THEORY of DIMENSIONALLY SCALED MODELS of PETROLEUM RESERVOIRS

J. GEERTSMA G. A. CROES N. SCHWARZ

KONINKLIJKE/SHELL LABORATORIUM AMSTERDAM

A B S T R A C T

T h e dinzensionless groups, to which the variables that govern the di.splacenzerzt o f oil from reservoirs by liquids can be contbit~ed,are derived. Three types o f displacement are considered, viz. cold-water drive, hotwater drive and solverzt injection. The derivation of the dinzerzsionless groups i s carried out by means o f the relevant basic equations (inspectional analysis). T h e re.slrlting sets of groups are afterwards completed by meatls o f dimensional analysis. The f o r m o f the groups is given itz such a way thal they can be adapted to suit the various boundary conditions that are encountered in practice. The physical meaning o f the groups is discussed. They have all been brought together o n a chart, from which their mutual relation and their corresporzdence to related dimensionless groups in common use in other engineering sciences can be read o f f . T h e limitations of dimensionally scaled model experiments as a useful tool for studying liquid flow in por0u.r media, as occurring in oil reservoirs, are discussed. "The use of models to study fluid mechanics has an appeal for everyone endowed with natural curiosity. What active boy has not played with ship and airplane models, or crude models of dam and drainage systems? Even in the most advanced technical engineering, such models play a fundamental and indispensable role.
-

"And yet in few departments of the physical sciences is there a wider gap between theory and practice, between scientific knowledge and the state of art, than in the use of models to study hydrodynamic phenomena." Garrett Birkhoff' I N T R O D U C T I O N Laboratory displacement experiments are extensively used to investigate, directly or indirectly, the production behavior of petroleum reservoirs. Such experiments are representative of the reservoirs as a whole, if they are carricd out with models that are "properly scaled." T h e performance of oil reservoirs is governed by the values of a number of variables, which can be combined to dimensionless groups. Two gencral methods are available for the derivation of these groups. In the first of these, dimensional analysis, combination of the variables is done essentially by trial and error. Its only premise is knowledge of the complete set of relevant variables. In the second method, inspectional analysis", the dimensional homogeneity of the equations describing the behavior of the system to be studied is used. The resulting dimensionless groups can be divided into: ( a ) independent (variable) groups, such as dimensionless length, time, etc.; ( b ) dependent groups, giving the dimensionless form of the variables, such as recovery and pressure, that can, at least in principle, be measured during an experiment; ( c ) similarity groups, which are independent constant groups, such as ratio of length to height of the reservoir and ratio of
:-The term "inspectional analysis" was introduced by Ruark2.

'References given at end of naper Original manuscript received in Petroleum Branch office on Jull
18, 1955. Paper presented at Petroleum Branch Fall Meeting in New Orleans. Oct. 2-5. 1955.

Discussion of this and all following technical papers is invited. Discussion in writing ( 3 copies) may be sent to the offices of the Journal of Petroleum Technology. Any discussion offered after Der. 31, 1956, should be in t h e form o f n n e w paper

the viscosities of the reservoir fluids. Their value is known a priori. If' the values of these groups are the same for a model and for a prototype, the model is properly scaled, which means that for equal values of the independent variable groups in prototype and model, the values of the dependent groups are equal too. It follows that the results of experiments with such a dintensionally st:aled model can be directly interpreted in terms of field performance. Three types of displacement will be considered, viz.: (1) cold-water drive, i.e. the conventional water drive; ( 2 ) hot-water drive, i.e. the injection of hot water with the objective of increasing recovery from reservoirs containing viscous crudes (see v. Heiningen & Schwarz"; and ( 3 ) solvent injection, i.e. the injection into and circulation through a reservoir containing a viscous crude of a miscible liquid (see Offeringa & v. d. Poel'). The objectives of the paper are to give for each of these production mechanisms: ( a ) an unambiguous derivation of the complete sets of dimensionless groups; and (b) the limitations of the feasibility of dimensionally scaled model experiments. SURVEY O F LITERATURE ON DIMENSIONALLY SCALED RESERVOIR MODELS The use of dimensionless groups for the investigation
of the water drive process was initiated by Leverett

