NATIONAL FOREST POLICY, 1988 RAJESH KUMAR MOHAPATRA BASIC OBJECTIVES 2.

1 The basic objectives that should govern the National Forest Policy - are the following: Maintenance of environmental stability through preservation and, where necessary, restoration of the ecological balance that has been adversely disturbed by serious depletion of the forests of the country. Conserving the natural heritage of the country by preserving the remaining natural forests with the vast variety of flora and fauna, which represent the remarkable biological diversity and genetic resources of the country. Checking soil erosion and denudation in the catchment areas of rivers, lakes, reservoirs in the "interest of soil and water conservation, for mitigating floods and droughts and for the retardation of siltation of reservoirs. Checking the extension of sand-dunes in the desert areas of Rajasthan and along the coastal tracts. Increasing substantially the forest/tree cover in the country through massive afforestation and social forestry programmes, especially on all denuded, degraded and unproductive lands. Meeting the requirements of fuel-wood, fodder, minor forest produce and small timber of the rural and tribal populations. Increasing the productivity of forests to meet essential national needs. Encouraging efficient utilisation of forest produce and maximising substitution of wood.

Creating a massive people's movement with the involvement of women, for achieving these objectives and to minimise pressure on existing forests. STRATEGY Area under Forests The national goal should be to have a minimum of one-third of the total land area of the country under forest or tree cover. In the hills and in mountainous regions, the aim should be to maintain two-third of the area under such cover in order to prevent erosion and land degradation and to ensure the stability of the fragile eco-system. 4.2 Afforestation, Social Forestry & Farm Forestry

4.2.1 A massive need-based and time bound programme of afforestation and tree planting, with particular emphasis on fuelwood and fodder development, on all degraded and denuded lands in the country, whether forest or non-forest land, is a national imperative. 4.2.2 It is necessary to encourage the planting of trees alongside of roads, railway lines, rivers and streams and canals, an d on other unutilised lands under State/corporate, institutional_ or private ownership. Green belts should be raised in urban/industrial areas as well as in arid tracts. Such a programme will help to check erosion and desertification as well as improve the microclimate. 4.2.3 Village and community lands, including those on foreshores and environs of tanks, not required for other productive uses, should be taken up for the development of tree crops and fodder resources. Technical assistance and other inputs necessary for initiating such programmes should be provided by the Government. The revenues generated through such programmes should belong to the panchayats where the lands are vested in them; in all other cases, such revenues should be shared with the local communities in order to provide an incentive to them. The vesting, in individuals, particularly from the weaker sections (such as landless labour, small and marginal farmers, scheduled castes, tribals, women) of certain ownership rights over trees, could be considered, subject to appropriate regulations; beneficiaries would be entitled to usufruct and would in turn be responsible for their security and maintenance. 4.2.4 Land laws should be so modified wherever necessary so as to facilitate and motivate individuals and institutions to undertake tree-farming and grow fodder plants, grasses and legumes on their own land. Wherever degraded lands should be made available for this purpose either on lease or on the basis of a tree-patta scheme. Such leasing of the land should be subject to the land grant rules and land ceiling laws. Steps necessary to encourage them to do so must be taken. Appropriate regulations should govern the felling of trees on private holding. 4.3 Management of State Forests 4.3.1 Schemes and projects which interfere with forests that clothe steep slopes, catchments of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, geologically unstable terrain and such other ecologically sensitive areas should be severely restricted. Tropical rain/moist forests, particularly in areas like Arunachal Pradesh, Kerala, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, should be totally safeguarded. 4.3.2 No forest should be permitted to be worked without - the Government having approved the management plan, which should be in a prescribed format and in keeping with the National Forest Policy. The Central Government should issue necessary guidelines to the State Governments in this regard and monitor compliance. 4.3.3 In order to meet the growing needs for essential goods and services which the forests provide, it is necessary to enhance forest cover and productivity of the forests through the application of scientific and technical inputs. Production forestry programmes, while aiming at enhancing the forest cover in the country, and meeting national needs, should also be oriented to narrowing, by the turn of the century, the increasing gap between demand and supply of fuelwood. No such programme, however, should entail clear-felling of adequately stocked natural forests. Nor should exotic species be introduced, through public or private sources, unless long-term scientific trials undertaken by specialists in ecology, forestry and agriculture have established that they are suitable and have no adverse impact on native vegetation and environment.

