Tourism and Poverty Alleviation in Zambia: Opportunities, Challenges and the Way Forward

Percy M. NGWIRA* Royal Agricultural College, Room 17, Garden House Stroud Road Cirencester, Gloucestershire United Kingdom

& Dan MUSINGUZI School of Hotel and Tourism Management The Hong Kong Polytechnic University 17 Science Museum Road Tsim Sha Tsui, Kowloon Hong Kong SAR

* Corresponding Author: Email: tngwira@gmail.com Telephone: +441285-652-531/ +447407383605

This paper should be cited as: Ngwira, P., and Musinguzi, D. (2011). Tourism and poverty alleviation in Zambia: opportunities, challenges and the way forward. Proceedings of the Joint Symposium on Sustainability and Quality-of-Life in Tourism: Tasks for Consumers, Industry, Policy and Academia, Chiang Mai, Thailand, May 24-27, 2011, CD-Rom.

Tourism and Poverty Alleviation in Zambia: Opportunities, Challenges and the Way Forward Background The role of tourism in alleviating poverty has been widely acknowledged based on the argument that tourism has pro-poor advantages over other traditional industries. However, poverty still persists in most communities with significant tourism resources. If tourism is to successfully alleviate poverty, identifying and examining tourism opportunities and challenges is critical. Purpose This paper identifies and examines the tourism opportunities and the major challenges hindering tourism from alleviating poverty in Zambia. The paper also proposes the way forward in using tourism to alleviate poverty in the country. Method Data were collected from the National Development Plan 2006-2010 (2006), the United Nations (2007) Report on Zambia, the Ministry of Tourism publication and other publications. Personal experiences of the first author and 52 online comments (mostly from Zambians) on the article published by the first author in Lusaka Times were the other sources of data. The data collected was analysed using content analysis technique. Findings Findings indicate the following as key opportunities for Zambia such as political stability, central location, undiscovered and undisturbed wildlife, the 7th Natural Wonder of the World (the Victoria Falls), historical and cultural heritage, among others are not fully utilized. The challenges were identified and are discussed in the findings section. Contribution The paper attempts to identify and examine the tourism opportunities that have not been fully utilized to alleviate poverty in Zambia. Also, the challenges are examined and the way forward is proposed. The study is valuable to tourism policy makers, development practitioners and other tourism stake-holders in Zambia.

Keywords: Poverty Alleviation, Tourism, Zambia

Background Poverty is the denial of peoples choices and opportunities that are most basic to human development. Simply put, poverty is the negative analogue of human development. Many humans especially those in developing and less developed countries have been denied choices and opportunities to access food, nutrition, health, education and literacy, safe water and sanitation, clothing and shelter. Zambia Poverty Reduction Strategic Paper 2002-2004 (2002) describes poverty as a multi-dimensional problem that needs a multi-dimensional approach in tackling it. Poverty means a lack of basic capacity to participate effectively in society. It means not having enough to feed and clothe a family, not having a clinic or school to go to; not having the land on which to grow ones food or a job to earn ones living, not having access to credit, it means insecurity, powerless and exclusion of individuals, households and communities (IMF & IDA 1999).

To fully understand the relationship between tourism and poverty alleviation, it is important also to understand what tourism is. The 1963 United Nations Conference on International Travel and Tourism defined tourists as temporal visitors who spend more than 24hours in a destination other than their normal place of residence. The pull factors for their travel should be holidaymaking, recreation, health, study, religion, sport, visiting friends and families, business or meetings (Sinclair 1998). This paper therefore, adopts this definition. Theoretically, tourism is an economic activity, which belongs to the invisible trade section of the balance of payments. Tourism is viewed as an export service product to foreign countries from which the tourists originate. In terms of local and

domestic tourists, tourism is accounted for within the internal trade regime and captured from the relevant sectors.

In 1991 the World Trade Organisation (WTO) adopted the Global Code of Ethics in which emphasis was placed on the fight against poverty in developing countries. In the same year, the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development called on governments to maximise the potential of tourism for eradicating poverty by developing appropriate strategies in cooperation with all major groups, and indigenous and local communities (United Nations 1999). In 2001, WTO working in collaboration with United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) published a report Tourism in Least Developed Countries. This report sought to support the development of tourism as one of the driving forces in the refocusing of economic development strategies for developing nations. In 2002, at the World Summit on Sustainable Tourism held in Johannesburg, South Africa, the World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) launched Tourism and Poverty Alleviation. At this summit tourism was identified as one of the few development opportunities for the poor and constituted a call for action (WTO 2002). Since this launch, there have been a number of interested stakeholders, organisations, individuals, governments and scholars coming on board to try and investigate how tourism can be used to alleviate poverty in developing countries.