pendent variables, dependent variables, and constants. The total number of variables minus the number of equations which describe the process determines the number of independent variables. The independent variables can be converted into independent (dimensionless) groups by dividing them by some value of the same dimension, characteristic of the system. As the equations are dimensionally homogeneous, the dependent variables and the constant terms can be brought into a dimensionless form by dividing each equation by one or more of its constants, suitably selected. The dependent variables in their dimensionless form are called dependent groups, the (dimensionless) constant terms similarity groups. If the equations are differential equations, the relevant houndary and initial conditions are to be handled in the same way. A characteristic feature of inspectional analysis is the existence of a mathematically expressible concept of the phenomenon. This entails the introduction of a number of approximations, as a consequence of which some groups, which can be of importance under less ideal conditions, may be "forgotten". As an example we may mention the groups associated with pore size and pore size distribution, which are deleted if a Darcytype flow equation is adopted. Further, it is sometimes necessary to introduce empirical variables such as relative permeabilities, the physical meaning of which is not always clear. On the other hand, an inspection of the equations may reveal that two or more similarity groups only occur coupled together. This combination can then be considered as a single similarity group; the result is a smaller number of groups and greater flexibility as regards realization of a model than would follow from dimensional analysis. As opposed to the above, the set of groups obtained hy means of dimensional analysis is complete and the variables occurring in the groups have a clear physical meaning. However, the physical meaning of the similarity groups themselves, as derived by dimensional analysis, is generally less apparent than that of the groups derived by inspectional analysis. Deletion of one or more of the groups, which is necessary for the realization of a model, is therefore most conveniently discussed on the basis of inspectional analysis. As a consequence of the above considerations the method chosen was primarily inspectional analysis. The set of similarity groups obtained was afterwards freed from empirical variables and completed by means of dimensional analysis. It was hoped that by this procedure the advantages of the two methods could be combined. As the first stage of inspectional analysis, the basic equations of the displacement process in porous media will now be tabulated and classified. SURVEY O F THE TYPES O F EQUATIONS DESCRIBING FLOW PHENOMENA IN POROUS MEDIA The equations describing flow phenomena in porous media can be classified as follows: those describing the conservation of basic quantities in the system; those describing the dependence of the properties of single components on pressure and temperature; and those describing mutual interaction of the components.

et al.' Engelberts and Klinkenberg" extended this work. These authors exclusively used dimensional analysis. Rapoport and Leas' reported the results of "scaled" experiments on water flooding. A detailed study of the influence of the principal dimensionless group governing the water drive mechanism-the oil/water viscosity ratio-was published by Croes and Schwarz.' Offeringa and Van der Poel" carried out scaled model experiments on oil recovery by injection of solvents. The most successful attempt to arrive at an unequivocal derivation (by means of inspectional analysis) of the similarity groups governing cold-water drive was recently published by Rapoport." The present authors gladly made use of the above results, where necessary. METHODS FOR THE DERIVATION O F DIMENSIONLESS GROUPS The theory of dimensional analysis is described in
a large number of books and articles, of which we may

cspecially mention Langhaar," Focken" and Birkhoff.' The first step in the dimensional analysis of a problem must be to ascertain which variables are relevant to the problem. Special care should be exercised at this stage that all the relevant variables are included. The variables can be arranged in a set of dimensionless groups. The set is complete if all the groups in the set are independent of each other and if every dimensionless group containing the same variables, and not belonging to the set, can be formed by combining groups belonging to the set. Buckingham has put forward the rule that the numher of dimensionless groups in a complete set is equal to the total number of variables minus the number of fundamental dimensions, e.g. mass, length and time. Langhaar generalized this rule, but Buckingham's statement is sufficient for our purpose. All physical equations are relations between inde-

1. Equation of corzservation of n~utter(material balance o r continuity equation). This equation expresses the fact that the difference between the amounts of matter entering and leaving a source-free part of the system is equal to the increase of matter in this part. 2. Equation of conservation of mornerlturn, based on Newton's law, K = ma (equation of motion). The most general form of fluid flow is described by the equation of Navier-Stokes. For slow flow through porous media it may be specialized to some form of Darcy's law (see e.g. Muskat"). 3. Equation of conrerva~iorl heat (thermal balance o/ equation), expressing the fact that the difference between the amounts of heat entering and leaving a source-free part of the system both by conduction and by convection is equal to the increase in the amount of heat in that part. This definition entails the assumption that there is no conversion of mechanical energy into heat energy and vice versa. For an excellent review of these equations and of their interrelations the reader is referred to Klinkenberg and Mooy.''
PROPERTIES SINGLE OF COMPONENTS 1. The influence of pressure and tcmpcrature o n the density of single reservoir fluids (equations of state) ; 2. The influence of temperature on the viscosity of the liquids (the influence of pressure is neglected).