4.3.4 Rights and Concessions 4.3.4.1 The rights and concessions, including grazing, should always remain related to the carrying capacity of forests. The capacity itself should be optimised by increased investment, silvicultural research and development of the area. Stall-feeding of cattle should be encouraged'. The requirements of the community, which cannot be met by the rights and concessions so determined, should be met by development of social forestry outside the reserved forests. 4.3.4.2 The holders of customary rights and concessions in forest areas should be motivated to identify themselves with the protection and development of forests from which they derive benefits. The rights and concessions from forests should primarily be for the bonafide use of the communities living within and around forest areas, specially the tribals. 4.3.4.3 The life of tribals and other poor living within and near forests revolves around forests. The rights and concessions enjoyed by them should be fully protected. Their domestic requirements of fuelwood, fodder, minor forest produce and construction timber should be the first charge on forest produce. These and substitute materials should be made available through conveniently located depots at reasonable prices. 4.3.4.4 Similar consideration should be given to scheduled castes and other poor living near forests. However, the area, which such consideration should cover, would be determined by the carrying capacity of the forests. 4.3.5 Wood is in short supply. The long-term solution for meeting the existing gap lies in increasing the productivity of forests, but to relieve the existing pressure on forests for the demands of railway sleepers, construction industry (particularly in the public- sector), furniture and panelling, mine-pit props, paper and paper board etc. substitution of wood needs to be taken recourse to. Similarly, on the front of domestic energy, fuelwood needs to be substituted as far as practicable with alternate sources like bio-gas, LPG and solar energy. Fuel-efficient "Chulhas" as a measure of conservation of fuelwood need to be popularised in rural areas. 4.4 Diversion of Forest Lands for Non-forest purposes 4.4.1 Forest land or land with tree cover should not be -treated merely as a resource readily available to be utilised for various projects and programmes, but as a national asset which requires to be properly safeguarded for providing sustained benefits to the entire community. Diversion of forest land for any non-forest purpose should be subject to the most careful examinations by specialists from the standpoint of social and envir6nmental costs and benefits. Construction of dams and reservoirs, mining and industrial development and expansion of agriculture should be consistent with the needs for conservation of trees and forests. Projects which involve such diversion should at least provide in their investment budget, funds for regeneration/compensatory afforestation. 4.4.2 Beneficiaries who are allowed mining and quarrying in forest land and in land covered by trees should' be required to repair and re-vegetate the area in accordance with established forestry practices. No mining lease should be granted to any party, private or public, without a proper mine management plan appraised from the environmental angle and enforced by adequate machinery. 4.5 Wildlife Conservation

Forest Management should take special care of the needs of wildlife conservation, and forest management plans should include prescriptions for this purpose. It is specially essential to provide for "corridors" linking the protected areas in order to maintain genetic continuity between artificially separated sub-sections of migrant wildlife. 4.6 Tribal People and Forests Having regard to the symbiotic relationship between the tribal people and forests, a primary task of all agencies responsible for forest management, including the forest development corporations should be to associate the tribal people closely in the protection, regeneration and development of forests as well as to provide gainful employment to people living in and around the forest. While safeguarding the customary rights and interests of such people, forestry programmes should pay special attention to the following: One of the major causes for degradation of forest is illegal cutting and removal by contractors and their labour. In order to put, an end to this practice, contractors should be replaced by institutions such as tribal cooperatives, labour cooperatives, government corporations, etc. as early as possible; Protection, regeneration and optimum collection of minor forest produce along with institutional arrangements for the marketing of such produce; Development of forest villages on par with revenue villages; Family oriented schemes for improving the status of the tribal beneficiaries; and

Undertaking integrated are a development programmes to meet the needs of the tribal, economy in and around the forest areas, including the provision of alternative sources of domestic energy on a subsidised basis, to reduce pressure on the existing forest areas. 4.7 Shifting Cultivation Shifting cultivation is affecting the environment .and productivity of land adversely. Alternative avenues of income, suitably harmonised with the right landuse practices, should be devised to discourage shifting cultivation. Efforts should be made to contain such cultivation within the area already affected, by propagating improved agricultural practices. Area already damaged by such cultivation should be rehabilitated through social forestry and energy plantations. 4.8 Damage to Forests from Encroachments, Fires and Grazing 4.8.1 Encroachment on forest lands has been on the increase. This trend has to be arrested and effective action taken to prevent its continuance. There, should be no regularisation of existing encroachments. 4.8.2 The incidence of forest fires in the country is high. Standing trees and fodder are destroyed on a large scale and natural regeneration annihilated by such fires. Special precautions should be taken during the fire season. Improved and modern management practices should be adopted to deal with forest fires.