In the wake of economic restructuring and globalisation many nations, especially developing ones, are in a hurry to redefine and build their economies. To reduce economic costs and increase its benefits, many international aid agencies and donor governments have also recognised the positive impact tourism can bring to a country by creating economic opportunities and contributing to the general quality of life of residents. According to the estimates from the World Development Report 2000-2001, almost half of the worlds six billion people live on less than US$2 a day, and a fifth live below the international poverty line of less than US$1 a day (World Bank 2000a, pp. 3-4).

Sachs (2005), a poverty guru, points out that global poverty is very serious; eight billion people die every year because they are too poor to live, and 20,000 people die every day due to untreated diseases.

While the numbers of those living below the poverty line in some countries of Asia, the Caribbean, and South America may have declined after this report was completed, the poverty rates continue to rise in many countries. In particular, South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, where 24.3% and 43.5% of people respectively, continue to survive on less than US$1 a day. The situation is even more serious in Africa; indeed, there has been a substantial and often worsening of poverty in Africa and comparisons with poverty indicators from other developing regions indicate that poverty is becoming Africanised (Gerosa 2003). Similarly, Ashley and Mitchell (2005, p.1) argue that African poverty is centre stage in contemporary development debates because its bad and getting worse. Africa is the only continent to have the distinction of experiencing a consistently worsening rate of poverty since 1990 flying in the face of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The search in African for pro-poor growth, thats growth which benefits poor people, is urgent.

Notably, while poverty levels still persist in developing countries and Africa in particular, in terms of tourism some of these countries have witnessed tremendous growth. Ashley and Mitchell (2005) note that whilst Africa contributes little to global tourism figures, tourism contributes significantly to African economies. For example, by 2003 tourism accounted for over 11% of total African exports, and 20% to 30% of exports, for most countries that exceeded the modest threshold of half a million foreign visitors a year. As a matter of fact, tourism is disproportionately important to Africa, compared to other continents. Africa accounts for just 1.6% of World GNP but 4.1% of all international arrivals. Though this growth and development of tourism in developing countries may seem small compared to Europe and North America, it has been rapid in the last decade.

According to the World Tourism Organisation, tourism growth in developing countries, mainly in Asia and Africa, has been very strong. For instance, Asia (+13%) was the first region to recover and the strongest growing region in 2010. International tourist arrivals into Asia reached a new record at 204 million last year, up from 181 million in 2009. Africa (+6% to 49 million), the only region to show positive figures in 2009, maintained growth during 2010, benefiting from increasing economic dynamism and the hosting of events such as the FIFA World Cup in South Africa. Results returned to double digits in the Middle East (+14% to 60 million) where almost all destinations grew by 10% or more (UNWTO 2011).

Debatably the above statement may be true, but this rapid growth is unjustifiable if it does not contribute to poverty alleviation for the people in developing countries. If this growth really represents the true picture of the situation and there is no improvement in the living standards and quality of life of the poor then there must be a problem in the way tourism development and investment is planned and implemented in these countries.

The post-colonial economic and poverty situations in Zambia Alwang et al. (1996) argue that poverty in Zambia is pervasive; however, rural areas suffer more from the prevalence of severe poverty than urban areas. After attaining independence from Britain in 1964, Zambia inherited a mono-cultural economy driven by a single export commodity copper. From 1964 to the middle 1980s copper exports sustained the whole economy, accounting to 90% of the countrys foreign income. After 1980, Zambias economy started feeling the effects of depending on a single-product export. As with any country dependant on a single-product export the countrys copper-led economy began to spatter to such degree that by 1983 the countrys economy was firmly set on a downward spiral, with copper prices at the London Metal Exchange and the New York Stock Exchange witnessing unprecedented downturns (Muuka et al. 2006). Garenne and Gakusi (2006) also confirm this by arguing that the main reason for the major

economic downturn in Zambia after independence can be found in the international copper prices, the Zambian production system and its over reliance on the copper itself. The copper price crises made Zambias economic situation unbearable and the government turned to borrowing money from a number of lending institutions (e.g. the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund). Furthermore, Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) initiated by the World Bank in more than 30 Sub-Saharan African countries, were adopted in an attempt to boost Zambias economic performance.

Freedom fighters (e.g. former first Republican President Dr. Kenneth Kaunda) argue that the downfall of Zambias economy after independence could be attributed to the countrys involvement in the fight for colonial liberalisation for other countries in Southern Africa. In fact, after attaining independence from Britain in 1964, Zambia spent huge sums of money assisting South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Angola, and others to fight colonialism. Teye (1986, pp. 590) agrees with Dr. Kaunda by pointing out that the decade between 1957 and 1967 is notable for the rapid decolonisation of Sub-Saharan AfricaRhodesias 1980 Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) had an adverse impact on all sectors of Zambias economy. Due to historic ties with Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and involvement in liberation war, Zambia operated for 15 years under Rhodesias international isolation and United Nations trade sanctions.

