PHYSICAL MODEL

Definition Physical models are the ones that look like the finished object they represent. Iconic models are exact or extremely similar replicas of the object being modeled. Model airplanes, cars, ships, and even models of comic book super-heroes look exactly like their counterpart but in a much smaller scale. Scale models of municipal buildings, shopping centers, and property developments such as subdivisions, homes, and office complexes all hopefully look exactly as the "real thing" will look when it is built. The advantage here is the models' correspondence with the reality of appearance. In other words, the model user can tell exactly what the proposed object will look like, in three dimensions, before making a major investment. In addition to looking like the object they represent, some models perform as their counterparts would. This allows experiments to be conducted on the model to see how it might perform under actual operating conditions. Scale models of airplanes can be tested in wind tunnels to determine aerodynamic properties and the effects of air turbulence on their outer surfaces. Model automobiles can be exposed to similar tests to evaluate how wind resistance affects such variables as handling and gas mileage. Models of bridges and dams can be subjected to multiple levels of stress from wind, heat, cold, and other sources in order to test such variables as endurance and safety. A scale model that behaves in a manner that is similar to the "real thing" is far less expensive to create and test than its actual counterpart. These types of models often are referred to as prototypes. Additionally, some physical models may not look exactly like their object of representation but are close enough to provide some utility. Many modern art statues represent some object of reality, but are so different that many people cannot clearly distinguish the object they represent. These are known as analog models. An example is the use of cardboard cutouts to represent the machinery being utilized within a manufacturing facility. This allows planners to move the shapes around enough to determine an optimal plant layout.

Sample Cases Example 1: A scale model of the Singapore City Centre.

Part of the one-tenth scale model of Bourton-on-the-Water at Bourton-on-the-Water, Gloucestershire, England

VERBAL MODEL

Definition Verbal models use words to represent some object or situation that exists, or could exist, in reality. Verbal models may range from a simple word presentation of scenery described in a book to a complex business decision problem (described in words and numbers). A firm's mission statement is a model of its beliefs about what business it is in and sets the stage for the firm's determination of goals and objectives. Verbal models frequently provide the scenario necessary to indicate that a problem is present and provide all the relevant and necessary information to solve the problem, make recommendations, or at least determine feasible alternatives. Even the cases presented in management textbooks are really verbal models that represent the workings of a business without having to take the student to the firm's actual premises. Oftentimes, these verbal models provide enough information to later depict this problem in mathematical form. In other words, verbal models frequently are converted into mathematical models so that an optimal, or at least functional, solution may be found utilizing some mathematical technique. A look in any mathematics book, operations management book, or management science text generally provides some problems that appear in word form. The job of the student is to convert the word problem into a mathematical problem and seek a solution.

Background The idea that loosely defined simulation models of organizational behavior can yield more significant information than conventional precisely defined ones has been explored. Natural language has been utilized as a medium for this purpose. This has allowed for the values of the variables to be linguistic rather than numerical, and for causal relations between the variables to be formulated verbally rather than mathematically. Such models have been called verbal models. A generative grammar is presented which restricts the set of allowed linguistic values

and relations in a model specification. This makes it possible to formulate a semantically model based on fuzzy set theory of the words in the vocabulary. The semantically model can be used to calculate the dynamic behavior of verbal models. Thus it becomes possible to infer future behavior of a verbal model, given its linguistically stated initial state. This process was greatly facilitated by implementing the semantically model in an APL workspace, thus making it possible to write linguistic values and relations directly on a terminal, using syntax very close to that of natural language. The semantically model would then be automatically activated and respond with the linguistic values of output variables. A simulation study is presented which shows that verbal models indeed may yield significant information based on rather general premises. This indicates that they may, under certain circumstances, be superior to corresponding conventional simulation models. It is generally concluded that the present approach towards modeling the behavior of complex organizations is not without interesting potentialities.

Sample Cases Example 1: You and five friends go bowling. It costs $12 to rent a lane for the first hour and then $5 for each addiConal half hour. Shoe rental costs each person $2. You decide to split the total cost among each person evenly. What will each person pay? VERBAL Model (Words!): (Cost of lane + cost of shoe rental) Size of group= Cost per person you and five friends go bowling. It costs $12 to rent a lane for the first hour and then $5 for each additional half hour. Shoe rental costs each person $2. You decide to split the total cost among each person evenly. If you bowl for 3 hours, what will each person pay? Solution: [(Cost of lane) + (cost of shoe rental)] Size of group= Cost per person [(12 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5) + (26)] 6 = Cost per person [32 + 12]6 = Cost per person 446= Cost per person $7.33= Cost per person

The cost per person is $9. You and five friends go bowling. It costs $10 to rent a lane for the first hour and then $4.50 for each additional half hour. Shoe rental costs each person $3. You decide to split the total cost among each person evenly. If you bowl for 2 hours, what will each person pay?