4.8.3 Grazing in forest areas should be regulated with the involvement of the community Special conservation areas, young plantations and regeneration areas should be fully protected. Grazing and browsing in forest areas need to be controlled. Adequate grazing fees should be levied to discourage people in forest areas from maintaining large herds of non-essential livestock. 4.9 Forest-based Industries The main considerations governing the establishment of forest-based industries and supply of raw material to them should be as follows: As far as possible, a forest-based industry should raise the raw material needed for meeting its own requirements, preferably by establishment of a direct relationship between the factory and the individuals who can grow the raw material by supporting the individuals with inputs including credit, constant technical advice and finally harvesting and transport services. No forest-based enterprise, except that at the village or cottage level, should be permitted in the future unless it has been first cleared after a careful scrutiny with regard to assured availability of raw material. In any case, the fuel, fodder and timber requirements of the local population should not be sacrificed for this purpose. Forest-based industries must not only provide employment to local people on priority but also involve them fully in raising trees and raw-material. Natural forests serve as a gene pool resource and help to maintain ecological balance. Such forests will not, therefore, be made available to industries for ' undertaking plantation and for any other activities. Farmers, particularly small and marginal farmers, would be encouraged to grow, on marginal/degraded lands available with them, wood species required for industries. These may also be grown along with fuel and fodder species on community lands not required for pasture purposes, and by Forest department/corporations on degraded forests, not earmarked for natural regeneration. The practice of supply of forest produce to industry at concessional. prices should cease. Industry should be encouraged to use alternative raw materials. Import of wood and wood products should be liberalised. The above considerations will, however, be subject to the current policy relating to land ceiling and land-laws. 4.10 Forest Extension Forest conservation programme cannot succeed without the willing support and cooperation of the people. It is essential, therefore, to inculcate in the people, a direct interest in forests, their. development and conservation, and to make them conscious of the value of trees, wildlife and nature in general. This can be achieved through the involvement of educational institutions, right from the primary stage. Farmers and interested people should be provided opportunities through institutions like

Krishi Vigyan Kendras, Trainers' Training Centres to learn agrisilvicultural and silvicultural techniques to ensure optimum use of their land and water resources. Short term extension courses and lectures should be organised in order to educate farmers. For this purpose, it is essential that suitable programmes are propagated through mass media, audio-visual aids and the extension machinery. 4.11 Forestry Education Forestry should be recogr1ised both as a scientific discipline as well as a profession. Agriculture universities and institutions, dedicated to the development of forestry education should formulate curricula and courses for imparting academic education and promoting postgraduate research and professional excellence, keeping in view the manpower needs of the country. Academic and professional qualifications - in forestry should be kept in view for recruitment to the Indian Forest Service and the State Forest Service. Specialised and orientation courses far developing better management skills by inservice training need to be encouraged, taking into account the latest development in forestry and related disciplines. 4.12 Forestry Research With the increasing recognition of the importance of forests for environmental health, energy and employment, emphasis must be laid on scientific forestry research, necessitating adequate strengthening of the research base as well as new priorities for action. Some broad priority areas of research and development needing special attention are: Increasing the productivity of wood and other forest produce per unit of area per unit time by the application of modern scientific and technological methods. Revegetation of barren/marginal/waste/mined lands and watershed areas.

Effective conservation and management of existing forest resources (mainly natural forest eco-systems). Research related to social forestry for rural/ tribal development. Development of substitutes to replace wood and wood products. Research related to wildlife and management of national parks and sanctuaries.

4.13 Personnel Management Government policies in personnel management for professional foresters and forest scientists should aim at enhancing their professional competence and status and attracting and retaining qualified - and motivated personnel, keeping in view particularly -the Arduous nature of duties they have to perform, often in remote and inhospitable places. 4.14 Forest Survey and Data Base Inadequacy of data regarding forest resources is a matter of concern because this creates a false sense of complacency. Priority needs to. be accorded to completing the survey of forest resources in the

