Part 7a

Broadcast Engineering: AM and FM Broadcasting

Broadcasting
Broadcasting is the distribution of audio and/or video signals (programs) to a number of recipients ("listeners" or "viewers") that belong to a large group. Broadcasting to a very narrow range of audience is called narrowcasting. The term "broadcast" was coined by early radio engineers from the midwestern United States. "Broadcasting", in farming, is one method of spreading seed using a wide toss of the hand, in a broad cast. Television and radio programs are distributed through radio broadcasting or cable, often both simultaneously. Broadcasting forms a very large segment of mass media.
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Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Amplitude Modulation
The process of varying the amplitude of a high-frequency carrier wave in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal

ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

Uses of AM
1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

AM broadcast (535 1605 kHz) Citizens Band Radio (27 MHz) Aircraft communications (108 136 MHz) International shortwave (3 30 MHz) broadcast via sky wave TV picture (using vestigial sideband)

ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

Limiting condition for AM: The amplitude of the modulating signal must not exceed that of the carrier, else overmodulation (clipping) occurs.

ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

AM Broadcasting Standards (FCC)

Frequency allocation: 535 to 1605 kHz (525 to 1705 kHz) divided into 106 (130) channels Channel spacing: 10 kHz (9 kHz) Permitted channel bandwidth: 30 kHz (maximum modulating signal frequency: 15 kHz) *note: geographically co-located stations must be spaced at least 3 channels apart for sideband interference protection) Carrier tolerance: 20 Hz Unmodulated carrier power: 100 W to 50 kW Type of emission: A3E (double sideband, full carrier) Intermediate Frequency: 455 kHz
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AM Station Performance Requirements (FCC)

Modulation percentage: 85% to 95% Audio frequency distortion harmonics (AFDH): <5% rms amplitude up to 84% modulation Audio frequency response: transmission characteristic must be flat from 100 Hz to 5 kHz ( 2 dB referred to 1 kHz) Carrier stability: 20 Hz

ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

Service Areas in AM
Primary
Area in which the groundwave field is measured at 1 mV/m, and is not subject to objectionable interference and fading

Secondary
The area serviced by the skywave, having a skywave field strength equal to or greater than 500 V/m for 50% or more of the time. May be subject to fading but no objectionable cochannel interference

Intermittent
The area receiving service from the groundwave but beyond the primary service area and subject to objectionable interference and fading

ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

Times of Day in AM Broadcasting

Daytime
From local sunrise to local sunset
6 AM to 6 PM (2200 UTC to 1000 UTC)

Nighttime
Between local sunset to local sunrise
6 PM to 6 AM (1000 UTC to 2200 UTC)

Experimental period
Midnight to local sunrise
12 MN to 6 AM (1600 UTC to 2200 UTC)

Used for experimental purposes in testing and maintaining apparatuses by the licensee, provided that no interference is caused to other stations maintaining a regular operating schedule within such a period
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3 Important Requirements in Broadcasting

Timing
Programming schedule must be followed (programs should start and end within the allotted time)

Fidelity
Program material shall not have any reasonable distortion

Modulation depth
The audio signal must modulate the transmitter properly

ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

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Power Allocations
AREA Metro Manila All other areas Maximum Permissible Power 50 kW 10 kW

The transmitter of existing Metro Manila stations may be located outside of Metro Manila, provided that Metro Manila remains within the 80 dBu contour of the transmitter

The station shall not operate more than 5% and lower than 10% of its authorized operating power
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Classification of Powers
1.

Licensed power or authorized operating power

That which is actually supplied or fed to the antenna by the transmitter. Should have a tolerance of -5% or +10%

2.

Maximum rated carrier power

The maximum power that the transmitter is capable of supplying to the antenna and still operate satisfactorily

3.

Plate input power

Product of the voltage and current at the output of the last radio stage, measured without modulation

4.

Antenna input power

Product of the square of the antenna current and the antenna resistance at the point where the current is measured.
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Two methods of measuring antenna input power 1. Direct method

Po = I a Ra
2
2.

where:

Ia = antenna current with no modulation Ra = impedance or resistance of the antenna where the current is measured

Indirect method
used to determine the output power of FM broadcast stations and TV aural transmitters used for AM broadcast stations in emergencies

Po = V p I p F

where:

Vp = plate voltage of the final amplifier Ip = plate current of the final amplifier F = power factor correction

ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

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AM Antennas and Site Considerations

Standard AM broadcast stations use either a single omnidirecitonal vertical antennas, or multi-element, phased vertical directional arrays Generally, antennas are erected on flat lands, preferably those having good ground conductivities (e.g. marsh lands) Earth mat a network of buried wires directly under the antenna, extending outward from the base, buried about 6 to 12 inches (15 to 30 cm) below the ground Counterpoise a smaller version of the earth mat above ground

ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

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Antenna Towers: Obstruction Painting and Lighting

Must be painted with equal-width stripes of aviation (emergency) orange and white, each stripe approximately one-seventh of the height of the tower, but not over 100 ft (30 m) in width on tall towers. The top and bottom stripes must be orange To mark the tower at night (sunset to sunrise), towers up to 150 ft (46 m) must have two (2) steady-burning 116-W or 125-W lamps in an aviation red light globe at the top of the tower (beacon) For towers over 150 ft, the top beacon light consists of 620-W or 700-W PS-40 Flashing Code Beacon lamps with aviation red filters At half-, third-, quarter-, etc. tower height points (depending on the height of the tower), flashing 620-W to 700-W beacons are installed Lights should be automatically controlled by a device sensitive to the night sky. Lights should be inspected at least once a day, or by automatic indicators
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Logs
Log
A listing of the date and time of events, programs, equipment parameters, tests, malfunctions, corrections, and other such information

ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

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Types of Logs in Broadcast Operations

Program Log
Contains entries with regard to the nature of the program, its name and title, start and end times, source, sponsors of announcements, duration of advertisements, etc.