However, scholars such as Rakner (2003) and Zimba (2006) agree with the above arguments but add that apart from rendering assistance to fight colonialism, Zambias poor economic performance after independence is attributed to a lack of coherent strategy for economic growth. They believe that the political elites had no proper long-term policies (aimed at alleviating poverty in the country) and the government over-relied on and accepted the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Banks (WB) imposed economic decisions. Towards the end of the 1980s Zambias economy had even become worse, to such an extent that people demanded political changes to save

the rapidly deteriorating economy. In 1991 Zambia had a historical political change, from one party participatory democracy to a multi-party participatory democracy, and ushered in a new government formed by the Movement for Multi-Party Democracy.

The 1991 political change was perceived as the answer to the economic woes that the country had been experiencing. But little did the masses realise that Zambia was now heading for more hard times than ever before. The new government brought about a liberalised, private sector driven economy and continued borrowing from the WB and IMF under strict bank-fund lending requirements called conditionality (Muuka et al. 2006). Garenne and Gakusi (2006, p. 1771) argue that when Dr. Chiluba formed the new government in 1991, large parastatals were sold to the private sector, the kwacha was left free to fluctuate and was devaluated several times, and prices were liberalized. Five years later, under the new government, Zambias economy had even become more difficult to manage and the poverty levels were soaring high. Some political and economic commentators attributed this situation to an increase in population and the effect of HIV/AIDS that had hit the Sub-Saharan African region. Although the Movement for Multi-party Democracy government tried to smooth economic performance and reduce poverty levels by adopting privatisation and a diversification strategy to introduce industries other than a mono-product copper driven economy, the situation had not improved as anticipated. By the end of 1999, Zambia was listed amongst the ten poorest countries in the world.

By the year 2001, the poor economic conditions had continued its downward spiral and poverty levels continued soaring. The Zambian people therefore, changed government leadership through the 2001 tripartite elections and the New Deal government was ushered in. This government was charged with responsibility to turn Zambias economy around; one may argue that since the change of government leadership in 2001, the country has witnessed some fractional improvement in the economic development and in GDP annual growth (e.g. 2006: GDP 5.8%, and 2007: GDP 6.2%

2008: GDP 6.8%, 2009: GDP 6.1%, 2010: GDP 6.4). However, surprisingly, poverty levels still remain high especially in rural areas. The Civil Society for Poverty Reduction (CSPR) has observed that poverty levels in Zambia are still on the increase. CSPR information and programmes officer Patrick Nshidano observed that, an average of 85 percent of people in rural areas, and 34 percent in urban areas, are still living under the poverty datum line (QFM News 2011).

Though Zambias economy is still dependant on copper exports, the current Zambian government has put emphasis on diversification and promotion of small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) to reduce poverty levels. Mainly the country is moving away from the tradition of a copper driven export economy to non-traditional exports (NTEs). This non-traditional export strategy has seen such industries as agriculture, tourism; manufacturing and construction receive more support than before. The government is taking these measures to avoid the repeat of what happened in the past with over reliance on copper. One industry within the NTEs that can turn Zambias economy around, but has not yet been developed to its full potential, is tourism. Teye (1986) indicates that due to the unstable copper prices, Zambia developed interest in tourism development in order to diversify her economic base. Though tourism is an important activity in Zambia, tourism still remains a potential sector in the Zambian economy (Husbands, 1989). Muuka et al. (2006) state that apart from its role as an NTE option, tourism has great potential of generating much needed foreign income and quickly creating direct and indirect employment. Furthermore, its cost per job is lower than other industries. For a country like Zambia which is politically stable and endowed with abundant natural and cultural tourist attractions, tourism can make a meaningful contribution to the economic development and poverty alleviation.

The Development and Current state of Tourism in Zambia

Zambia is endowed with an abundance of natural, cultural and heritage tourism resources which have not been fully exploited. Thus, one would argue that the countrys tourism marketing slogan is Zambia, the Real Africa. If Zambias tourism industry can be given the required support and develop to its full potential, its contribution to poverty alleviation could be great. The countrys tourism industry is mainly based on wildlife, natural and cultural heritage resources. Arguably, despite having so much tourism potential, Zambia still has not fully realised the benefits of developing the industry to its full potential and poverty continues to plague communities, even those living near areas rich in tourism resources.

Since independence, up until after 1996, Zambias tourism industry was just classified as a social sector. Other scholars like Teye (1988) state that tourism was not recognised as a sector worthy of development until 1965, after Zambia gained her independence. Arthur (1968) affirms that in 1965 Zambia developed the first National Development Plan; in that plan it projected 155,000 foreign visitors and US$6 million receipts by 1970, basing its estimation on tourist arrivals and revenue during the early 1960s. Accordingly, Zambia Central Statistical Offices 1967 records show that in 1965 Zambia received 117,800 foreign visitors, a far greater number than 81,400 visitors the same year for Kenya, which had and still has a well-developed tourism industry (United Nations 1969). Actually the United National Independence Party (UNIP) national policy of 1974 to 1980 emphasised tourism as one of the vehicles for economic diversification (UNIP 1974, p.35). Despites all these efforts by the Kaunda government, everyone who has followed tourism development in Zambia would agree that it was only after 1996 that the government in power realised the important contribution that tourism could make to the economy. They started developing the first national tourism policy in 1997.