country on scientific lines and to updating information. For this purpose, periodical collection, collation and publication of reliable data on relevant aspects of forest management needs to be improved with recourse to modern technology and equipment. 4.15 Legal Support and Infrastructure Development Appropriate legislation should be undertaken, supported by adequate infrastructure, at the Centre and State levels in order to implement the Policy effectively. 4.16 Financial Support for Forestry The objectives of this revised Policy cannot be achieved without the investment of financial and other r6sources on a substantial scale. Such investment is indeed fully justified considering the contribution of forests in maintaining essential ecological processes and life support systems and in preserving genetic diversity. Forests should not be looked upon as a source of revenue. Forests are a renewable natural resource. They are a national asset to be protected and enhanced for the well-being of the people and the Nation. OLD FOREST POLICY OCTOBER 1894 by admin last modified 2007-11-13 15:33 Old Forest Policy OLD FOREST POLICY OCTOBER 1894 Resolution. In Chapter VIII of his report on the improvement of Indian Agriculture, Dr Voelcker dwells at length upon the importance of so directing the policy of the Forest Department that it shall serve agricultural interests more directly than at present, and in his Review of Forest Administration for 1892-93 the Inspector General of Forests discusses in some detail the principles which should underlie the management of State forests in British India, while agreeing, generally, with the principles thus enunciated by the Inspector General of Forests, the Government of India thinks that it will be convenient to State here the general policy which they desire should be followed in this matter more especially as they are of opinion that an imperfect appreciation of that policy has, in some recent instances, been manifested. 2. The sole object with which State forests are administered is the public benefit. In some cases the public to be benefited are the whole body of taxpayers; in others, the people of the tract within which the forest is situated; but in almost all cases the constitution and preservation of a forest involve, in greater or less degree, the regulation of rights and the restriction of privileges of user in the forest area which may have previously been enjoyed by the inhabitants of its immediate neighbourhood. This regulation and restriction are justified only when the advantage to be gained by the public is great; and the cardinal principle to be observed is that the rights and privileges of individuals must be limited, otherwise than for their own benefit; only in such degree as is absolutely necessary to secure that advantage. 3. The forest of India, being State property, may be broadly classed under the following headings:

the preservation of which is or physical grounds. (b) Forests which afford a supply of valuable timbers for Commercial purposes. (c) Minor forests. (d) Pasture lands.

(a)

Forests

essential

on

climatic

It is not intended that any attempt should be made to class existing State forests under one or other of these four heads. Some forests may occupy intermediate positions and parts of one and the same forest may fall under different heads. The classification is useful only as affording a basis for the indication of the broad policy which should govern the treatment of each class, respectively; and, in applying the general policy, the fullest consideration must be given to local circumstances. 4. The first class of forests are generally situated on hill slopes where the preservation of such vegetation as exists, or the encouragement of further growth, is essential to the protection from the devastating action of hill torrents on the cultivated plains that lie below them. Here the interests to be protected are important beyond all comparison with the interests which it may be necessary to restrict; and so long as there is a reasonable hope of the restriction being effectual, the lesser interests must not be allowed to stand in the way. 5. The second class of State forests include the great tracts from which our supply of the more valuable timbers, teak, sal, deodar and the like, is obtained. are for the most part (though not always) essentially forest tracts, and encumbered by very limited rights of user; and when this is the case, they should be managed mainly on commercial lines as valuable properties and sources of venue, to the State. Even in these cases, however, customs of user will for the b1Ost part have sprung up on the margins of the forest; this user is often essential to the prosperity of the people who have enjoyed it; and the fact that its extent is limited in comparison with the area under forest renders it the more easy to it in full. The needs of communities dwelling on the margins of forest consist mainly in small timber for building, wood for fuel, leaves for manure for fodder, thorns for fencing, grass and grazing for their cattle and edible forest products for their own consumption. Every reasonable facility should be afforded to the people concerned for the fun and easy satisfaction of these needs, It free (as may be possible where a system 01 regular cuttings has been established), then at low and not at competitive rates. It should be distinctly understood that considerations of forest income are to be subordinated to that satisfaction. There is reason to believe that the area which is suitable to the growth of valuable timber has been over-estimated and that some of the tracts which have been reserved for this purpose might have been managed with greater profit both to the public and to the State, if the efforts of the Forest Department had been directed to supplying the large demand of the agricultural and general Population for small timber rather than the limited demand of merchants for large timber. Even in tracts of which the conditions are suited to the growth of large timber it should be carefully considered in each case whether it would not be better, both in the interests of the people and of the revenue, to work them with the object of supplying the requirements of the general and, in particular, of the Agricultural, population. 6. It should also be remembered that, subject to certain conditions to be referred to presently, the claims of cultivation are stronger than the claims of forest preservation. The pressure of the population