Example 2: Roller Coaster a roller coaster takes a group of 24 people every 5 minutes. The ride lasts 3 minutes. There are 52 people in front of you. It takes 10 minutes to walk from the roller coaster to the concert stage, where you have reserva5ons for the 2:00 show. If it is 1:30 now, can you ride the roller coaster and s5ll make it to the show on 5me? Solution: Time available (Total 5me to get on ride + total 5me to ride + total 5me to walk) 30 (11 + 3 + 10) 30 24 6

MATHEMATIC MODEL Definition Mathematical model is a description of a system using mathematical concepts and language. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed mathematical modeling (also spelled modeling). Mathematical models are used not only in the natural sciences (such as physics, biology, earth science, meteorology) and engineering disciplines (e.g. computer science, artificial intelligence), but also in the social sciences (such as economics, psychology, sociology and political science); physicists, engineers, statisticians, operations research analysts and economists use mathematical models most extensively. Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to dynamical systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game theoretic models. These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a variety of abstract structures. In general, mathematical models may include logical models, as far as logic is taken as a part of mathematics. In many cases, the quality of a scientific field depends on how well the mathematical models developed on the theoretical side agree with results of repeatable experiments. Lack of agreement between theoretical mathematical models and experimental measurements often leads to important advances as better theories are developed. Background Often when engineers analyze a system to be controlled or optimized, they use a mathematical model. In analysis, engineers can build a descriptive model of the system as a hypothesis of how the system could work, or try to estimate how an unforeseeable event could affect the system. Similarly, in control of a system, engineers can try out different control approaches in simulations. A mathematical model usually describes a system by a set of variables and a set of equations that establish relationships between the variables. The values of the variables can be practically anything; real or integer numbers, boolean values or strings, for example. The variables represent some properties of the system, for example, measured system outputs often in the form of signals, timing data, counters, and event occurrence (yes/no). The actual model is the set of functions that describe the relations between the different variables.

Classifying mathematical models Many mathematical models can be classified in some of the following ways: Linear vs. nonlinear: Mathematical models are usually composed by variables, which are abstractions of quantities of interest in the described systems, and operators that act on these variables, which can be algebraic operators, functions, differential operators, etc. If all the operators in a mathematical model exhibit linearity, the resulting mathematical model is defined as linear. A model is considered to be nonlinear otherwise. The question of linearity and nonlinearity is dependent on context, and linear models may have nonlinear expressions in them. For example, in a statistical linear model, it is assumed that a relationship is linear in the parameters, but it may be nonlinear in the predictor variables. Similarly, a differential equation is said to be linear if it can be written with linear differential operators, but it can still have nonlinear expressions in it. In a mathematical programming model, if the objective functions and constraints are represented entirely by linear equations, then the model is regarded as a linear model. If one or more of the objective functions or constraints are represented with a nonlinear equation, then the model is known as a nonlinear model. Nonlinearity, even in fairly simple systems, is often associated with phenomena such as chaos and irreversibility. Although there are exceptions, nonlinear systems and models tend to be more difficult to study than linear ones. A common approach to nonlinear problems is linearization, but this can be problematic if one is trying to study aspects such as irreversibility, which are strongly tied to nonlinearity.
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Deterministic vs. probabilistic (stochastic): A deterministic model is one in which every set of variable states is uniquely determined by parameters in the model and by sets of previous states of these variables. Therefore, deterministic models perform the same way for a given set of initial conditions. Conversely, in a stochastic model, randomness is present, and variable states are not described by unique values, but rather by probability distributions.
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Static vs. dynamic: A static model does not account for the element of time, while a dynamic model does. Dynamic models typically are represented with difference equations or differential equations.
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Discrete vs. Continuous: A discrete model does not take into account the function of time and usually uses time-advance methods, while a Continuous model
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does. Continuous models typically are represented with f(t) and the changes are reflected over continuous time intervals.

Sample Cases Examples of mathematical models Population Growth. A simple (though approximate) model of population growth is the Malthusian growth model. A slightly more realistic and largely used population growth model is the logistic function, and its extensions.

Model of a particle in a potential-field. In this model we consider a particle as being a point of mass which describes a trajectory in space which is modeled by a function giving its coordinates in space as a function of time. The potential field is given by a function V : R3 Rand the trajectory is a solution of the differential equation

Note this model assumes the particle is a point mass, which is certainly known to be false in many cases in which we use this model; for example, as a model of planetary motion.

Model of rational behavior for a consumer. In this model we assume a consumer faces a choice of n commodities labeled 1,2,...,n each with a market price p1, p2,..., pn. The consumer is assumed to have a cardinal utility function U (cardinal in the sense that it assigns numerical values to utilities), depending on the amounts of commodities x1, x2,..., xn consumed. The model further assumes that the consumer has a budget M which is used to purchase a vector x1, x2,..., xn in such a way as to maximize U(x1, x2,..., xn). The problem of rational behavior in this model then becomes an optimization problem, that is:

Subject to:

This model has been used in general equilibrium theory, particularly to show existence and Pareto efficiency of economic equilibria. However, the fact that this particular formulation assigns numerical values to levels of satisfaction is the source of criticism (and even ridicule). However, it is not an essential ingredient of the theory and again this is an idealization. Neighbour-sensing model explains the mushroom formation from the initially chaotic fungal network.

Modelling requires selecting and identifying relevant aspects of a situation in the real world.