tratlons (C,, C,) are used instead of saturations (So,S,,.). The pore space is assumed to be completely filled with the two liquids, which is expressed by: S,=1-S, . . . . (5) C , = 1 - c,, respectively . . . . . ( 6 ) The equations of continuity give no information about the physical behavior of the particular system and therefore no similarity groups can be derived from them. This fact has been referred to earlier by Birkhoff.' Their function in inspectional analysis is to put the rates of flow in a convenient dimensionless form. The equations of motion for multi-phase flow in a porous medium are extensions of Darcy's law. This law has been proved to be valid for slow flow of a single phase only, but has been adapted to multi-phase flow by introducing the relative permeability concept and writing one equation for each phase. The generalized Darcy equations for the simultaneous flow of oil and water may be written as
_ 1
A

v,, = and

---

kk"' (grad p. - peg)

I",,

The mutual hindrance of the two liquids is here supposed to be completely accounted for by k , , and k , , . The flow of oil and diluent can be considered as that of a single phase because there is no definite interface
2

between the two liquids. Thus the velocities v, and 1. The diffusion of two miscible liquids into each other; 2. Capillary phenomena at interfaces between phases. The differential equations among the above relations are valid for a volume element which is small compared with the dimensions of prototype and model, but large compared with the diameters of the pores. For convenience it is assumed that porosity and permeability are uniformly distributed and that the permeability is isotropic. Further, only two dimensional flow in the vertical plane will be considered, because it represents the main body of experimental results obtained hitherto. Omission of these assumptions would result in the addition of some obvious similarity groups, fixing the distribution of the permeability, porosity, and geometry of the reservoir. DISCUSSION O F T H E EQUATIONS The continuity equations for the simultaneous flow of two immiscible liquids (oil and water) in a porous medium are respectively 2( p<>4s0) for the oil phase: div (p,v,) = . . Gt A (2) for the water phase: div (~,,v,,) = - ; ct If the displacing liquid is miscible with the oil-as in the case of a solvent o r diluent-there is only one phase, but a continuity equation can be given for cach of the two components, oil and diluent: A a(po+c0) for oil: div (p,,v,) = - - - . . . . . ( 3 ) - _ 1

v,, in the Eqs. 3 and 4 consist of a common part, representing the "Darcy flow": 3 k (grad p v = p,,,g) . . . . (9)
p,,,

and an individual part, resulting from diffusion (see below). Thermal balance equations are required for the description of the hot-water drive. In the presentation of these equations it will be assumed that: ( a ) the fluid phases and the rock grains are in such close contact with each other that in every volume element of the reservoir the temperatures of water, oil and rock are equal; and ( b ) the thermal constants are independent of pressure and temperature, and consequently of place and time. The thermal balance equation then reads: aT A 2 - PC - - ( p o ~ o v o p , c , ~ , ~ )grad T f

+ div X grad T = 0 .
in which

31

(10)

_, ,

.
and

pc : ~S,c,p, -k ~ S . c , p , . f ( 1 - 4 ) crp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . (11)

/\ = X,+S, A,@, X,(1 - 4 ) . . (12) The equations of state are simple, because liquids can be regarded as imcompressible and the dependence of their densities on the temperature can be given with sufficient accuracy by the cubic expansion coefficient /3. For the hot-water drive they are:

at

for diluent : div ( pdv,,) = --

--

a(~,~4~,,)
at

Because of the miscibility of the components, concen-

for cold-water drive p, = constant p , = constant, and for solvent injection:

(15') (16') The dependence of the viscosity of the liquid phases on pressure is neglected. The influence of temperature on viscosity is given by relations containing a number of thermodynamio properties of the liquids (see e.g. Bracket"). Such relations are not suited for inspectional analysis and a more practical approach will be adopted by introducing the jcaling rule: "The graphs of dimensionless viscosity against dimensionless temperature should be congruent for model and prototype". This scaling rule is represented by: (A LL , I , 7'/71,) . . (17)

p , = constant, p , ~ constant =

. . . . . . . .

account in a similar way as the influence of the temperature on the viscosky of the phases: (27) u cos 8 = ( a cos 8 ) 1 F,,.r(A,,,, T/T,) BOUNDARY AND INITIAL CONDITIONS For a complete description of the flow problems, only the relevant boundary and initial conditions are still lacking. The introduction of boundary conditions calls for a description of the geometry of the reservoir. The reservoir has a length 1 in the x-direction, a thickness h in the y-direction and is infinite in the zdirection. The x-z plane makes an angle of cr with the horizontal plane. For the sake of simplicity we will consider flow in the xy-plane; flow phenomena in the z-direction are neglected. These simplifications, entailing the elimination of two of the flow equations, do not restrict the generality of the derivation of the dimensionless groups; only evident dimensionless groups are lost. The boundary conditions for the displacement of oil by water are: f a ) for a given injection rate:

L O

fir,

"

and
pw =

p w tF

fi,,..T

(A

fiw.T,

, T/T,)

(18)

where A
p<,.T

and A
Bw

are (dimensionless) symbols

for the sets of relevant thermodynamic properties. Diffusion phenomena of two miscible liquids into each other are described by Fick's law: v,= - D , g r a d C . . . . . . . (19) D,, is the apparent diffusion constant which, according to L. J. Klinkenberg? is given by:

The complete flow equations for miscible liquids are found by combining Eq. 9 with 19, and 20, to give:
2

k
--

v, ==
2

C,
pa,,

(grad p

p,,,g) -

-grad

09
L

C.,

v,,. = 0 x=~+p=p,(t) * . . . . . . y=O,y=h+v,,=vw,=O ( b ) for a given injection pressure: x = 0 + ( p = Qp(t) p.(t) * .

(29)

. (30) . (31)

(21) D 9 grad C,, - !L L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (22) Diffusion causes a change in composition of the individual liquids and thus a change in their density and viscosity. It is supposed that the density of a mixture can be given by a linear combination of the densities of the two components, i.e. that no contraction occurs upon mixing: ,',,, = C,,P, ITdP,, . . . . . . . (23) The viscosity of the mixture 11," is symbolically expressed by the formula:
k v,, = - Cd - (grad p - p,.g)
0 ,I

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

v,, == 0

x = ~ + p = p , ( t ) * . . . . . . (29) y = O , y = h + v , , = v,,, = O . . . (30) For solvent injection the same equations apply, if the subscript i.r9is replaced by d. In the case of hot water injection Eqs. 28 through 31 have to be supplemented by those pertaining to the flow of heat: . r = O , O < y < I r + T = = T,, . . . (32) ( T=T,. . . (33) y =O,y = h +

in which which means that he graphs of& against C,, should

I*<l

(%)

is determined by 0 + - p,.c,,-2
at

~ ~ 0 . h

h 5y

aT

+ A, div grad T, = 0
. (36)
(35)

be congruent for the model and for the prototype. The ratio
p,, . - IS a parameter in this equation.
/J,d

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
with initial condition t = 0 + T = T,(x,Y) . and boundary conditions x = 0, x = 1-+

The equations representing the capillary pressure between two immiscible liquids have earlier been derived by Leverett'ycf. Rapoport" and can be brought in th,: form p, = p b a cos BV'-J(S,) . (25) p , = p + (b - 1) u cos ~V'-J(S,) (26) where p is the pressure that would prevail if the capillary pressure (p, - p,") were zero. In the literature the average pressure7 = (p, p,)/2 is often used instead of p, in which case h = 1 / 2 . The influence ot the temperature on the interfacial tension during hot-water injection can be taken into

- - - 0 (no heat losses) . aTc . . . (37) ax y = i a + T , finite . , (38) The initial conditions are for the cold-water drive: hot-water drive: solvent injection: ~ * = S , , ( X , Y ) , S,,=Soi(x,y), C., = 1, . . . . . . . . . . . . . (39) p = pi(x,y) * . p = pi(x,y),* p = pi(x,y)::' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (40) T=Ti(x,y) . (41)
"The specification of pc and pi is only necessary when the absolute values of the pressures influence the properties of the fluids or the rock. A s this is assumed not to be the case in the water drive process. pe and P I can be deleted.

VOL. 207.

1956

DERIVATION O F THE DIMENSIONLESS GROUPS BY INSPECTIONAL ANAI,YSIS The independent variables x. y and t can he written in dimensionless form as: X = x/l, Y = y / h and H t/r+ . . . . . . ( 4 2 ) r is some characteristic time, the form of which will be defined later. The Eqb. 1 through 41 can then be written in full and rendered dimensionless. The procedure will be illustrated for the equations describing the cold-water drive. The continuity Eqs. 1 and 2 can be written as follows (making use of Eqs. 5, 15 and 16):

The dimens~on~ess gl.oups appearing In the above set of equations are: 1 . independent variables: X, Y,9 2. dependent variables: , , v , , , ~ - - - $, v,,,~ T k p ~ 7'7'h 'p,,l" I ' 3. similarity grorrps:

