HS4S017 Violence, Escape and Opportunity in Early Modern Europe

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Word count 4356

An Introduction to The French Convert : Being a True Relation of the Happy Conversion of a Noble French Lady written by R.D. and published for John Gwillim in Bishopsgate Street (1699)

The French Convert (1696) tells the story of a French noblewoman, Deiadamia, who encounters her husbands gardener, Bernard, reading the French Bible and praying, thanking God for his salvation (p17). She discusses the differences between the Catholic and Protestant religion with Bernard, reads the scriptures herself, encounters the perfidy of a Catholic Priest, an attempted murder and a period of exile in a forest eventually converting from Catholicism to Protestantism and persuading her husband and parents to do likewise. The printer of both the first edition of 1696 and the second edition 1699 was John Gwillim, a bookseller in Bishopsgate Street who was amenable to publishing works for a variety of persecuted religious minorities. According to Mortimers supplement to Plomers dictionary of booksellers and printers, John Gwillim had published several books and pamphlets for the Society of Friends (more commonly known as the Quakers)1 and John Bunyan had also entrusted two of his works to Gwillim to be published 2. It comes as no surprise that the author of The French Convert , R.D., should have written in the introduction that Gwillim was considered a Person of integrity who would publish this Huguenot treatise. In John Duntons,3 autobiography, John Gwillim is noted as being formally a clasp maker turned bookseller and is praised for offering books at a fair price as low as it is possible if pressed.4
1 R.S. MORTIMER, (1947) "BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF PRINTERS AND PUBLISHERS OF FRIENDS' BOOKS UP TO 1750: A supplement to Plomer's Dictionary", Journal of Documentation, Vol. 3 Iss: 2, pp.107 - 125 2 3

The Jersusalem Sinner Saved. Good News for the Vilest of Men 1689 Dunton(1639-1742) was a bookseller in London who published over 600 titles during his career ODNB. 4 The Life and Errors of John Dunton, Volume 1. Author: John Dunton (Grafham, Huntingdonshire, 4 May 1659 24 November 1732, London) || Publication Data: London, 1818 available on http://www.calameo.com/books/00010704458a4434cbd0b

This is clearly no fly-by-night printer out to make a fast buck. Because of his previous occupation clasp maker, a metalworker in the jewellery trade and because of Duntons reference to Madam Gwillim one is led to consider that Gwillim may himself be a Huguenot, his name perhaps being anglicised from Guillaume. Unfortunately this is not one of the Huguenot surnames recorded by the Huguenot Society5, so perhaps this is not the case. In his introduction to the book, Gwillim notes that he has found the story of the French Convert to be of great use and believes that others will be of the same opinion hence his decision to publish it; this obscures the profit motive and makes it appear that Gwillim has a higher purpose for publishing this text it is almost as though God himself had a hand in bringing this narrative into print. Although the text comes with an affidavit from A. DAuborn, a French Protestant Minister that he has checked the veracity of the text about the strange but blessed alteration in the family of the Count of Alencon(A3), it was believed by some that the author was none other than Daniel Defoe although it has also been attributed to John McGowan6. Defoe did write on the subject of Huguenots in 1698 in Lex Talionis: or An enquiry into the most proper ways to prevent the persecution of the Protestants in France. The New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature does not list The French Convert amongst Defoes works but does note that many works attributed to Defoe, both in his own time and during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, have been omitted for lack of evidence7, however, under the title Minor Fiction it categorizes the book as
5 6

http://huguenot.netnation.com/ancestor/AncestorLookup.php http://www.randallhouserarebooks.com/indbooks/fc.html 7 Watson, G. The new Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature Vol II 1660-1800. 1971 p883

Huguenot propaganda, probably a translation of a French work, semifictional, autobiographical. Translated by (?) Charles Gildon.8 Gildon was born a Roman Catholic and lived in exile in France with his family during the Civil War. Because of his Royalist sympathies and his religion (at one time he was destined for the Catholic priesthood) he would seem an unlikely translator of Huguenot propaganda. However, it becomes more likely when one considers he was employed by John Dutton on the Athenian Mercury and to write a history of the Athenian Society in 1692. As we know, Dunton was an admirer of John Gwillims honesty as already stated above, therefore it would seem likely that Gildon could have been employed to translate The French Convert9. Gildon also had money problems, (having six well fed whores and starves his modest wife according to Defoe10), had left the Roman Catholic faith in the early 1690s, toyed with Deism for a time before converting to Anglicanism in 1698, and was prosecuted by the British government for seditious libel for suggesting that Electress Sophia should visit England to be on hand should Queen Anne die. This implied that her presence would assure her succession on Queen Annes death and thus secure Protestantism in England11. The story of The French Convert might be seen to be one which falls within the remit of persecution narrative polemics which told of the harsh treatment of the Huguenots by Catholics. The reader is encouraged to believe this work to be true by the inclusion of a letter from an oppressed Huguenot still in