To ensure proper implementation of the tourism policy the Ministry of Tourism had to undergo restructuring and alignment for sustainable tourism development planning and management. The

Ministry was first restructured in 1999, through the government restructuring program, which also included the alignment of some Statutory Boards under the Ministry (e.g. Zambia Wildlife Authority and National Heritage Conservation Commission). In 2002, the Ministry of Tourism was merged with the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources to become the Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural Resources. The combination of the environment and tourism is a deliberate policy by the government of Zambia to ensure sustainable tourism planning and development. The Department of Environment takes the role of environmental policy formulation, implementation, coordination, and monitoring; while the Department of Tourism assumes the role of tourism policy formulation, implementation, coordination and monitoring. The mission statement for the tourism sector is to contribute sustainably to the economic well-being and enhanced quality of life for Zambians through Government led, private sector driven, quality product developments that are consistent with the protection of the unique natural and cultural heritage (Ministry of Tourism 1999).

Tourism and Poverty Alleviation in Zambia The governments long vision for the tourism sector is to ensure that Zambia becomes a major tourist destination of choice with unique features, which contribute to sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction (Zambia PRSP 2002-2004 2002, p.66). Surprisingly, the contribution of tourism to poverty alleviation in Zambia has not been felt by the poor people in the country. The problem is that the government has not formulated and implemented tourism programs that are aimed at alleviating poverty. So far, the government has taken up a generic development system, where tourism is being developed in a general sense so that the operators benefit more and the benefits are not shared equally among the local people. A good example would be Livingstone, the tourist capital of Zambia. For a long time Livingstone has been the only recognised town in Zambia as having tourist attractions and activities. It is a must visit town for both international and local tourists. On the contrary, the people in this town still live on less than a dollar per day and their

livelihood has not improved (United Nations 2007). Though tourism development in Zambia has witnessed a steady growth, especially in the past decade, the development level has been at a slow pace compared to other countries in the same region, such as South Africa. From the economic point of view the sector has been placed third after mining and agriculture as one of the most important industries in the country. Tourism in Zambia has a lot of opportunities to act as a poverty reduction tool, even when there are challenges facing the tourism sector.

Purpose of the study The purpose of this study is therefore threefold. Firstly, the study identifies and examines tourism opportunities (under-developed tourism resources) in Zambia. Secondly, it identifies and examines the major challenges hindering tourism from alleviating poverty in Zambia. Thirdly, based on the examination of the opportunities and challenges, the authors propose the way forward for Zambia in relation to using tourism to alleviate poverty in the country.

Method Data were collected from the National Development Plan 2006-2010 (2006), the United Nations (2007) Report on Zambia, the Ministry of Tourism publication and other publications by scholars such as Alwang et al. (1996), Garenne and Gakusi (2006), Teye (1986), Rakner (2003) and Zimba (2006). In addition, the first author, being a national of Zambia and having worked with the Ministry of Tourism for years, has invaluable personal experiences and observations on the state of tourism in Zambia which were incorporated in this paper. Lastly, 52 online comments (mostly from Zambians) on the article about marketing Zambia published by the first author in Lusaka Times, one of the leading local newspapers in Zambia, were analyzed and utilized for this study. The data were analysed using the content analysis technique. The findings from the analysis are presented and discussed in the section that follows:

Findings and Discussion This section firstly presents and discusses the opportunities, followed by the challenges of alleviating poverty through tourism. The section ends with the way forward proposed by the authors. Opportunities for using tourism as a poverty reduction strategy Zambia has great opportunities for using tourism to alleviate poverty. They include: (a) safe, secure and political stability, (b) Zambias central location, (c) undiscovered and undisturbed wildlife, (d) Zambia is home to the 7th natural wonder, (e) many tourist sport and adventure activities, and (f) rich historical and cultural heritage.

(a) Political Stability and Safety Muuka et al. (2006) indicates that some tourists have been visiting Zambia out of curiosity about its rather unique distinction, by perceived African standards. Since its independence on 24th October, 1964, Zambia has never experienced nor suffered the indignities of civil war or serious internal or external conflicts. Though a number of its neighbors have been involved in civil wars, Zambia is politically stable. Zambia can capitalize on this advantage and use it in promotion materials in order to increase the inflow of tourists and in turn, tourisms contribution to the well being of people. It is important to note that even though Zambia is politically stable, conflicts happening in neighboring countries could tarnish the name of a haven of peace. This is because tourists may generalize conflict situations in Africa to all countries on the continent due to the influence of the exaggerated media reports. So, joining other countries in ensuring peace on the African continent is vital even when there is political peace and safety in Zambia. Alleviating poverty should be made a priority because poverty fuels political unrest and terrorism.