T h e Leverett Eqs. 25 and 26 are substituted into the flow Eqs. 7 and 8, which are then brought into such a dimensionless form that the groups containing v, and v , are the same as those occurring in Eqs. 43 and 44:

knpi., or I ,&,.I? In exactly the same way the following similarity groups can be derived for the hot-water drive: I , p.,, k~ P ~ ,~.r. (S cos 0 ) - d l o _ - --.a,+,-,-------h /",,, I),..,' !Lil /kx.1 i p,, p,?ic p , c , --- ['.C'< J . h, k,", k,,, S o , ,P O T i ,- - I , p , ' ,'",C. p..,C,.'p.ic,, A*

h, k,,, k,,, S,,, either and

VT

' A,,

h"

"

p " c , I ? ' TI

" - -, A " Tb
P".T

,A
P,,..T

,A

".'.

and either

k.rp.-g sin /L I .
\\

cu

:"

(t).
ru

k b . r u cos O d +
+I,

acs,,)
'

I'

rls.,

'

ay

, + k,,, . J

'

p.,

Inspectional analysis of the equations for solvent injection leads to the set of similarity groups: I P,I k~ P,IR 1 , - , a, - , - , -, A,L,, and either - ~ r o +" p,, I I kAPT /&,I" ' The choice of T will be such that one of the similarity groups, depending on the boundary conditions, becomes equal to unity. Thus when the input velocity v of the displacing liquid is given, I

%,

1'

If, o n the other hand, the pressure drop ~p across the

reservoir is given,
-=
. -

cos Odj+
p,.. I'
'

d J :(St,) 4 rls,, ' ax

k~p,,.gsin a p. , 1 !

th

1 I ) 'rr cos c,T . -- / J -t: + ( 6(s,,) + k t % . , 1, c/S,, ' a Y I1 krp,-g cos cu b~, I . The boundary and initial conditions of importance for inspectional analysis are here (Eqs. 28 o r 31 and 3 9 ) :
-

!J

Apk in which !L has the subscript , for the cold-water drive, . ,,.i for the hot-water drive and ,, for the solvent injection. Some of the dependent variables are, in the form given above, difficult to measure. These groups, however, can be replaced by other groups, by means of relations valid at the outflow end of the reservoir. For instance
'

and

f (y), d y x:
qwT - and 4 2. hl 4..

= --

40' Ill

These relations give rise to the dependent groups:

For solvent injection convenient dependent groups are:

2

"The component of g in the z-direction is g sin a , that In the ),-direction g cos a.

9 and hl -

() 2
1-1

ADDITIONAL SIMILARITY GROUPS FROM DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS We now can apply Buckingham's rule to the sets of similarity groups obtained. In the cold-water drive we have found 12 groups, containing 19 parameters, viz. dJ 1, h, a, 7, k, p.,, p.,, pw, g, U P8, -, 6 , krO,kc,, So, dS, and v or A p . According to Buckingham's rule these should give 19-3 = 16 similarity groups (three fundamental dimensions: mass, length and time), so that four groups are lacking. Two of these "forgotten" groups According to the equations of the preare 8 and vious section they only occur - the combination in u cos t3 d + , which suggests that this combination can be considered as one single parameter and that 8 and 4 can be omitted as separate similarity groups, if u is replaced by u cos O &. The remaining two groups cannot be derived in the same unambiguous manner as the above groups, but it is plausible that one of them stands for the scaling down of the average pore diameter. A reasonable form for this group is l/d%. The other group that has to be introduced is equivalent to Reynolds' number and accounts for the inertial forces that were neglected in the differential equations. A reasonable form for this group is mentioned by Shchelkachev": pwldk -

+,

pendent groups and the other similarity groups) and are further determined by the pore size distribution and perhaps more or less by the remaining similarity groups. Introduction of a similarity group X , representing this distribution, thus enables us to transfer the above groups from the set of similarity groups to that of dependent variables. TABLE 1 All similarity groups discussed, together with the important dependent and independent variables in dimensionless form, are collected in Table 1. As is seen from this table, the final sets of similarity groups for the same production mechanism with different boundary conditions can be entirely different in appearance. Several dimensionless groups occurring in other engineering sciences have been named after prominent investigators, and are denoted by the first two letters of their names. Some of these groups, called after Reynolds and Peclet, are readily recognized among thosc derived in this paper. The groups called after Schmid. Weber, Froude, Prandtl and Grashof appear when some of the dimensionless groups in the chart are combined with the Reynolds' number. The Lewis group is obtained by multiplying the diffusion group

PO,

+.

