Neurons and the Brain

Organization of the Nervous System y A. Divisions of the nervous system i. There are two major divisions  Central nervous system All neurons in the brain and spinal cord  Peripheral nervous system Consists of the nerves connecting the brain and spinal cord to the other parts of the body The Central Nervous System y Brain y Spinal cord A collection of neurons and supportive tissue running from the base of the brain down the center of the back. Protected by spinal column. The Withdrawal Reflex

Peripheral Nervous System y Somatic Includes the nerves that are connected to sensory receptors and skeletal muscles. Carries messages to and from the sense receptor muscles and surface of the body y Autonomic The sympathetic nervous system mobilizes bodily resources and increases the output of energy during emotion and stress. The parasympathetic nervous system operates during relaxed states and that conserves energy Connects with the internal organs and glands y ii. The sensory nerves of the somatic system transfer information about external stimuli from the skin, muscles, and joints to the CNS y iii. The motor nerves of the somatic system carry impulses from the central nervous system to the muscles y iv. Most of the nerve fibers connecting the brain to the body are located in the spinal cord

Organization of the Nervous System

Communication in the Nervous System y The structure of the neuron Different kinds of neurons y How neurons communicate Action potential y Chemical messengers in the nervous system Neurotransmitters  Major neurotransmitters  Endorphins Endocrine system Hormones NEURONS the basic elements of behavior y Nerve cells y The building blocks of the nervous system y A specialized cell that transmit neural impulses to other neurons, glands and muscles Structure of a Neuron y Dendrites - a cluster of fibers at one end of a neuron Receive information from other neurons and transmit towards the cell body. y Cell body Keeps the neuron alive and determines whether it will fire. y Axon Extending fiber that conducts impulses away from the cell body and transmits to other cells.

y Terminal buttons small bulges at the end of axons that send messages to other neurons Structure of a Neuron y Nerve Bundle of axons belonging to many neurons y Nucleus a group of cell bodies in the brain and spine y Ganglion A group of cell bodies outside the brain and spine Glial cells Nonneuronal cells that hold the neurons in place and remove dead neurons and waste products Myelin sheath A protective coat of fat and protein that wraps around the axon Serves to increase the velocity with which electrical impulses travel through axons if your hand touches a painfully hot stove, the information regarding the pain is passed through axons in the hand and arm that have a relatively thick coating of myelin sheath, speeding the message of pain so that you can react instantly.

Different Kinds of Neurons

Neurons in the News y Canadian research has provided evidence for neurogenesis: the production of new neurons from immature stem cells. y Stem cells are immature cells that renew themselves and have the potential to develop into mature cells; given encouraging environments, stem cells from early embryos can develop into any cell type. How Neurons Communicate y Axon terminals release neurotransmitter. y Neurotransmitter enters synaptic gap. y Neurotransmitter binds to receptors that it fits. Action Potential y A brief change in electrical voltage which occurs between the inside and outside of an axon when a neuron is stimulated. It produces an electrical impulse.

y An electrochemical impulse that travels from the cell body down to the end of the axon y Occurs because the cell membrane is semi permeable y When a neuron is not generating an action potential it is a resting neuron and ion pumps keep sodium ion out of the cell maintaining the resting membrane potential y When a neuron is stimulated, it is depolarized, sending sodium ions into the cell The myelin sheath speeds the signal down the neuron, allowing for salutatory conduction in which the nerve impulse jumps from one gap to the next These gaps are called nodes of Ranvier y Synaptic transmission i. A neuron fires an action potential when the stimulation reaching it exceeds a certain consistent threshold ii. The all-or-none principle says that action potentials are constant and occur only if the threshold is reached iii. When an action potential reaches the synaptic terminals it stimulated the synaptic vesicles which cross the synapse and bind to receptors y Receptors These are proteins lodged in the dendritic membrane of the receiving or postsynaptic neuron The neurotransmitter and receptor have to match in order to effect the receiving cell and cause it fire

y iv. If a neurotransmitter is not used immediately, it is cleared from the synapse through reuptake, in which it is reabsorbed by the synaptic terminal where it was released y v. The neurotransmitter may also go through degradation, in which enzymes in synaptic gap react with the neurotransmitter to break it up chemically and make it inactive Neurotransmitter y A chemical substance that is released by a transmitting neuron at the synapse and that alters the activity of a receiving neuron.

Major Neurotransmitters y Acetylcholine (ACh) y Glutamate y Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) y Dopamine (DA) y Serotonin y Endorphins Acetylcholine y i. Found at many synapses and is usually excitatory y ii. Prevalent in the hippocampus where memories are formed Has a role in Alzheimer s disease iii. Released at every synapse where a neuron terminates at a skeletal muscle fiber Directed onto end plates located on the muscle cells which cause them to contract Norepinephrine y Part of the monoamines and is produced mainly in the brain stem Cocaine and amphetamines prolong the action of norepinephrine leading to elevated mood states Lithium speeds up norepinephrine reuptake leading to depressed mood Dopamine y Similar to norepinephrine and related to feelings of pleasure y Too much dopamine may cause schizophrenia and too little is associated with Parkinson s disease Serotonin y Plays an important role in the regulation of mood, sleep and appetite y Antidepressant drugs, called serotonin reuptake inhibitors, increase serotonin level

Glutamate y An excitatory neurotransmitter is present in neurons of the central nervous system Believed to play a role in learning and memory GABA y A major inhibitory transmitter used in the majority of synapses in the brain Used as anxiety reducing drugs Opioids and Substance P