8 9

Ibid: p983 http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/10720 10 Defoe More Reformation 1703 quoted in http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/10720 11 http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/10720

France. DAuborn, a Protestant minister, has been a long time in prison(A3) and suffered illnesses because of this. He tells of many innocent deaths because of persecution by Popish adversaries. His use of the word Popish alerts the reader to the danger of Catholic plots and would make him/her more sympathetic to the author. Pamphlets and newspapers of the late 17th century almost created a caricature of Huguenot refugees in order to extract sympathy (and money) for their plight; most Huguenots were artisans, but persecution narratives tended to highlight the fate of individual French Protestant aristocrats rather than the ordinary French Protestant.12 In this book the main protagonists are noble the Count of Alencon and his wife. Similar to other persecution narratives, the Count is portrayed as a loyal subject willing to do military service and die for his king; typical of the genre too is Deidamia and Bernards fortitude as they endure persecution she in the forest, he as a slave in the West Indies whilst maintaining their faith. Antonio the priest is heavily criticised in the text and exhibits all those evils for which Catholic priests had criticised, idolatry, lust, and dishonesty. When Alencon attempts to complain about Antonios betrayal he is excommunicated by the Bishop of Rheims and in spite of his many services, rejected by the king (p75). In contrast, Antonio is protected by his Bishop, an injustice which turns Alencon very cold in the possession of the popish Religion, which so seriously persecuted Innocence and virtue, and countenanced the greatest wickedness (p74). The questions and answer session where Protestant belief and criticism of Catholic idolatry is expressed in detail is almost eschatological in its description of Purgatory, Heaven and Hell and reflects another genre from
12

Hands & Scouloudi, French protestant Refugees relieved by the French Church in London(from 1681-87), London HSGB&I publications 1971 p 192. Out of a sample of 1164 refugees only 28 claimed noble birth while 952 identified themselves as artisans or day labourers.

the period namely the conversion narrative in which a convert, first Bernard and later Deidamia, offers the testimony of his or her spiritual rebirth within a new faith. There are similarities between this text and an earlier conversion narrative The Italian Convert by Niccolo Balbani (translated into English 1608)13; Caracciolo, an Italian nobleman, renounces his wealth, status and family, embraces Protestantism and settles in Geneva where he seen as a model for the Protestant convert14. Similarly, Count Alencon is willing to lose his lands on his conversion to Protestantism and he, Deidamia and her parents leave France to live in Utrecht (p78). The book is listed as a work of fiction in most major catalogues rather than a conversion or persecution narrative possibly because of its flowery written style. Of course, it might be that this was presented as a work of fiction so as to avoid censorship or the fate of Jean Claudes book15 or even to avoid potentially costly libel or plagiarism suits. If one follows the definition found in the Collins Dictionary,16 the story of the French Convert could be termed a novella; it is short, has a moral point and was probably designed to be read at one sitting by women, indeed the two names written on the frontispiece of this version are those of women Mary and Elizabeth Trenchard. The characters, theme and the type of language
13 Niccol Balbani, Historia della vita di G. C. chiamato il signor Marchese,nella quale si contiene un raro e singolare esempio di constanza e perseveranza nella piet e nella vera religione (Geneva, 1587)

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University of York conversion narratives in early modern Europe a cross-confessional and comparative study 1550-1700 blog. http://europeanconversionnarratives.wordpress.com/
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Jean Claudes Account of the Persecutions and Oppressions of the Protestants in France was burned by the public hangman at the

London Exchange Gwynn, Robin Huguenot Heritage Sussex academic Press 2011 p175 16 novella. Dictionary.com. Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition. HarperCollins http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/novella (accessed: January 30, 2011). Publishers.