~ k c ~group. et It is proposed, as already suggested by Shchelkachev," to name the ratio of pressure forces to viscous forces ($)after Darcy ( D a ) . For the ratio of capil(U

(3
-

with the

7p.w

In the hot-water drive we obtained 26 groups which contain 33 parameters (combining u and 0 , p, and c,, pc and c,) , viz. 1, h, a, 7, k, poi^ , u w i , P Q , , p w i , g, ( u c o s o ) i , J , kw, krTv9 O ! , Tb, Pc,, PW9 C W I P T C I ~pcCe, Xo, X w , Xr, X c , S Ti, CO, A ,A , A and v or ~ p There are in this case .

+,

lary forces to viscous forces

co;;yk&)

we suggest

' 9

IL",T,

Pw,T.

.,,

the name of Leverett and the symbol Lt, in order to avoid confusion with the symbol for the Lewis group. DISCUSSION O F THE REALlZABILITY O F DIMENSIONAL.LY SCALED RESERVOIRS Even a superficial study of the sets of similarity groups shows that the design of a scaled model of an oil reservoir in which all similarity groups have the proper value is out of the question. It is therefore necessary to onlit some of the groups. The proper choice of the group(s) to be deleted in a given case is essential for the experiment to be representative of the behavior of the prototype. The decision must be taken after it has been found experimentally what group(s) have little or no influence in that particular case. 1 1 The similarity groups - , U , --:and x refer ex\/k
elusively to the reservoir rock. - and a define the shape h of the reservoir; in any model the proper value can be

four fundamental dimensions, viz. mass, length, time and temperature, so that 33 - 4 = 29 similarity groups could be expected by dimensional analysis. Two of the groups that were not found by inspectional analysis are and &I/ ?\* . The last group lacking apk T/*,,. i pears to be the ratio between the heat quantity contained in the displacing fluid and the heat produced mechanically by the fluid forces. Thus, for the sake of completeness, the group again
1

\I'

pwic,<.Ti~
p.3,.

to be found by dimensional analysis, must be added. D+ If - = D, is considered as one variable, inspecL tional analysis of the solvent injection process gives eight similarity groups containing 13 parameters. Thus here 13 - 3 = 10 similarity groups could be expected. The lacking groups are again

\/* and

,<,I d k
T ~ , I

SIMILARITY OF PORE SIZE DISTRIBUTION 'The groups J , - , b, k,. and k , , are functions of dJ
dS

the saturation (dependent on the values of the inde-

assigned to them.--and ,y define the structure of the dk porous medium. It is much more difficult to give these two groups their proper value in a model. If the length is scaled down by a factor of, say, 100, constancy of l / v ' ~ w o u l dentail that the permeability is 10' times lower in the model than in the prototype. This condition cannot be fulfilled. Fortunately, however, the group l / d x does not follow from Darcy's law and

it will thus have no influence it this law applies for multi-phase flow. It is plausible to assume that I/\/% can be deleted, if the average diameter of the pores is much smaller than the smallest dimension of the reservoir, i.e. if l / d k ( o r h / \ / k ) is very large. The value of this group down to which the assumption is permissible has to be found experimentally. The group x can only be given its proper value if either: ( 1 ) the sand in both prototype and model is unconsolidated, because x is believed to have about the same value for all loose sands; o r ( 2 ) in the model the same porous medium is used as that of which the prototype consists, in which case a core of consolidated material can he used. Both possibilities will be discussed below. It will further be assumed that the initial distribution of oil and water can be simulated. We will now consider the individual production mechanisms. COLD-WATER DRIVE T h e case of a given injection rate will be discussed. An analogous reasoning can be applied to the case of a given pressure difference; the results obtained are essentially the same. The similarity groups to be considered are:

two remaining conditions are satisfied by: y ( k ) y(v) = y ( I - ' ) . Both the permeability and the velocity art. larger for this model than for the reservoir by a factor equal to the square of the length reduction. This makes it possible to use easily obtainable loose sands. and gives a convenient time scaling, namely y ( t ) = y ( 1 - 7 . Further it appears that y ( p ) = y ( I ) . Thus the reductions in pressure and length become directly proportional. If gravity forces may be neglected, the group k n p s "P is deleted and the conditions become y ( 1 ) = r ( k ) ( v - ' ) , which in general is impossible to realize because of the reducticn in permeability of the model and the high pressures to be used, since y ( p ) = y ( v ) = y (1.'). Deletion of capillary forces finally leads to: y(v) = y(k) = I, independent of ~ ( 1 ) In this case experiments will last . rather long. If it is permissible to use model liquids different from those in the prototype, the conditions:

can be satisfied without omitting any groups, as ap:>ears from the following example: y ( k ) = 1, y ( l ) = 100, y ( v ) = y ( p ) = ? L . y ( ~ p = !A, y ( u 00s 0 ) = 25. )
CONSOLIDATED SANDS