upon the soil is one of the greatest difficulties that India has to face, and that application of the soil must generally be preferred which will support the largest numbers in proportion to the area. Accordingly, wherever an effective demand for cultivable land exists and can only be supplied from forest areas, the land should ordinarily be relinquished without hesitation and if this principle applies to the valuable class of forests under consideration, it applies a fortiori to the less valuable classes which are presently to be discussed. When cultivation has been established, it will generally be advisable to disforest the newly-settled area. But it should be distinctly understood that there is nothing in the Forest Act, or in any rules or orders now in force, which limits the discretion of Local Governments, without previous reference to the Government of India (though, of course, always subject to the control of that Government) in diverting forest land to agricultural purposes even though that land may have been declared reserved forest under the Act. 7. Mention has been made of certain conditions to which the application of the principle laid down in the preceding paragraph should be subject. They have for their object the utilisation of the forest area to the greatest good of the community. In the first place, the honey-combing of a valuable forest by patches of cultivation should not be allowed, as the only object it can serve is to substitute somewhat better land in patches for sufficiently good land in large blocks, while it renders the proper preservation of the remaining forest area almost impossible. The evil here is greater than the good. In the second place, the cultivation must be permanent. Where the physical conditions are such that the removal of the protection afforded by forest growth must result, after a longer or shorter period, in the sterilisation or destruction of the soil, the case falls under the principle discussed in paragraph 4 of this Resolution. So, again, a system of shifting cultivation, which denudes a large area of forest growth in order to place a small area under crops, costs more to the community than it is worth, can only be permitted, under due regulation, where forest tribes depend on it for their subsistence. In the third place, the cultivation in question must not be merely nominal, and an excuse for the creation of pastoral or semi-pastoral villages, which do mere harm to the forest than the good they reap from it. And, in the fourth place, cultivation must not be allowed to extend as to encroach upon the minimum area of forest which is needed in order to supply the general forest needs of the country, or the reasonable forest requirements, present and prospective of the neighbourhood in which it is situated. In many tracts cultivation is practically impossible without the assistance of forests, and it must not be allowed to destroy that upon which its existence depends. 8. It has been stated above that the forests under consideration are generally, but not always, free from customs of user. When, as sometimes happens, they are so intermingled with permanent villages and cultivation that customary rights and privileges militate against their management as revenue-paying properties, the principles laid down at the end of paragraph 5 of this Resolution should be observed, and considerations of income should be made secondary to the full satisfaction of local needs. Such restrictions as may be necessary for the preservation of the forest, or for the better enjoyment of its benefits, should be imposed, but no restriction should be placed upon reasonable local demands, merely in order to increase the State revenues. 9. The third class of forests include those tracts which, though true forests, produce only the inferior sorts of timber, or the smaller growths of the better sons. In some cases the supply of fuel for manufacturers, railways, and like purposes , is of such importance that these forests fall more properly under the second class, and must be mainly managed as commercial undertakings. But the )rests now to be considered are those which are useful chiefly as supplying fuel and fodder or grazing for local consumption; and these must be managed mainly in the interests of the population fo the tract which supplied its forest requirements from this source. The first object to be aimed at it to preserve the wood

and grass from destruction; for the user must not be exercised so as to annihilate its subject, and the people must be protected against their own improvidence. The second object should be to supply the produce of the forests to the greatest advantage and convenience of the people. To these object all consideration of revenue should ordinarily be subordinated. 10. It must not be supposed from the preceding remarks that it is the intention of the Government of India to forego all revenue from the large areas that are valuable chiefly for the fuel and fodder which they yield. Cases must be distinguished. Where the areas in question afford only grazing and supply of fuel to villages which lie around or within them, the necessities of the inhabitants of these villages must be treated as paramount and they should be satisfied at the. most moderate rates and with as little direct official interference as possible. But where the villages of the tract have already ample pasture ground attached to their cultivation and owned and managed by themselves and where the Crown lands merely supplement these pastures, and afford grazing to a nomad pastoral population or to the herds that shift from one portion of the country to another with the changes of the season, Government may justly expect to reap a fair income from its property. Even in such cases, however, the convenience and advantage of the graziers should be studiously considered and the inhabitants of the locality, or those who habitually graze over it, should have a preferential claim at rates materially lower than might be obtained in the open market. It will often be advantageous to fix the grazing demand upon a village or a nomad community for a year or a term of years. The system. like every other. has difficulties that are peculiar .to it; but it reduces the interference of petty officials to the lowest point, and _ their opportunities for extortion and oppression. Where grazing fees are levied per capita, free passes are often given to a certain number of cattle. In such cases, the cattle which are to graze free should include, not only the oxen which are actually employed 00 the plough, but also a reasonable number of milch cattle and calves. A cow or a buffalo is as much a necessity to a cultivator, using the word ..necessity'" in a reasonably wide sense, as is a plough_ bullock; and in many parts the oxen are bred in the village. 11. In the portions of his report which are referred to in the preamble to this resolution, Dr Voelcker strongly recommends the formation of fuel and fodder preserves and the Government of India has repeatedly urged the same policy upon Local Governments. The question whether any particular area can be made to support a greater number of cattle by preserving the grass and cutting it for fodder, or by permitting grazing upon it is, one that must be decided by the local circumstances of each case. But when it has been decided, the issues are by no means exhausted. It has been stated in para 9 above that one main object towards which the management of these minor forests should be directed is, the supply of fuel and fodder "to the greatest advantage and convenience of the people." In doing so, due regard must be had to their habits and wishes. It may be that strict preservation and periodical closure, or the total prohibition of grazing, will result in the largest yield both of fuel and fodder In the form of hay. But that is of small avail if the people will not utilise the increased supply in the form in which it is offered to them. The customs of generations alter slowly in India, and though much may and should be done to lead the people to their own profit. yet it must be done gently and gradually, always remembering that their contentment is no less important an object than is their material advantage. It must be remembered, moreover that the object of excluding grazing from the preserves in question is the advantage of the neighbourhood and that the realisation of a larger income, than grazing would yield, by preserving the produce, only to sell it to the highest bidder for consumption in la___ towns at a distance from the preserve, is always in accordance with the policy which the Government of India ha inculcated. Here again circumstances must decide. It may be that the local sup of fuel or fodder, independently of the reserved area, is sufficient in ordinary .. years for the needs of the neighbourhood. In such a case the produce. legitimately be disposed of in such years to the greatest advantage, reserving it for local consumption only when the external supply runs short. Finally, remarks regarding