Mapping the Brain y Lesion method y Electroencephalogram (EEG) y Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) y Positron-Emission tomography (PET) y Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) y Lesioning Involves damaging and removing sections of brain in animals, then observing their effects. y Transcranial magnetic stimulated (TMS) Stimulates brain cells using a powerful magnetic field produced by a wire coil placed on the head. Can be used to temporarily inactivate neural circuits. Electroencephalogram (EEG) y A recording of neural activity detected by electrodes.

y Positron Emission Tomography (PET) y A method for analyzing biochemical activity in the brain, using injections of a glucose-like substance containing a radioactive element. y Active areas have increased blood flow. y Sensors detect radioactivity. y Different tasks show distinct activity patterns. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) y Method for studying body and brain tissue. y Magnetic fields align certain ions and compounds. y When field is removed, these molecules release energy as radio waves. y Computer calculates tissue density from radio waves. y Provides clear, 3D images. A Walk Through the Brain y The brain stem y The cerebellum y The thalamus y The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland y The amygdala y The hippocampus y The cerebrum and lobes of the cerebral cortex Organization of the brain y Three regions based on location Hindbrain  Includes structures located in the posterior part of the brain Midbrain  Located in the middle of the brain Forebrain  Anterior part of the brain y Three concentric layers of the brain The central core  Known as the brain stem controls involuntary and primitive behaviors  Includes all structures in the hindbrain and midbrain as well as the thalamus and hypothalamus Limbic system  Control emotion Cerebrum  Regulates higher intellectual process The Brain Stem y Pons involved in sleeping, waking and dreaming. y Medulla A narrow structure responsible for certain automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate. y Reticular activating system (or formation)

 arouses cortex and screens incoming information. Important role in controlling arousal and in the ability to focus attention The Cerebellum y Regulates movement and balance and learning new motor responses y Involved in remembering simple skills and acquired reflexes. y Plays a part in analyzing sensory information, solving problems and understanding words. The Thalamus y Acts as sensory relay station, directing information from the sense receptors to the cerebrum y Relays sensory messages to the cerebral cortex. y Includes all sensory messages except those from olfactory bulb. y Also important for control of sleep and wakefulness Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland y Involved in emotions and drives vital to survival including fear, hunger, thirst, and reproduction. y Plays a role in the sensation of emotions and responses to stress y Also regulates autonomic nervous system. y Controls the production of hormones y Regulates endocrine activity to maintain homeostasis- process that maintains the normal level of functioning characteristic of a healthy organism y The pituitary gland is a small endocrine gland which releases hormones and regulates other endocrine glands. The Limbic system y A set of structures closely interconnected with the hypothalamus that impose additional controls over instinctive behaviors regulated by the hypothalamus and brain stem y Contains the hippocampus and amydala y Involved in emotional behavior The Amygdala y Responsible for arousal and regulation of emotion and the initial emotional response to sensory information. y Plays important role in mediating anxiety and depression. y Regulated emotions such as fear The Hippocampus y Responsible for the storage of new information in memory. y Compares information with what the brain has come to expect about the world. y Gateway to memory because it enables us to navigate through the environment. The Cerebrum y Largest brain structure. y Consists of upper part of brain and divided into two cerebral hemispheres which are connected by the corpus callosum. y In charge of most sensory, motor and cognitive processes. y Surrounded by cerebral cortex, a collection of several thin layers of cells (gray matter). y The outer layer is the cerebral cortex y Composed of two hemispheres on the left and right sides connected by the corpus callosum Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes-the frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex y Occipital lobes Visual cortex. y Parietal lobes Somatosensory cortex. y Temporal lobes Memory, perception, emotion and auditory cortex. Left lobe, Wernicke s area. y Frontal lobes Emotion, planning, creative thinking and motor cortex. Left lobe, Broca s area. y Primary motor area Controls voluntary movement of the body y Primary somatosensory area Located in the parietal lobe, controls heat, cold, touch, pain, and sense of body movement y Primary visual area y Primary auditory area Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

Phineas Gage y Gage was a railroad construction foreman y An 1848 explosion forced a steel tamping rod through his head y Others said he was no longer Gage y Lost his job, worked as a sideshow exhibit The Corpus Callosum y Millions of myelinated axons connecting the brain s hemispheres. y Provides a pathway for communication between the hemispheres. y If surgically severed for treatment of epilepsy, hemispheres cannot communicate directly.

Split-Brain Experiment y Subjects were presented information to one or the other side of their brains. y Patients identified verbally the pictures to the right (i.e., boy). y When asked to point to the face seen, the patients pointed to the left picture. Where Is the Self? y Most scientists assume that what we call mind, consciousness, self-awareness, or subjective experience can be explained in physical terms as a product of the brain. y Some contend that the brain consists of independent modules and that the self is an illusion. y No one understands yet how subjective experience is linked to physical processes in the brain. Are There His and Hers Brains? y After analyzing 49 studies of sex differences in brain anatomy, Canadian researchers found small differences between the two groups and larger differences within groups. y There does appear to be sex differences in lateralization of language. Males show left hemisphere activation only. Females, left and right. y There also appears to be differences in amounts of grey matter. Females have more. 3 Ways to Interpret These Findings y These supposed differences are stereotypes. y A biological difference does not necessarily have implications for behavior or performance. y Sex differences in the brain could be the result rather than the cause of behavioral differences.