The group

causes no difficulties and therefore need Pw not be discussed. Further it is convenient to write
-

k n p g instead of kp,.g PwV Llr i,

If consolidated sands are used, y ( k ) general conditions are:

= 1

and the

bzcause then the interaction

f~,, -

that probably exists between

p ,>-

and

kpWg . is removed.
/.L

I'

Since large fluctuations in n p entail only small changes in"P this latter group is considerecl as inP..

variable and will be deleted. Finally the values ot HOT-WATER DRIVE and p, will be taken to be equal in prototype and Again we take model. We define a scaling factor y to be the ratio of the value of its argument in the prototype to that in . . . . the model. The subscripts , and ,, will further be Further it is assumed that the other material conomitted. stants are invariable: With the above considerations the scaling conditions y ( p c ) = y ( h ) = y ( A ) = . / ( P ) = 1. become: The scaling conditions following from the remaining knpg = ucos e d i v d k -1 y 7 = (7--)groups are:

which, obviously, cannot be satisfied if the model liquids are the same as the prototype liquids, unless capillary forces may be neglected, in which case y ( v ) = 1. If the liquids may be different, the design of a scaled model is feasible (compare example given above).

).(

( P J )

and
y ( + ) = Y ( P ) = 1. These can be written in the more convenient form:

or:
UNCONSOLIDATED SANDS

r(v2)= y

Taking the same liquids in prototype and model, it can be seen that the conditions become: y ( v 2 ) -- ( k - ' ) = y ( g d k ) = y (I-') or, for instance, y ( l ) = y ( k ) = r ( v - ' ) = y(g-2'3) In the following we will assume that because of the experimental difficulties involved, y ( g ) = 1. Then one of the three groups must be deleted. If this is chosen to be the Reynolds group

The last condition, stating that ./(a cos 6) = y(1.I) cannot be fulfilled, so that one of the groups has to be omitted. If Reynolds' group is deleted :
Y

(g)

vtap

cos (T)
0

0
=

y(l.2),

or:

(9)

=Y(

cos E) pvl

\C L

-)

=Y

(A)

= 1,

!'v\/k,
IL

the
P E ~ R O 1 . E I ' M 'I'H

\ZS.\(:'I'lOX%. . \ I

Wk

IJhing the same liquids:

which is impossible. If different liquids are used, various possibilities exist for loose sands, e.g. y ( A p ) = y(;c) = 1, y(1) = y(v-') = y(k-') = y ( a cos 0)' For consolidated sands y ( k ) = 1 and hence u COS tf y(v u cos 0 ) = y = y ( A P ) = -y

(f)

(T),

and possibly other groups is permissible has to be an.;wered experimentally. 6. The sets of dimensionless groups derived here are formally equivalent to sets of groups that are in common use in other engineering sciences. There are two reasons why the groups derived here are preferred for two-phase flow through porous media: (a) most of the conventional groups are ratios of forces to inertial forces, which latter are expected to be of minor importance in porous media; and (b) in the conventional groups k does not occur. Since l\/k cannot bc scaled, introduction of k by means of this group poses a difficult problem. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors' thanks are due to H. J. de Haan and J. Offeringa for their valuable discussions, to B. P. Boots and J. van Heiningen for their stimulating interest and constructive criticism and to the management of the Koninklijke/Shell-Laboratorium, Amsterdam, for their permission to publish this paper. NOMENCLATURE LATIN A = symbolic representation of a set of thermodynamic properties. A . , stands for the scaling rule: "the graphs of dimensionless a against dimensionless b should be congruent for the prototype and for the model" (dimensionless) ; b = distribution factor of the interfacial force (dimensionless) ; c = heat capacity per unit mass (J/kg OK); C = volume concentration (dimensionless) : D = diffusion constant (m2/sec); F = functions describing the relation between the properties of fluids and dependent variables: they always contain A,,, as a variable and have corresponding subscripts f dimensionless) ; g = acceleration of gravity (m/sec3) ; k = thickness of the sand ( m ) ; J = Leverett's function (dimensionless) ; k = absolute permeability (m'); k, = relative permeability (dimensionless) : 1 = length of the sand ( m ) L = lithologic factor (dimensionless) : p = pressure ( N / m 2 ); A p = pressure difference between inflow and outflow faces of the sand ( N / m 2 ) ; q = production rate (m3//msec):
_ 1

which cannot be done. If gravity is negligible, it can be shown that Y ( ucos 8 ) = y(l-l), if capillary forces are neglected : ytnpp.l") = 1; both requirements cannot be met. IN.JECTIOI\ SOLVENT With a reasoning analogous to that given for the preceding mechanisms, the scaling rules to be discussed can be reduced to:
. .