agency in Para 12, and the more general considerations I are discussed below in Para 13 (If this Resolution, apply in full force to areas reserved for the supply of fuel and fodder. 12. The fourth class of forests referred to are pastures and grazing grounds which are usually forests only in name. It is often convenient, indeed, to them forests under the Act, in order to obtain a statutory settlement of the which the State on the one hand and private individuals or communities on other, poses over them. But it by no means follows as a matter of course that lands should be subjected to any strict system of conservation. or that they 51 be placed under the management of the Forest Department. The question of agency is purely one of economy and expediency, and the Government of India that in some cases where these lands are managed by the Forest Department, the expenditure on establishment exceeds the revenue that is, or at any rate the that ought to be, realised from them. The following remarks apply, not only to forest lands under the Act, Whether administered by the Forest Department or not, but also to all Crown waste though not declared to be forest. Here the interests of the local community;" their maximum, while those of the general public are of the slightest nature. It follows that the principles which have been already laid down for the management of minor forests apply, if possible, with even greater force to the management of grazing areas, pure and simple. 13. The difficulties which arise in connection with these areas are apt lop!! themselves in their most aggravated form where the tenure of land is ryotwari. In Zamindari tracts, the Crown lands generally assume the second of the two forms indicated in Para 10 of this Resolution. But where the settlement is ryotwari, every survey number of field that is unoccupied or unassigned is in the possession and at the disposal of the Government and trespass upon it is prima fade forbidden. In some cultivated tracts these unoccupied and wastelands are the only source available from which the grazing requirements of the resident population be met. The Government of India are clearly of opinion that the inter-mixture of plots of Government land which are used for grazing only, but upon which trespass is forbidden, with the cultivation of occupancy or proprietary" is apt to lead to extreme abuses and especially so when these plots are under the management of the Forest Department. The inferior subordinates of the Forest Department are perhaps as reliable as can be expected on we can afford to give; but their morality is no higher than that of the uneducated classes from which they are drawn; while the enormous areas over which are scattered and the small number of the controlling staff render effective supervision most difficult. It is not right, in order to protect the grass or the grazing dues on plots of waste scattered over the faces of a cultivated district, to put it into the power of an underling to pound, or threaten to pound, cattle 'on the plea that they have overstepped the boundary between their owner's field and the next. Still less right is it to permit the exercise of the power of compounding offences allowed by section 67 of the Forest Act to depend upon the mere report of a subordinate servant, or to expose him to the temptations which such a power - Ids out. Where the interests involved are sufficiently important, it may perhaps necessary to accept the danger of extortion while minimizing as far as possible the opportunities for it. But in the case under consideration the interests involved are trifling, while the opportunities are unlimited. 14. It is to be distinctly understood that the Government of India do not desire ,that grazing should be looked upon primarily as a source of income. But it by Do means follows that all revenues from scattered Government lands should be relinquished. It is, indeed inadvisable that this should be done as to do so would give the raiyats an interest in opposing allotment and making things unpleasant for new occupants. But the objections to direct management which have just been, pointed out are reduced to a minimum or altogether avoided, when the management is placed in the hands of the resident cultivators or of representatives from among them. It will generally be possible to lease or otherwise manage the