used all focus on a single issue the conversion of a Catholic Lady, her husband and her parents to the true faith of Protestantism; the work is therefore of a serious nature with widespread significance at the time it was printed. There are similarities between the literary style seen in the French Convert and that practiced by les prcieuses a group of educated intellectual ladies who attended the salon of the Marquise de Rambouillet during the mid 1600s. Their writings were absorbed with correct behaviour, chivalry and courtly love, elements which can be seen in this text. The scene when the Count takes leave of his wife Deidamia under a bower of Jasmine in the garden is pure romantic chivalry with the Count declaring his knightly devotion to his lady (p13 line 16-28) and is reminiscent of illustrations of knights and ladies in the Lutteral Psalter. Folktales were particularly popular amongst the prscieuses and there are elements of these traditional folktales to be seen in The French Convert; betrayed by unfaithful servants, the heroine is taken into the woods to be murdered, rescued by a poor but decent couple and finally discovered by her husband who has never doubted her integrity. These scenarios would be familiar to all classes in British society. There is also religious symbolism. On the first page the reader is reminded of the Biblical tale of Joseph sold into slavery in Egypt, the false accusations made against him and the turn of events which led to his being made viceroy of Egypt by the Pharaoh. This is not only a reference to the French treatment of the Huguenots betrayed by their own people and sent into exile but also a foretaste of what is to befall Bernard the Protestant gardener when he is

sold into slavery but then rescued by the Captain of the slave ship who himself converts to Protestantism (p76-78). The setting of the story in the garden is a clear reference to the story of the Garden of Eden which Bennett and Mandelbrote believe gave people in the seventeenth century information about how humans could acquire knowledge that might improve mankinds circumstances and transform the world while at the same time placing piety and wisdom at the forefront of their endeavours.17 The indication here is that the Protestant religion could do precisely that. Bernard, the Huguenot gardener is shown to be close to God as he tends his plants, living completely in the moment, spiritualizing his employment; and making his business serve, like Jacobs ladder to carry him from earth to heaven(p15). Bernards attitude towards his work would have served to remind the readers of the hard-working nature of the Huguenot refugees and may have reflected the belief that the world could be brought back to a state of original grace by practical measures such as good husbandry, horticultural cultivation and planting trees and new varieties of plants. Hard work, such as that exhibited by Bernard could re-establish the Garden of Eden and restore the knowledge which humans had once employed to govern nature in paradise.18 As Deidamia walks through the garden there is specific mention of Tulips (p14); it may be a sign that Alencon was a wealthy man or of the perfect love the couple have for each other, or Bernard has for God. Tulips were a status symbol at this time, but perhaps their appearance here is more of a warning; as Tulipmania had made and lost fortunes in the early
17

Bennett, J. & Mandelbrote, S. The Garden, the Ark, the Tower , the Temple: Biblical metaphors of knowledge in early modern Europe. Bodelian Library 1998 p 7. 18 Bennett & Mandelbrote ibid p8.

seventeenth Century, although Anne Goldgar disputes this but does note that the phenomena had a profound effect on the Dutch.19 The bed of tulips featured in The French Convert could be proof that the moral order was in disarray as people paid more attention to the earthly flower rather than to heavenly salvation. In direct contrast to this dereliction of moral duty is the attention Bernard pays both to the Tulips and his religious observation indicating that through devoting oneself to material work one was also praising God. The French Convert has strong elements of Protestant polemic. Pages 24-30 features a question and answer session, almost a catechism, where Deidamia becomes acquainted with Protestant beliefs; here, the main differences between the two religions are laid bare. The perfidious attempts of Antonio the Catholic priest to seduce her while offering to absolve you by the power given to me from the See of Rome (p32) emphasises these differences and Deidamia decides to read the Bible, in French, for herself and took such Delight in Reading it (p33) that she put aside her Beads and Crucifixes (p34) and turned to Protestantism. Antonio fulfils the stereotypical role of the lecherous predator, a role often played by priests in anti-Catholic English literature, who used their clerical positions to prey on innocents such as Deidamia. When her conversion is discovered, attempts are made to send her to a nunnery to see the error of her ways. This echoes the treatment of many Huguenot women in post revocation France who had their heads shaved and were given life sentence to a convent if they refused to abjure20.
Goldgar, Anne (2007), Tulipmania: Money, honour and knowledge in the Dutch Golden Age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press p18 20 McCloy, Chelby T. Persecution of the Huguenots in the 18th century. Church History Vol 20 No 3 Sept 1951. p 57.
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The Brief account of the Present Persecution of the French Protestants which forms a post script to the tale, details the punishments and sufferings of French Protestants; they are sent to the French war-galleys, have their heads shaved, are almost starved in fetid and overcrowded conditions, tormented by Friars and Priests, and put into prison in dark, stinking dungeons. The response of these unfortunates is a passive acceptance of these trials and tribulations almost as though they expect to suffer in Gods name. These descriptions would have reminded Englishmen of what might befall them should Catholicism return. In 1694 Queen Mary II had contracted smallpox and died. Her death would still have been still fresh in the minds of the public in 1696 and the problem of succession to the English throne would have been much talked about. Although Marys husband William III continued to reign it became apparent that he would have no more children and the throne would pass to the Protestant daughter of James II, Anne. Fears of a succession crisis loomed especially since the son of the deposed James II, James Francis Edward Stuart, had been recognised by his cousin Louis XIV as the rightful heir to the English and Scottish thrones thus perpetuating fears of the return of the Stuarts and their Catholic religion. It seems likely that in such an uncertain period, the Huguenot propaganda machine would wish to remind England of the reasons they had fled France and of the dangers posed by a Catholic monarch. These dangers had become highly visible once again in 1695 when the war between the protestant Camisards and French government forces intent on exterminating permanently the protestant resistance resulted in a further wave of refugees.