(b) Zambias central location

Zambia is a landlocked country, centrally located at the northern edge of Southern Africa. Its central location offers visitors to Southern Africa a chance to visit the country with relative ease. Zambia can also use this opportunity to ensure that tourists who visit neighbouring countries also visit Zambia. This is shown by the fact that during the 2010 World Cup hosted by South Africa, Zambia was the 4th highest visited country on the African continent with a total number of 1,852 visitors (South Africa Tourism 2010). Being centrally located in Southern Africa (the region leading in tourist arrivals on the African continent), Zambia could market itself much more easily. However, occupying a strategic central location may not guarantee success in tourism, if tourism products and service are not of high quality and highly competitive on the local and international markets. The central location is just an added advantage after tourism product quality has been improved to meet or exceed the expectations of tourists.

(c) Undiscovered and Undisturbed Wildlife Zambia boasts of undisturbed and undiscovered wildlife with 19 National Parks and 34 Game Management Areas, the country is one of the finest safari destinations in Africa. It is a birthplace for walking safaris and tourists have a chance to get close to nature. Kafue and South Luangwa National Parks are two of the largest of Zambias 19 national parks and they are part of the largest wildlife sanctuaries in Africa. Kafue National Park is Zambias oldest and largest national park and is the second largest wildlife park in the world. The Lower Zambezi National Park and the South Luangwa National Park offer a combination of spectacular river line sceneries and abundant and diverse game for viewing. South Luangwa is Zambias second largest national game park covering an area of 9,050 square kilometers. This park has the largest concentration of wildlife. Between 1969 and 1973, the United National Development Program (UNDP) carried out a major survey of the South Luangwa National Park and reported the following estimated animal populations in the park: 14,000 hippopotamus, 60,300 crocodiles, 100,000 elephants, 21,000 buffalos, 2,800 rhinos, numerous birds, other reptiles and mammalian (UNDP/FAO 1973).

Although Zambias wildlife appears to indicate success in bio-diversity conservation, it is important to evaluate why the poor local communities bordering these wonderful wildlife resources do not benefit from tourism. It would appear that Zambia has already achieved its wildlife conservation goal, but what remains a great challenge and perhaps a threat to such an achievement is the occurrence of severe poverty. It may imply that poverty alleviation goals have not been achieved, yet conservation and poverty alleviation should go hand in hand. Otherwise, poverty could potentially endanger protected wildlife and lead to its loss. Local communities can only support conservation efforts if protected areas generate meaningful benefits. Needless to say, conflicts between local residents and the management of wildlife protected areas are common and are attributed to the lack of sustainable benefit accruing from protected resources. The poor often expect such resources to be utilized in the development of communities faced with poverty.

(d) Zambia is home to the 7TH Natural Wonder of the World THE VICTORIA FALLS There are a number of high water falls around the world; among them is the Victoria Falls on the Zambezi River. Known by the locals as Musi-ao-Tunya or Shungu na Mutitima which translates in English as the The Smoke that Thunders, the Victoria Falls are inspiring and awesome waterfalls, classified as a world heritage site and the worlds seventh natural wonder. When they were first sighted by the European explorer Dr. David Livingstone in 1857 he described them as scenes so lovely must have been gazed upon by angels in their flight. Holub 1881 also spoke of them: Truly it is a scene in which a man may well become aware of his own insignificance!. Another European explorer, Selous in 1881, described them as one of, if not the most transcendentally beautiful natural phenomena on this side of paradise.

(e) Many Tourist Sport and Adventure Activities

Zambia also offers a wide range of adventure and sports activities that include Bungee Jumping. The Victoria Falls Bridge offers one of the highest bungee jumps in the world, plunging oneself down 111 metres onto the Zambezi river. This is the worlds most spectacular breath taking activity. Second, Abseiling on the Batoka Gorge on the Zambezi River offers a thrilling experience. Third, the Gorge Swing, a free-fall breath taking gorge swing for 50metres off the edge of the Batoka Gorge offers a unique and memorable experience. Although Zambia is a land locked country, there are many water-based activities on rivers and lakes. They include: fishing, kayaking white water rafting, river cruises, canoeing and sailing. Other activities include, White Water rafting on Zambezi River, Jet Boating, and Helicopter Flights, Fishing, Horse and Elephant Riding, Game Drives, and Boat and Canoe Safaris. These activities are a potential tool for tourism development. However, it is important to identify participation/user rates in these activities by local Zambians and other African visitors. This is important to know because generally most Africans regard tourism and its activities as a business for foreigners from far off countries. This appears to be a major challenge for some African countries trying to develop a vibrant domestic/local tourism industry. As a consequence, attention is often focused on developing international tourism associated with high leakages and low linkages at destinations and hence minimal impact on the poor.