unoccupied lands of a village through the agency of the community not, indeed, it the highest. price which they are ready to pay to escape such evils as have just been alluded to; but at a 'moderate estimate of their value to them fixed in view of the fact that herds and flocks which cannot exist without grazing, are often a necessary condition of the successful conduct of that cultivation upon which the Government landrevenue is paid. In no case should fields that have been relinquished, be let to outsiders at a reduced assessment for grazing purposes for then we might have speculators taking up such fields, mainly in order to make what they can out of trespassing cattle. 15. One more point of principle remains to be noticed. The procedure under Chapter IV of the Indian Forest Act. whereby forests are declared to be protected, has been in certain cases regarded by the Government of India as a provisional intermediate procedure designed. to afford time for consideration and decision with the object of ultimately constituting so much of the area as it is intended to retain, a reserved forest under Chapter n and of relinquishing the remainder altogether. The act provides two distinct procedures. By the more strict one under Chapter II existing rights may be either settled, transferred, or communicated and this procedure will ordinarily be applied to forests of the first and second classes indicated in Para 3 of this Resolution. By the second procedure under Chapter IV rights are recorded and regulated and this procedure will often be properly followed where the rights to which the area is subject are extensive and forest is to be managed mainly in the interests of the local community. It will ordinarily be applied to forests of the third and fourth classes. This second procedure may indeed be provisional, and introductory to reservation under Chapter II, but there is in the Forest Act nothing repugnant to giving it a larger and even a permanent operation. As regards Government the chief difference between the two procedures is that new rights may spring up in a protected but not in a reserved forest and that the record-of-rights framed under Chapter II is conclusive while that framed under Chapter IV only carries a presumption of truth. It is believed that this presumption offers ample security where the object of regulating the rights is to provide for their more beneficial exercise rather than to override them in the public interest As regards the people the chief difference is that, speaking broadly, in a reserved forest everything is an offence that is not permitted, while in a protected forest nothing is an offence that is not prohibited. In theory it is possible so to frame the permission and the prohibition as to make the results identical in the two cases but in practice it is almost impossible to do so. If it were not so, the distinction drawn by the Legislature would be unnecessary and meaningless. It is only where the public interests involved are of sufficient importance to justify the stricter procedure and the more comprehensive definition of forest offences that the latter should be adopted. 16. The Governor-General in Council desires, therefore, that with regard both to fuel and fodder preserves and to grazing areas pure and simple, and specially to such of them as lie in the midst of cultivated tracts, it may be considered in each case whether, it is necessary to class them, or if already so classed to retain them as forest area; and if this question is decided in the affirmative, whether it would not be better to constitute them protected rather than reserved forests. 17. Such are the general principles which the Government of India desires should be observed in the administration of all. State forests in British India. They are fully aware that the detailed application of these principles must depend upon an infinite variety of circumstances which will have to be duly weighed in each case by the local authorities, to whose discretion the decision must be left. One of the dangers which it is most difficult to guard against is the fraudulent abuse of concessions for commercial purposes, and only local considerations can indicate how this can best convert. The Government of India recognises the fact that the easier treatment in the matter of forest produce which His Excellency in Council desires, should be extended to the agricultural classes may, especially in the