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The post script to the French Convert would also have served to emphasise that the Huguenots were not a dangerous sect which might undermine the political regime in England an important point during a period where the country was at war with France and when French speaking foreigners would have been regarded with suspicion. A virulent attack on the Huguenots had been made by Sir John Knight MP for Bristol in 1693; speaking against a Bill for the general naturalization of Protestants, he called for it to be kicked out of the House and then proposed to kick the foreigners out of the kingdom21. Although the House ordered the speech to be burned by the public hangman, no doubt many Huguenots were dismayed and may have felt it time to remind England of the reasons they had fled from France originally. Further, there existed elements amongst the merchants and tradesmen of London who feared competition from foreign artisans, by emphasising the aristocratic roots of Alencon and Deidamia these fears might be allayed the motivation of these refugees was not economic but religious a message which the Huguenot spin-doctors would have been keen to broadcast to all sectors of society. Gwynn notes that in the closing decades of the seventeenth century there were complaints about the numbers of foreign workers and craftsmen with many guilds petitioning against foreigners; the situation was made worse when parliament reduced the army to 7,000 men in 1698.22 Parker emphasises that the Huguenot refugees formed a major group within William of Oranges army23 therefore it is possible to surmise that the reduction of the armed forces would have resulted in many Huguenots
21 22

Quoted in Gwynn R.D. Huguenot Heritage. Routledge 1985 p 118-119 Gwynn, Robin Huguenot Heritage. Sussex Academic Press 2011 p157 23 Parker Huguenot Identity in Post-Medieval London assemblage 10 2009 p10

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seeking employment in those areas where their communities were already settled such as London. While it is possible to see reasons for the publication of this work during the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries it is surprising to see that a further five editions were published over the next century24. In 1800, Edward Midwinter at the Looking- glass on London Bridge published the 7th edition identical to the one discussed above, although, according to Thomas Kidd, many more editions were published in America. These are described as chapbooks, cheap versions of more expensive editions25 for those with little money to spare26. This would seem to reflect the fate of the French Convert with the early copies such as the one preserved in the Beinecke Library, Yale University being bound in leather on thin board. This copy is believed to be an American publication as the roughly tooled leather binding with its wooden boards instead of pressed paper, is a Colonial feature; English book binders were more skilled and produced leather bindings which were far more sophisticated in design. 27 The presence of over sixty editions of this text in the Beinecke Library published in America point to the relevance of this narrative to Americans where stories such as those found in the appendage to the text connected the fictional story to the real life sufferings of Huguenots in France. T.S.Kidd notes that newspapers such as the Boston News-Letter regularly published stories about the fate of the Huguenots and the sermons of Ministers at this time frequently reminded their congregations of their
24

Kidd, Thomas.S.- Recovering The French Convert : Views of the French and the Uses of AntiCatholicism in Early America - Book History 7 Book History 7 (2004) 97-111
25 26

Leslie Shepard The History of Street Literature Newton Abbot 1973 p62-3 http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/prints_books/features/Chapbooks/index.html 27 http://www.randallhouserarebooks.com/indbooks/fc.html

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suffering.28 As in Britain, the colonial publishers played on the anti-Catholic sentiments rife at this time.