(f) Rich Historical and Cultural Heritage Heritage and cultural tourism is one of the rapidly growing tourism niches around the world, usually associated with tourists who stay longer and spend much time at their destination. Zambia, like any other country in Africa has great stories to tell, from the life of Bushmen, African Great

Trek, slavery, scramble for Africa, colonization to modern Zambia. Visitors will learn a lot from its rich history and the local people are willing to share Zambias rich cultural heritage. Historically, Zambia is a country that was formed due to the movement of people from North Africa, Southern Africa, Eastern Africa and the West of Africa, creating a country with a diverse cultural heritage boasting more than 70 different tribes. So as not to forget where this multi-faceted people originated, a number of cultural festivals are held annually dating from far back in time. Annual festivals are potential tourist attractions for cultural and heritage lovers. The major annual festivals and their full description are presented in the following sections:

The Ncwala Ceremony by the Ngoni people (February): This ceremony is performed by the Ngoni people of Eastern Province, at Mutenguleni village. It is held to offer religious thanksgiving. The ceremony is very significant to the Ngonis as it authorizes people to start eating their fresh produce of the year. The ceremony is characterized by singing, traditional dancing, paying homage to the paramount Chief and performing traditional rituals.

The Kuomboka Ceremony by the Lozi people (Feb/March): Moving the King annually from one palace to the other is something many people would never think of, but this has been the way of life for the people in the western part of Zambia. This is one of the most famous and colourful ceremonies dating far back in time. Back in time paramount Chief Litunga of the Lozi, established his Headquarters at Lialui, later it was discovered that during the rainy season, the palace was submerged into waters of the overflowing Zambezi River. He was then quickly evacuated to another palace on the higher lands called Limulunga, after the rain season the King was taken back to Lialui. Like the Ncwala ceremony of the Ngonis, the Kuomboka is also charaterised by singing, traditional dancing, paying homage to the King and performing traditional rituals.

Other annual festivals are: The Mutomboko Ceremony by the Lunda people (July) and Likumbi Lya Mize by the Luvale people (July/August).

These are the opportunities for cultural heritage tourism that have not been fully utilized in Zambia. Overdependence on wildlife tourism has been the norm in Zambia and little attention is paid to the development of a sound and sustainable cultural heritage base to support the wildlife tourism sector. However, should traditional performances be earmarked for development, then caution should be taken so that they do not become staged demonstrations, as tourism has been criticized for affecting cultural performances and making them devoid of traditional meaning. If Zambia plans to develop this neglected tourism niche, traditional performance should be done according to traditional standard not just to please tourists/visitors.

Despite numerous tourism opportunities/potentials discussed above, these have not been fully utilized and also tourism has not been effective in alleviating poverty among most Zambians living in areas with such opportunities. This implies that there are major challenges that Zambia needs to address if tourism resources or tourism is to become an important strategy in the alleviation of poverty that still plagues most of her rural societies. The following sections present and examine the challenges in light of poverty alleviation.

(1) Underdeveloped tourism infrastructure Zambias tourism infrastructures, including airports, telecommunications, accommodation and roads to tourist attractions are largely underdeveloped (National Development Plan 2006-2010 2006). This challenge is not only unique to Zambia but also other developing and less developed countries face the same challenge.

(2) Limited tourism product base It is known that nearly all the tourism resources of Zambia are nature based, specifically wildlife (National Development Plan 2006-2010 2006). Although wildlife remains a significant tourist

attraction in most African countries, it is not a good idea to solely rely on wildlife. A diversified tourism base is essential for development as not all tourists are interested in wildlife. Cultural and heritage tourism is one of the emerging segments that Zambia has to develop and fully utilize. The cultural/traditional performance described earlier needs more support in order to broaden Zambias tourism base.

(3) Inadequate marketing of Zambia as a tourist destination, The marketing of tourism in Zambia done by Zambia National Tourist Board (ZNTB) has been ineffective because it neglects the local market in pursuit of international markets. Also, Zambias marketing efforts remain focused on a few stakeholders who market their own products. An interregional marketing league is lacking and generally marketing for tourism in African countries has remained the responsibility of single countries, yet this is the most expensive way of doing tourism business. The formation of an interregional marketing league may perhaps do better. Zambia focuses all its marketing efforts on international tourism. Although international tourism is important, it is often associated with low linkages and high leakages due to the high involvement of foreign companies and also tourists demand for imported goods. There is a need for the Zambia Tourism Board to shift its marketing efforts towards local tourism development. There is a lack of accurate tourism figures on who visited Zambia and whether they intend to come back, if yes, when? If no, why not? Such information is missing. Mabvuto-Ngwira (2011) comments that, with all their international marketing efforts ZTB has never given this nation annual figure of tourists who come due to their international marketing efforts.

(b) Some tourism documents stop at describing problems Policy or tourism plan documents simply describe tourism problems and do not offer concrete strategies that need to be implemented. Examples of the descriptive statements from the National Development Plan 2006-2010 (2006) include the following:

1 - There is lack of interest and limited participation among local communities. From the time tourism was identified as a catalyst to rural development, the interests of the local communities have not been fully incorporated 2- There is a dearth of well trained human resource in the tourism sector due to inadequate resources and training facilities, 3- Zambia is generally perceived as a high cost destination. The high costs are attributed to various factors, such as limited international carriers and domestic flight connections; limited hotel accommodation; and inadequate dependable health facilities (National Development Plan 2006-2010 2006, pp. 106). These are some of the challenges outlined in the National Development Plan. However, from a development perspective, no concrete strategies are suggested to overcome them. Also, in the whole National Development Plan of approximately 400 pages serious tourism issues are outlined in less than 6 pages with no comprehensive analysis or recommendations.

