with solar cell temperature. The voltage of the battery is analogous to the speed of the car's wheels. It varies with battery state of charge, and with the loads on the system (any appliances and lights that may be on). For a 12V system, it varies from about 11 to 14.5V. In order to charge a battery (increase its voltage), the PV module must apply a voltage that is higher than that of the battery. If the PV module's Vpp is just slightly below the battery voltage, then the current drops nearly to zero (like an engine turning slower than the wheels). So, to play it safe, typical PV modules are made with a Vpp of around 17V when measured at a cell temperature of 25C. They do that because it will drop to around 15V on a very hot day. However, on a very cold day, it can rise to 18V! What happens when the Vpp is much higher than the voltage of the battery? The module voltage is dragged down to a lower-than-ideal voltage. Traditional charge controllers transfer the PV current directly to the battery, giving you NO benefit from this added potential. Now, let's make one more analogy. The car's transmission varies the ratio between speed and torque. At low gear, the speed of the wheels is reduced and the torque is increased, right? Likewise, the MPPT varies the ratio between the voltage and current delivered to the battery, in order to deliver maximum power. If there is excess voltage available from the PV, then it converts that to additional current to the battery. Furthermore, it is like an automatic transmission. As the Vpp of the PV array varies with temperature and other conditions, it "tracks" this variance and adjusts the ratio accordingly. Thus it is called a Maximum Power Point Tracker. What advantage does MPPT give in the real world? That depends on your array, your climate, and your seasonal load pattern. It gives you an effective current boost only when the Vpp is more than about 1V higher than the battery voltage. In hot weather, this may not be the case unless the batteries are low in charge. In cold weather however, the Vpp can rise to 18V. If your energy use is greatest in the winter (typical in most homes) and you have cold winter weather, then you can gain a substantial boost in energy when you need it the most!

Here is an example of MPPT action on a cold winter day: Outside temperature: 20F (-7C) Wind is blowing a bit, so the PV cell temperature rises to only around 32F (0C). Vpp = 18V Batteries are a bit low, and loads are on, so battery voltage = 12.0 Ratio of Vpp to battery voltage is 18:12 = 1.5:1 Under these conditions, a theoretically perfect MPPT (with no voltage drop in the array circuit) would deliver a 50% increase in charge current! In reality, there are losses in the conversion just as there is friction in a car's transmission. Reports from the field indicate that increases of 20 to 30% are typically observed. Please see "Product-Specific Articles" for a product review and further explanation. NOTE: MPPT has also been incorporated into some solar water pump controllers. At Wholesale Solar, we will be happy to help find the products that are right for you. For pricing and product information give us a call. We'll also answer any questions you might have about your system. 1 (800) 472-1142