The question remains why the book should be published over 100 years after its first publication in a time when Protestants were no longer being persecuted on the same scale as previously, the Huguenot refugees had been by and large assimilated into British society and the threat of Catholicism had faded into insignificance? It would seem that although the real threat of a Catholic resurgence was slight, the perceived threat remained particularly amongst the menu peuple otherwise why would this tale have continued to sell? The story reinforced protestant ideology and emphasised that Protestantism would eventually defeat Catholicism. Could it be that the period of the Enlightenment and the French revolution encouraged further questioning of the Catholic Church? The corrupt figure of Antonio defeated by the simple Protestant gardener, Bernard, may mirror the liberty, equality and fraternity of the French and American Revolutions. Did the moral tale contained within it appeal to a period of religious revivalism? Or was the tale itself sufficiently religious, uplifting and romantic to ensure its continued popularity? The narrative was clearly intended to entertain its readers; the story of an heroic, moral, beautiful Protestant woman against Popish lust and betrayal which also included military adventure and heart warming reunions would have met this criteria, no wonder it was a marketing success.

28

Kidd, T.S. Recovering the French Convert. Book History. Vol 7 2004 P100.

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Footnotes to the Text 1. True Religion = Protestantism 2. Popish = term of abuse for Catholicism. The spectre of popery a conspiracy by Catholics to overthrow the English Church - was kept fresh in peoples minds by an active protestant press and events such as the Gunpowder Plot 1605, the Fire of London 1666, Titus Oatess alleged Popish plot 1678 and the Glorious Revolution 1688. 3. Native country = France 4. Impoverishing = Protestants in France could expect to have all their lands and property confiscated. 5. Alenson = Alencon, an area in Normandy although the text later says Brittany (p2) 6. Joseph = Biblical story of Joseph being sold into slavery by his brothers Genesis 37. 7. his King = at this date Louis XIV 8. Deiadamia = perhaps a reference to the diamond for centuries a symbol of love, purity and beauty. St Theresa of Avila describes the soul as a diamond containing many rooms thus emphasising a beauty that is spiritual in nature. 9. inspired pensman = author of Psalm 77 10. persuvant junior officer at arms 11. Jasmine Featured in William Turners Names of Herbes, 1548. Boccacio also mentions the flower and its calming fragrance in The Decameron p114 Trans JM Rigg. Digireads.com publishing 2010.

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According to Professor Hanns Hatt the essential oil is more powerful than valium in calming nerves. 12. Flanders = possibly Louis XIVs campaign in 1670 which went into Spanish Flanders 13. equipage = retinue including horses 14. Tutelary saints = patron saints, probably of soldiers namely Saint Martin of Tours, Saint Joan of Arc or Saint George. 15. Tulips = sign of perfect love or reminder that Alencon is a wealthy man as tulips were extremely expensive at this time. 16. Adam = reference to Adam the first man who tended the Garden of Eden 17. Eye servant = one that attends to duty only when watched. 18. Jacobs ladder = one which stretched from earth to heaven described in Genesis chapter 28:11-19 19. Romish religion = Roman Catholicism 20. Layety = all persons who are not in the clergy 21. Idolatries = The Oxford dictionary defines an idol as: An image used as an object of worship. A person or thing that is the object of excessive devotion. This was one of the main objections the Protestants had about Catholicism. The Catholic Council of Trent 1545 reaffirmed the veneration of saints and relics and the Virgin Mary, indulgences and pilgrimages. 22. Heretick = heretic is one whose religion challenges the accepted dogma.

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23. St Paul before Foelix = Acts 24:1-21 St Paul was brought before Felix the Roman Governor at Caesarea, Judea. God's prophets were charged with being troublers of the land, similarly the Huguenots were charged with undermining France and her religion. 24. P20, lines 9-34 = contrast of the cruel ways Catholics treated the Huguenots with the latters stoic acceptance of their fate. 25. Orison = prayer 26. Bereans = Acts 17 verse 11 Paul of Tarsus preached at Berea, northern Greece and the people received the word with all readiness of mind, and searched the scriptures daily i.e. they placed great store by reading the scriptures. 27. Pharisees = strict adherents to law of Moses. 28. Inquisition = a Catholic institution which fought against heresy. 29. St Peter = Roman Catholic claim that St Peter, one of Christs disciples was the first pope of the church the church was built upon Peter hence the origin of papal authority. Protestants still dispute this today. 30. p25 lines 13-34 = discussion of the difference between Catholics who believed that ordinary people could not communicate directly with God and needed the angels and saints to present their supplications on their behalf and the Protestant belief that people can communicate directly with God through prayer. 31. Lucre = money in The Pilgrims Progress John Bunyan refers to a hill called Lucre which tempts pilgrims to mine for silver which is supposed to be there.