case of true forest areas, necessitate more careful supervision in order that the concession may be confined within its legitimate limits. But, on the other hand, they think that in some provinces it will render possible a considerable reduction of existing establishment and they desire that this matter may be carefully considered with reference to what has been said above in paragraph 12. They know also in some provinces forest policy is already framed on the lines which they wish to see followed, in all. But the Governor-General in Council believes that Local Governments and Administrations will be glad to receive the assurance now given to them that the Supreme Government will cordially support them in recognising and providing for local requirements to the utmost point that is consistent with Imperial interests. Where working plans or plans of operation are framed for forests, the provisions necessary for this purpose should be embodied in them. The exercise of the rights that have been recorded at settlement will necessarily be provided for in these plans. Where further concessions are made by the way of privilege and grace, it will be well to grant them for some such limited period as ten years, so that they may, if necessary, be revised from time to time as the circumstances on which they were moulded change. NATIONAL FOREST POLICY: 1952 The first forest policy of India was subsequently reviewed in 1952. This was in recognition of the fact that during the intervening period of about 58 years, the role of forests in maintaining the physical conditions in the country has come to be better understood. The policy also states that the two world wars had revealed the unsuspected dependence of defence on forests. Besides, various developmental and industrial activities also lean heavily on the produce of forests. The new policy admits that the fundamental concepts underlying the existing forest policy still hold good, although under the changed circumstances ... the need has now arisen for a re-orientation of the forest policy. The 1952 policy was formulated on the basis of six paramount needs of the country. These included i) the need for evolving a system of balanced and complimentary land use; ii) the need to check deforestation in the mountains, soil erosion leading to ravine formation, and invasion of sea sand in coastal and shifting of sand dunes in desert areas ; iii) the need to establish tree-lands for the amelioration of physical and climatic conditions promoting the general well-being of the people; iv) the need for providing small timber for agricultural implements and for firewood to release the cattle dung for manure to step up food production; v) the need for sustained supply of timber and other forest produce required for defence, communications and industry; and vi) the need for generating maximum annual revenue. The policy further stated that these vital needs delineated the functional role of forests, and formed the fundamental basis of the policy governing their future. The policy also recognised that the indiscriminate conversion of forests into agricultural land has not only led to a crisis of fuelwood and timber, it has also stripped the land of its natural defences against dust-storms, hot desiccating winds, and erosion. Thus the earlier notion that forestry, as such, has no intrinsic right to land, but should be practiced on land not suitable for any other productive purposes, has to be combated. The role of forests in the national economy, both protective and productive, entitles forests to lay claim to an adequate share of land. [http://forest.ap.nic.in/Forest%20Policy-1952.htm]. It may be pointed out here that deforestation for agricultural expansion and forcing the peasants to substitute food crops by cash crops led to ecological degradation and desertification in large tracts of North India within a period of thirty years. Extensive gully erosion resulting in drastic changes in the landscape, drying up of rivers and other water bodies, a more extreme climate, and salinization of soil were accompanied by pauperization of farmers (Mann, 1998, cited in Gupta, 2008). Nevertheless, the 1952 policy, while trying to usher in some reforms, remained essentially anthropocentric with more emphasis on production and less on protection. This approach naturally led to severe deforestation that in turn exacerbated the problems of soil erosion, siltation of rivers and

other water bodies and depletion of biodiversity. The 1952 policy soon lost its relevance and utility and the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, issued a new forest policy on 7th December, 1988. CONSERVATION HISTORY OF INDIA Nearly all of India's significant conservation laws date from the period since independence, although there was some legislative activity during the days of the Raj. Under various 19th century Forest Acts, the British restricted the hunting rights of forest dwellers and later divided forests into "shooting blocks"; these were opened and closed in accordance with the abundance or scarcity of game, thus proving a measure of apparent control over the hunting exploits of the wealthy. Occasionally laws were passed to protect a single species whose future was deemed uncertain. The Madras Act of 1873 helped to limit the persecution of Asian elephants in parts of southern India, and the Bengal Rhinoceros Preservation Act of 1932 did the same for the rhino in the north-east. A somewhat more comprehensive piece of legislation was the Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act of 1912, which provided for close seasons. But even this proved inadequate, a fact implicitly recognized by those who argued for the creation of game preserves. By 1928 these covered at least 100,000 square miles of forest land and some areas - for example, Kaziranga - had been accorded sanctuary status. In 1932 Jim Corbett (James Edward Corbett, to be more precise) was made secretary of the newlyformed United Provinces (U.P.) Game Preservation Society, and two years later the United Provinces National Parks Act was passed. In 1936 Hailey national park, later to be christened after Corbett, became India's first national park, and other areas too were given some measure of protection during the short period leading up to the Second World War. Although independence brought little relief for India's wildlife - huge expanses of forest were engulfed in the "land grab" and the countryside echoed to the sound of guns - the post war era witnessed great changes in both official and public attitudes towards wildlife. On a global scale, the foundation in 1947 of the Internation Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) was an event of considerable significance. Nehru's government expressed its good intentions by creating the Indian Board for Wild Life (IBWL), which put forward proposals in 1953 for the establishment of 18 national parks. Then, individual states passed their own wildlife laws and the first National Parks Act came into force in 1955. Sadly, progress was slow; ten years later India had just about nineteen sanctuaries and the total protected area amounted to a mere 2,600 suare miles, less than a quarter of a per cent of India's land surface. In the meantime the population was rising rapidly, forests and wild habitats of all types were being exploited as never before, and the list of endangered species became every year more lengthy.