(4) Inadequate resources for the long term development of the tourism industry Like any other developing country, Zambia suffers from inadequate resources for tourism development. Government funding of the tourism sector has been inadequate to bring about tangible results (National Development Plan 2006-2010 2006, pp. 106). However, the real problem may not be inadequate resources but lack of proper use of the available resources, as this seems to be the case in most developing countries. Many of the financial resources in poor countries continue to be spent on purchasing modern military equipment instead of being used as investment in priority sectors such as tourism and agriculture etc. that have the potential to benefit the poor. Also, heavy spending on government ministers is one of the causes of inadequate finance resources in most poor countries. Inadequate resources are a symptom of a complex problem in Zambia. Surprisingly, most developing countries keep treating mere symptoms without diagnosing the actual problems of a lack of resources.

(5) Lack of interest and limited participation among local communities Local communities interest and participation is important in using tourism for poverty alleviation. In Zambia, the National Development Plan 2006-2010 (2006) acknowledged that local communities lack interest and their participation in tourism is limited. The reasons why locals are not interested in tourism and their limited participation need to be investigated and the best solution found. From personal experience, the following are some of the causes of lack of interest and participation among local communities. Firstly, local communities of the developing countries lack adequate knowledge about tourism. This is exacerbated by high levels of illiteracy rates that hinder acquisition of tourism knowledge. Secondly, local communities lose interest in tourism if it does not benefit them, but causes negative impacts. As Zambia is largely dependent on wildlife tourism, the establishment of protected areas to conserve wildlife is most likely associated with negative impacts on locals such as loss of land to protected areas, loss of crops and livestock to wildlife, among others. Such uncompensated costs usually lead to a loss of interest in tourism by local residents. One of the best ways of winning back their support and interest is to strengthen the revenue sharing systems and allocate such revenue to the development of local poverty projects.

(6) Limited well trained human resource Limited well trained human resource in Zambia (National Development Plan 2006-2010 2006, pp. 106) is a hindrance to using tourism as a tool for poverty alleviation. The lack of, or limited trained human resources at the destination country implies that expatriates or foreign companies have to dominate the tourism businesses which results in low linkages and high leakages because most of the profits are repatriated out of the destination leaving it poorer but with a booming tourism industry. Such can be described as poverty amid plenty which is common in developing countries, Zambia inclusive.

(7) Zambia is perceived as a high cost destination The problem of being a high cost destination is not unique to Zambia. Most countries on the African continent experience the same problem due to costly transport, health, and accommodation facilities. The high cost may not be a serious obstacle if local tourism products and services are of high quality that meets or exceeds tourists expectations. Tourists are mostly likely to pay high prices provided they get value for money. The perception among tourists that Zambia is a high cost destination could be an indication that perhaps they are not satisfied with the level of tourism products and services and as such they feel they are spending a lot yet not getting value for money. Even if a destination is cheap it may be branded as costly by tourists if they are not satisfied with the quality of tourism being offered to them.

The Way Forward and Concluding Remarks For a nation with a long history of mono-commodity export products for its much need foreign earnings like Zambia which has mainly depended on copper, there is a negative spiral effect when prices at the world markets tumble. This is exactly what has happened to Zambia many times and the country now cannot afford to live in the same old economic way, when there is a great opportunity offered by the tourism sector. With Zambias abundant and diverse natural and cultural resources, we are convinced that the tourism sector is a tool for spurring economic growth and development. But more investments to upgrade and develop infrastructure are needed to spur tourism growth.

The government in collaboration with all stakeholders (donors, NGOs, Banks, tourism operators and the Zambian general public, etc.) should formulate and implement tourism programs and plans that are aimed at satisfying the tourist, but at the same time at alleviating poverty. Tourism commercial ventures should give 5-10% of their pre- tax earnings to the development of the poor local communities in which they operate. The primary goal for Zambias tourism development is to

achieve a broad base which sustains the living standards of the Zambian people. This will require concerted efforts to tackle the intolerable enemy called poverty that continues to plague half of Zambias population.

While the government has the responsibility of spearheading and creating an enabling tourism business environment, the private sector and all other stakeholders should have a vital role to play in working towards overcoming the constraints facing the tourism industry and also the country at large. To ensure that tourism contributes to economic development and the benefits trickle down to the poor people, there is a need for Zambia to mobilise its resources (monetary, human, natural and cultural) and use them efficiently and effectively. Tourism research and human development is critical to the success of tourism development in any nation. Timothy (1998) noted that there is a significant lack of research on tourism in developing countries. Zambia should strive to overcome this obstacle if tourism is to be used effectively in alleviating poverty. This can be achieved by the government providing research grants to researchers to engage in projects focusing on Zambias tourism and poverty alleviation issues. In addition, Zambias universities should concentrate on training students on the research aspects through offering more and higher quality research based degrees such as Master of Philosophy (MPhil) and Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degrees.