Operating Log
Contains the technical details of the transmitter during operation, such as operating parameters (Vp, Ip, Ia, etc.), the time the transmitter is put on and off the air, the time antenna lights are turned on or off, etc.

Maintenance Log
Contains the results of transmitter and other equipment tests, repairs, calibration, checks, etc.

ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

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Frequency Modulation (FM)

Frequency Modulation
The process of varying the frequency of a high-frequency carrier wave in accordance with the amplitude variations of the modulating signal

ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

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Uses of FM
1. 2. 3. 4.

FM broadcast (88 108 MHz) Television sound Satellite Television (both audio and video) Mobile radio services

ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

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FM Broadcasting Standards (FCC)

Frequency allocation: 88 to 108 MHz divided into 100 channels Channel spacing: 200 kHz Permitted channel bandwidth: 200 kHz (75 kHz deviation for maximum modulating frequency of 15 kHz, and a 25 kHz guard band on both sides) Type of emission: F3E (monoaural) F8E (stereophonic) Intermediate Frequency: 10.7 MHz (10.61 to 10.79 MHz) Pilot Subcarrier Frequency: 19 kHz

ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

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Classes of FM Stations
Class-A
Shall have an authorized transmitter power not exceeding 25 kW and an ERP not exceeding 125 kW. Minimum transmitter power is 10 kW

Class-B
Shall have an authorized transmitter power not exceeding 10 kW and an ERP not exceeding 30 kW. Minimum transmitter power is 1 kW

Class-C
A non-commercial, community station having an ERP not exceeding 1 kW

Class-D
Shall have an authorized transmitter power not exceeding 10 W. Used for educational purposes.
ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

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FM Antennas and Site Considerations

The antenna used in FM broadcasting is a half-wave dipole. The transmitting antenna location should be chosen so that line-of-sight can be obtained from the antenna over the general service area. To provide LOS within the principal area, the antenna must be conveniently above the average terrain. A tower, elevated structures (buildings) can be used to elevate the antenna Hills and mountains can also act as natural towers.

ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

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Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis

Since noise sideband power in FM decreases inversely with the modulating frequency, higher modulating frequencies are more susceptible to noise than the lower ones. A method of artificially boosting the affected frequencies with respect to a pre-arranged curve before transmission to improve noise immunity is termed as pre-emphasis. The compensation at receiver side is called de-emphasis
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The amount of pre/de-emphasis for FM broadcasting has been standardized as 75s In the UK, the amount of emphasis is standardized to 50s.

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Stereophonic FM
Stereo (also stereoscope)
Originally referred to a special photographic technique used to give the viewer the impression of observing a scene in three dimensions In stereophonic audio, a sound source is recorded from two different angles (in this case, the left and right sides). During playback, these signals simulate the sound to the left and right ears, giving the illusion of a three-dimensional sound source.

ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

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Problems encountered with initial design of stereophonic FM broadcasts:

1.

2.

Original FM broadcasts were monophonic. The system should be compatible with existing monophonic receivers The stereo information had to be transmitted within the 200 kHz bandwidth allotment

ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

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Block Diagram of a Stereophonic Transmission System

LEFT IN MATRIX RIGHT IN DIFFERENCE (L-R) 23 53 kHz 19 kHz 59.5 74.5 kHz ADDER OUT SUM (L+R) 50 15 kHz

19 kHz SUBCARRIER

FREQ x 2

BM

SCA GENERATOR

AUDIO IN

ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

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Spectrum of a Stereo FM Multiplex System

L+R

Stereo Subcarrier

L-R

SCA

15 19 23

38

53

59.5

67

74.5

kHz

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Some notes on FM Stereo

Why are the L & R signals not sent independently and simultaneously?
So that the system will be compatible with existing monoaural receivers

Whats the use of the 38 kHz subcarrier?

To serve as the carrier for the balance modulation process of the difference signal

Why 38 kHz?
The difference signal must not interfere with the original sum signals

Why suppress the 38 kHz subcarrier?

Too much of the total composite modulating signal would be taken up by the subcarrier voltage

Whats with the 19 kHz pilot subcarrier?

It is used as the reference to obtain the difference signal.

Why 19 kHz?
Most people cannot hear beyond 15 kHz, much more 19 kHz.
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Subsidiary Communications Authorization (SCA)

The transmission of programs which are of a broadcast nature, but which are of interest primarily to limited segments of the public wishing to subscribe thereto. Typical applications of SCA
Background music, weather, time signals Educational information Talk-back for remote stations Telemetry Facsimile Slow-scan TV

Uses a subcarrier of 67 kHz and is modulated to a depth of 7.5 kHz

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The Broadcast Studio

The studio usually contains equipment for program origination. It is a usual practice to co-locate the studio and transmitter in a single facility, mostly for economic purposes.

ECE 211 - Broadcast Engineering & Acoustics (AM & FM Broadcasting)

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Remote Studio Facilities

In cases where the studio and the transmitter cannot be located in the same facility, or it is better for the transmitter to be located elsewhere (economically or technically), then a studio-to-transmitter link (STL) may be employed.

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