How is the pupil size controlled in BRIGHT light?

y y y y y y y STIMULUS: bright light Detected by photoreceptors in the retina Sends nerve impulses along optic nerve Along sensory neurone To CNS o Information is processes Impulses are sent along parasympathetic motor neurones EFFECTORS: circular muscles of iris are stimulated o Circular muscles contract o Radial muscles relax Constrict pupils

How is the impulse propagated along a myelinated axon? y y y y y y y y y y y y y Neurone is stimulated, causing voltage-dependent Na+ channels to open Na+ ions diffuse into axon Depolarisation of membrane increases (to +40mv) Action potential is generated at Node of Ranvier Local circuit is produced Second action potential is generated by the first If potential difference threshold is reached, more Na+ channels open Voltage-dependent Na+ channels close Voltage-dependent K+ channels open K+ ions move out of axon, repolarising membrane Hyperpolarisation of membrane occurs Voltage-dependent K+ channels close K+ ions diffuse back into axon, recreating resting potential

What is the REFRACTORY PERIOD? y y A time delay between one action potential and the next Lasts until all voltage-dependent K+ and Na+ channels close, returning to normal resting potential state Ensures the impulses are UNIDIRECTIONAL: travel in just one direction

How are impulses passed along a MYELINATED neurone? y y y Depolarisation occurs at Node of Ranvier Local electric current occurs between nodes Potential difference is reduced at the next node, initiating another action potential Impulses jump from one node to the next by SALTATORY CONDUCTION

How do Synapses transmit an impulse? y y y y y An action potential arrives at the presynaptic membrane Membrane depolarises, causing: o Calcium ion channels to open; calcium ions enter neurone Increased calcium ion concentration causes synaptic vesicles (containing neurotransmitter) to fuse with presynaptic membrane Neurotransmitter released into synaptic cleft by EXOCYTOSIS Neurotransmitter binds with receptor proteins on postsynaptic membrane, causing: o Cation channels to open; Na+ ions flow through channels Postsynaptic membrane depolarises, initiating an action potential When released, the neurotransmitter is either: o Taken up across the presynaptic membrane o Or it can diffuse away and be broken down

y y

List some differences between Rods and Cones Rods Numbers in Retina Where in Retina Light-sensitive pigment Vision Cones 20:1 All over Retina but not ONLY fovea fovea Rhodopsin Iodepsin Only black & white vision y Both dim & bright light Intensity y y y Colour vision ONLY in bright light

Sensitivity

Wavelength

How does light reaching a rod cell result in an action potential in the optic nerve to the brain? 1. Light energy breaks rhodopsin opsin + retinal 2. Opsin binds to the membrane of the outer segment a. Causes Na+ channels to close 3. Influx of Na+ ions into rod cell decreases while inner segment continuously actively pumps out Na+ ions. 4. So inside of cell is more negative that outside a. Causing membrane to be hyperpolarised (-90 mv) 5. Less inhibitory neurotransmitter is released 6. In bipolar cell: a. Cation channels open b. Membrane becomes depolarised 7. Generates an action potential in neurone of optic nerve brain

Explain what each lobe of the brain does.

y FRONTAL LOBE: o Decision making o Reasoning o Planning o Forming association: info ideas o Includes primary motor cortex:  Movement  Stores info OCCIPTAL LOBE: (visual cortex) o Processes info from eyes  Vision, colour, perspective y PARIETAL LOBE o Orientation o Movement o Sensation o Calculation o Some types of recognition o Memory TEMPORAL LOBE: o Processes auditory processes  Hearing, sound, speech

Define Habituation.   Type of learning Reduced response to an unimportant stimulus after repeated exposure over time

Define homeostasis The maintenance of a stable internal environment

How is habituation achieved? With repeated stimulation, calcium ion channels become less responsive:  Less calcium ions cross presynaptic membrane into presynaptic neurone  Fewer synaptic vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane  Less neurotransmitter is released into synaptic cleft  Less sodium ion channels on postsynaptic membrane open  Less sodium ions flow into postsynaptic membrane  Less/ no action potential is triggered

Explain negative feedback.  Receptors are used to detect deviations from the norm  And are connected to a control mechanism  turns on/ off effectors