As y ( D ) = 1, the scaling rules are the same as : those for the hot-water drive without capillary forces, which means that model experiments are impossible unless one of the groups is deleted. Deleting Reynolds' group leads to:

The same fluids can be taken: y ( A p ) = -/(p.) = I , y ( v ) = y(k) = ~ ( 1 . ' ) Loose sand must be taken, however. Deleting gravity gives:

or:

which is only possible if p is increased appreciably. CONCLUSIONS

1. A complete arid detailed survey of the requirements that dimensionally scaled models of oil reservoirs should fulfil, viz. equality of the values of the similarity groups in model and prototype, is presented for the three production mechanisms investigated. 2. The procedure of deriving the similarity groups for displacement processes in porous media by means of inspectional analysis, completed by dimensional analysis, has advantages over the procedures used hitherto, namely those employing either inspectional or dimensional analysis. 3. Dimensionally scaled models can be realized only if the average pore size need not be sealed, that is if the group l / d x can be deleted in the range of interest. 4. A requirement for most of the practical models is that the influence of inertial forces is not significant in the range of interest, so that the Reynolds' group can be left out of consideration. 5. The question whether deletion of the Reynolds'

r = geometrical vector f m ) ; S = saturation (dimensionless) : 2 = time (sec) ; T = temperature (OK); v = flow or injection rate (mVm2.sec); x = coordinate in direction of I(m): X
I y = coordinate in direction of h(m) :
= - (dimensionless) ;
X

Y Y = -- (dimensionless) :

z = coordinate in direction perpendicular to x and y(m).

KEFERENCES Birkhoff, G.: Hydrodynamics, a Study in Logic, Fact and Similitude, Princeton University Press (1950). Ruark, A. E.: J. Eliha Mitchell Soc. (1935) 51, 127. Van Heiningen, J., and Schwarz, N.: "Recovery Increase by 'Thermal Drive' ", Preprint II/E-1, 4th World Petr. Congress, Rome (1955). Offeringa, J., and van der Poel, C.: Trans. AIME (1954) 201, 310. Leverett, M. C., Lewis, W. B., and True, M. E.: Trans. AIME (1942) 146, 175. Engelberts, W. F., and Klinkenberg, L. J.: Proc. Third World Petr. Congress, The Hague ( 1951) Section 11, 544. Rapoport, L. A., and Leas. W. J.: Trans. AIME (1953) 198, 139. Croes, G. A., and Schwarz, N.: Trans. AIME (1955) 204, 35. Rapoport, L. A.: Trans. AIME (1954) 201, 143. Langhaar, H.L.: Ditnensional Analysis and Theory o f Models, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1951). Focken, C. M.: Dimensional Methods and Their Applications, Arnold & Co., London (1953). Muskat, M.: Physical Principles of Oil Production, New York ( 1949). Klinkenberg, A., and Mooy. H. H.: Chem. Eng. Progress ( 1948) 44, 17. Bracker, A. V.: The Ind. Chem. (March, 1954) 112. Klinkenberg, L. J.: Bull. GSA (1951) 62, 559. Leverett, M. C.: Trans. AIME ( 1941) 142, 152. Shchelkachev, V. N.: (in Russian), Neftyanoe K h o z ~ ~ a i s t v(1948) 26, 24. o M

/3
y

O 8

angle of inclination of the sand with respect to the horizontal (dimensionless) ; = thermal cubic expansion coefficient (OK ') ; = scaling down factor (dimensionless); = viscosity (N.sec/mZ) ; = wetting angle of fluid interface (dimensionless): t = - (dimensionless)

79

thermal conductivity (J/m.sec0K) ; a =. interfacial tension ( N / m ) ; p = density (kg,/m"; T = characteristic time (sec) ; = porosity (dimensionless) ; x = similarity group for pore size distribution (dimensionless).
=

,, = injection water;
,. = cap rock; = concentration; , = diluent, = diffusion; = outflow end of the sand; , = initial; :,, = mixture: = oil; ,. = rock (except for D , and k,); , = temperature; . , = water; = coordinate in direction of 1; = coordinate in direction of h. fi = viscosity; a = interfacial tension.