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32. P 26 lines 8-29 = discussion of the Catholic belief in Transubstantiation whereby the bread and wine is transformed into the body and blood of Christ. Protestants do not subscribe to this view. 33. Purgatory / Purgation = the purification of souls from all their sins after death to prepare them to go to heaven it is believed that prayers and masses said by the living for the dead can help their passage through this process as can the buying of indulgences or get out of jail cards. 34. Wicked lives of divers Popes = Catholicism sees the Pope as the Vicar of Christ who takes Jesuss place as the head of the Church. Because of this the Pope can speak authoritively regarding faith. His teachings are therefore infallible and binding. Protestantism denies that any human is infallible, only Christ, and he alone is Head of the Church. The Pope would therefore be sen as wicked. Many popes were surrounded by scandals 35. Protestant = explanation of the origins of the name Protestant - first used to refer to the German Princes and imperial cities which officially protested when Charles V tred to suppress Lutheranism - Diet of Speyer, 1529. Also used to describe Luther, Calvin and others who protested against the doctrines, rituals and ecclesiastical structure of the Catholic Church. 36. Confession and absolution = confess ones sins to a priest who will then forgive or absolve your sins. The priest acts in persona Christi or in the place of Christ. 37. Miracles and relicspardons and indulgences = these were often ways to make money out of the credulous populace. Relics of saints

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such as their bones or possessions were often believed to have powers to cure illnesses, while the purchase of pardons or indulgences could ensure forgiveness of sins and a fast-track to heaven. 38. Concubines and adultery = this is a reference to the breaking of the vow of chastity taken by the clergy. It also presages what will happen later in the text when Antonio attempts to seduce his young Mistress p32 ll.19-26. 39. fettered = chains placed around the ankles to prevent a prisoner from running away 40. Abominations of mystical Babylon = Babylon is the symbol of confusion caused by godlessness 41. Handkerchief = used as a plot device similar to Shakespeares Othello. 42. Gallies = ships propelled by human oarsmen used for trade and warfare. Condemned criminals were used as oarsmen in the states war-galleys and lived in unhealthy conditions which shortened their lives considerably. 43. shaved heads = demeaning process ostensible to limit lice. 44. periwigs = perukes or wigs fashionable hear gear in seventeenth century.

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Bibliography
Cullen, Karen J. Famine in Scotland the Ill Years of the 1690s, Edinburgh University Press 2010. Gay, Peter (1996). The Enlightenment: An Interpretation. W. W. Norton & Company. Goldgar, Anne (2007), Tulipmania: Money, Honour and Knowledge in the Dutch Golden Age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press Gwynn, Robin, Huguenot Heritage. Sussex Academic Press. 2011 Gwynn, Robin. The Huguenots of London. The Alpha Press. 1998 Shepard, Leslie The History of Street Literature Newton Abbot 1973

Articles
Earl, T. The Immigrant Experience History Today July 1986 FURLEY, O. W. (1959), THE POPE-BURNING PROCESSIONS OF THE LATE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. History, 44: 1623. doi: 10.1111/j.1468229X.1959.tb01061.x Gwynn, Robin. James II in the light of His treatment of Huguenot Refugees in England 1685-86. The English Historical Review, Vol. 92, No. 365 (Occt 1977) p 823-826 Gwynn Robin. Englands First Refugees. History Today. May 1985 Hertz. Gerald B. The English Silk Industry in the Eighteenth Century in The English Historical Review, Vol 24, no. 96 (Oct 1909) Hintermaier John M. The first Modern Refugees? Charity, Entitlement, and Persuasion in the Huguenot Immigration of the 1680s. Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies, Vol. 32, No. 3 (Autumn 2000) Kuper, Simon Petal power Financial Times Published: May 12 2007 McCloy, Shelby T. Persecution of the Huguenots in the 18th Century. Church History Vol. 20, No. 3 (Sep. 1951) Murdoch, T. The Quiet Conquest: The Huguenots 1685-1985 in History Today May 1985. Lawrence S. Spitalfields Revival. British heritage. January 2009. Parker, G. Huguenot Identity in Post-Medieval London assemblage 10 (2009)

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