 To bring condition back to the norm

Explain how temperature is controlled in the body when it rises above norm. o o Temperature rises above norm Detected by:  Receptors in blood  Thermoreceptors in skin Sends nerve impulses Heat loss centre is activated (in hypothalamus) Hypothalamus sends nerve impulses effectors turn on/off HEAT LOSS PROCESSES Temperature falls back to Norm = 37.5 C

o o o o o

Name processes in which the body does to lose or gain heat HEAT GAIN PROCESSES Vasoconstriction; stimulates the arterioles in skin to constrict Hair erector muscles contract Sweat glands are inhibited HEAT LOSS PROCESSES Vasodilation; inhibits the contraction of arterioles in skin Hair erector muscles relax Sweat glands are stimulated to secrete sweat Liver secretes hormones increases Liver decreases metabolic rate metabolic rate Skeletal muscles contract: Skeletal muscles relax; no shivering shivering, increased respiration

How does the cardiac muscle control the regular beating of the heart?  Electrical impulses from the SAN  Spread across atria walls contraction  Impulses pass to ventricles via AVN o Delay: ensures atria have finished contracting and ventricles are filled with blood before they contract  Impulses pass down the purkyne fibres to the heart apex  Impulses spread through the ventricle walls, causing contraction from the apex upwards  Blood is squeezed into arteries

Explain how the nervous system increases heart rate. y An increase in heart rate is caused by: o an increase in carbon-dioxide o a decrease in oxygen o a decrease in blood PH o an increase in temperature detected by chemoreceptor (in medulla, carotid artery, aorta) o an increase in blood pressure detected by pressure receptors in aorta wall and carotid artery sends nerve impulses cardiovascular control centre in medulla sends nerve impulses SAN to increase heart rate (by sympathetic nerve)

y y y y y

Compare slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibres. Slow-twitch Colour Dark red/ brown Myoglobin More Mitochondria More Capillaries More Kerb cycle enzyme High content Glycogen content Low Resistance to fatigue High Type of respiration Aerobic involved in Creatine phosphate Low Sarcoplasmic Little reticulum

Fast-twitch Pale white Less Less Less Low High Low Anaerobic High Extensive

Explain muscle contraction using the SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY.

y y y y y y y y y y y nerve impulse arrives at neuromuscular junction depolarises the sarcolemma calcium ions released out of sarcoplasmic reticulum and diffuse through sarcoplasm calcium ions bind to troponin, causing troponin to move exposing myosinbinding site on actin filament myosin head binds to myosin binding site = myosin-actin cross-bridges activates enzyme ATPase, which is released from myosin head provides energy to move the myosin head: causes myosin head to change shape, causing it to nod forward, pulling actin towards the centre of sarcomere ATP molecule provides energy to break the actin-myosin cross-bridges, by binding to myosin head, causing it to detach ATPase on myosin head causes ATP hydrolysis: ATP ADP + Pi causing a change in shape of myosin head, returning it to its upright position enabling cycle to repeat

Explain the process of OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Reduced coenzymes carry hydrogen ions and enzyme to Electron Transport Chain on inner mitochondrial membrane. Electrons get passed along electron carriers, in a series of Redox reactions. Protons/ H+ ions move across inner mitochondrial membrane into intermembrane space, increasing its proton concentration. Hydrogen ions diffuse down the electrochemical gradient back into the mitochondrial matrix using ATPsynthase on a stalked particle (CHEMIOSMOSIS). The hydrogen ion diffusion allows the synthesis of ATP (ADP + Pi). Electrons and hydrogen ions recombine with the oxygen to create water.

( OXYGEN is called the FINAL ELECTRON ACCEPTOR.)

Explain how the nervous system decreases heart rate. o y y y Blood pressure

Detected by pressure receptors in the aorta wall, carotid artery Send nerve impulses to the cardiovascular control centre in medulla If pressure is too high: cardiovascular control centre sends inhibitory nerve impulses (via parasympathetic nerve) to the SAN

To decrease heart rate.

DEFINITIONS TIDAL VOLUME VITAL CAPACITY VENTILATION RATE

AEROBIC CAPACITY CARDIAC OUTPUT

The volume of air we breathe in and out at each breath The maximum volume of air we can inhale and exhale The volume of air taken into the lungs in one minute = tidal volume x breathing rate Ability to take in, transport and use oxygen Volume of blood pumped by the heart in one minute = stroke volume x heart rate

During exercise, how is breathing rate and depth controlled? y y y y y y y During exercise, there is an increase in carbon-dioxide in blood Carbon-dioxide dissolved in blood plasma, forming carbonic acid Carbonic acid dissociates hydrogen ions and hydrogen carbonate ions PH falls Detected by chemoreceptor Sends nerve impulses to ventilation centre in medulla Sends frequent nerve impulses to: o Intercostals muscles o Diaphragm Increasing breathing rate and depth