References Alwang, J, Siegel P. B, and Jorgensen, SL 1996, Seeking Guidelines for Poverty Alleviation in Rural Zambia, World Development, vol. 24, no. 11, pp. 1711-1723.

Arthur, DL 1968, Zambias Tourism: The Way Ahead. A Tourism Development Study for Zambia. London. Arthur D. Little, Inc

Ashley, C, and Mitchell J 2005 Can tourism accelerate pro-poor growth in Africa?, Overseas Development Institute Publication, United Kingdom.

Garenne, M, and Gakusi, AE 2006, Vulnerability and resilience: determinants of under-five mortality changes in Zambia, World Development, vol. 34, no. 10, pp. 1765-1787.

Husbands, W 1989, Social status and perception of tourism in Zambia, Annals of Tourism Research, vol.16, no. 2, pp. 237-253.

IMF & IDA 1999, Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper: Operational Issues: Washington DC

Mabvuto-Ngwira, P 2011, Why Zambian tourism marketing has failed, Retrieved on 10 April 2011, <http://www.lusakatimes.com/2011/03/23/zambian-tourism-marketing-failed/>

Mataka, D. (2006, March 12). No reason why Zambia tourism cant boom. Times of Zambia daily News Paper. Lusaka, Times Print Park.

Ministry of Finance and National Planning 2011, 2011 National Budget, Lusaka. Government Printers.

Ministry of Finance and National Planning, Planning and Economic Management Department 2002, Zambias Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) 2002-2004, Mipal Printers, Lusaka.

Ministry of Tourism 1999, Tourism Policy for Zambia, Government Printers, Lusaka.

Muuka, G .N, Hendon, G., Niffenegger, P., and Muuka L.W. (2006). When tourism has the potential to turn a nation around: the case of Zambia in the 21st Century. The Consortium Journal Volume 10 (2).

QFM news 2011, Zambia: Poverty levels in Zambia are still on the increase-CSPR. Retrieved on 23 January 211, <http://www.lusakatimes.com/2010/03/31/poverty-levels-zambia-increasecspr/>

Rakner, L 2003, Political and economic liberalisation in Zambia, 1991-2001, Nordic African Institute.

Sinclair, MT 1998, Tourism and economic development: a survey, Journal of Development Studies, vol. 34, no. 5, pp. 1-51.

South African Tourism 2010, Impact of 2010 FIFA World Cup, Research Unit, Sandston, Johannesburg.

Teye, VB 1986, Liberation wars and tourism development in Africa: the case of Zambia, Annals of Tourism Research, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 589-608.

Teye, VB 1988, Geographical factors affecting tourism in Zambia, Annals of Tourism Research, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 487-503.

Timothy, DJ 1998, Cooperative tourism planning in a developing destination. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 52-68.

UNDP/FAO 1973, Luangwa valley conservation and development project. FAO. World Bank, Rome.

United National Independence Party (UNIP) 1974, National Policies for the next Decade 1974-84 Freedom House, Lusaka, Zambia.

United Nations 2007, Zambia Economic and Poverty Impact of Nature-based Tourism. Economic and Sector Work Africa Region. Report No. 43373-ZM, UN, New York.

United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development Seventh Session, 19-30 1999. Agenda item 5 E/CN.17/1999/L.6: Washington DC.

United Nations World Tourism Organisation 2011, International Tourism 2010: Multi-speed recovery, Retrieved 03 March 2011,< http://www.unwto.org/media/news/en/press_ det.php?id=7331>

United Nations 1968. Statistical Year Book. UN, New York.

Gerosa, V 2003, Pro-poor growth strategies in Africa - tourism: a viable option for pro-poor growth in Africa?, Paper prepared for the Economic Commission for Africa Expert Group Meeting, Kampala, Uganda, 23-24 June.

World Bank 2000a, World Development Report 2000-2001. World Bank, Washington DC.

World Tourism Organisation 2002, Tourism and Poverty Alleviation, WTO. Madrid.

Zambia Poverty Reduction Strategic Paper 2002-2004 2002, Poverty Profile in Zambia. Ministry of Finance and National Planning, Lusaka, Zambia.

Zambia Poverty Reduction Strategic Paper 2002-2004 2002, Tourism, Ministry of Finance and National Planning, Lusaka, Zambia,

Zimba, GJ 2006, The management of Luangwa National Park: Towards Sustainable Tourism Development. MPhil Thesis. The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.

National Development Plan 2006-2010 2006, Broad based wealthy and Job creation through citizenry participation and technology advancement. Ministry of Finance and National Planning. Lusaka, Zambia.