Object 1

Cognitive-Behavioral Theories
1

Cognitive-behavioral theories are best conceptualized as a general category of theories, or a set of related theories, which have evolved from the theoretical writings, clinical experiences, and empirical studies of behavioral and cognitively oriented psychologists. There is no single definition of cognitive-behavioral theory. The individual theories are tied together by common assumptions, techniques and research strategies, but maintain a diversity of views about the role cognitions play in behavior change. The hyphenated term "cognitive-behavioral" reflects the importance of both behavioral and cognitive approaches to understanding and helping human beings. The hyphen brings together behavioral and cognitive theoretical views, each with its own theoretical assumptions and intervention strategies. Cognitive-behavioral interventions target both cognitive and behavioral problems using a full integration of cognitive and behavioral strategies. Cognitive-behavioral research is based on observed changes in behavior and cognition with methodological rigor. Cognitive-behavioral theories provide great flexibility in treatment targets and interventions, sharing a fundamental emphasis on the importance of cognitive workings and private events as mediators of behavior change. Behavioral assessment, operating in the "triple response mode", provides a conceptual model of the functional relationships between thoughts, behaviors, and feelings and provides the necessary background for clinicians and researchers to implement and evaluate intervention strategies. Cognitive-behavioral theories and counseling interventions are currently highly influential. There are many different cognitive-behavioral intervention techniques and the number is likely to grow as the theories continue to be developed and tested for effectiveness with a variety of psychological problems

Cognitive Behavioral Theory

Cognitive behavioral theory is the study of human psychology that deals with the various facets of human personality and behavior. This article has a lot of facts to share on this subject... Human behavior is an enigma. A person's behavioral pattern is identified by his thought process, emotional quotient and his response to a certain given situation. So before we go about understanding cognitive behavioral theory, it is important to understand what is cognitive behavior all about? Cognitive psychology is a huge subject that deals with cognitive behavior. The subject focuses on how people think, what they perceive from vision and hearing, how much they retain and remember and how they react to a stimuli. Precisely, a cognitive behavioral theory also closely associates itself with neuroscience, linguistics and philosophy. One of the aspects of this theory also deals with enhancing the decisive ability of a person and his memory to retain more information. So let's dig more facts and finds in the history of this theory, before we get to understand it better! Cognitive Behavioral Theory: History How did this cognitive behavioral theory come into existence? Let's take a ride back in time, to know some of the famous psychiatrists who have been instrumental in designing this theory. Albert Ellis He was a famous American psychologist who developed the Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) in the 1950s. As per his approach, the human tendency is such that the person always wants to remain happy and gay, but life does not allow it. His revelations further stated that it is not just the events and circumstances that bring the feeling of sadness or sorrow, but such feelings of negation are also factored by the thought process and beliefs of the person. This idea was however, articulated about 2000 years back by the famous Greek philosopher Epictetus, whose famous lines illustrate this belief, "Men are disturbed not by events, but by the views which they take of them". Albert further stated that the cognitive thought process of a human being is controlled more by
1 http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_capuzzi_counseling_3/4/1171/299948.cw/index.html%20parentloc

beliefs, of which most he believed to be irrational. These beliefs are also known as "The Three Basic Musts", which include the feeling of "must do well at any cost" (leads to anxiety symptoms and depression otherwise), "must be treated fairly as expected by human nature" (leads to rage and passive aggressive behavior otherwise) and "must get what is expected" (leads to procrastination and self pity otherwise). Besides he also has stated about the sense of disputing thoughts, insight and acceptance towards situations as behavioral facets of human personality. Aaron Beck In the 1960s, Aaron Beck, a famous psychiatrist with a background in psychoanalytical training, further explored the untouched arenas of human personality, like depression and procrastination. If Ellis was supposedly the founder of cognitive behavioral theory, Aaron took a leap ahead and explored more into this theory and came up with cognitive behavioral therapy for treating patients suffering from depression and anxiety. He has stated that many a times, people tend to suffer from depression and anxiety disorders because of a pre formed negative assessment of themselves. Such an assessment could be attributed to various reasons such as a prolonged mental trauma, social aloofness and low self esteem. His theory has been used for devising the modern day cognitive behavioral therapies. To get a comprehensive understanding on this theory, one should read The Cognitive Theory of Depression by Aaron Beck. You can also get a brief idea about the same by going through Aaron Beck cognitive behavior theory. Albert Bandura History of cognitive behavioral theory remains incomplete without the mention of Albert Bandura, the famous psychologist from Canada who has given valuable inputs to cognitive development theory. As per his learnings, the cognitive behavior of a man is greatly factored by aggression, which is an outcome of restricted emotions that have been bottled up for quite some time. His theory of cognitive behavior in humans mainly revolved around the concept of observation, attention and retention. He further stated that a person develops his instincts, intelligence and beliefs from his cognitive mind mapping (includes observation of the environment around him). Say, a person observes an incident. If it is interesting, he gives full attention to it and then retains it in his memory if he finds it interesting. Then he tries to apply his knowledge wherever his thought process allows him to. This is how the behavioral patterns of a person develop. Albert Bandura's theories on cognitive behavior have proved to be quite realistic. In 1977, Albert Bandura was honored as the Father of Cognitive theory. What is Cognitive Behavioral Theory? So now that we know a little bit about the history of cognitive behavioral theory, let's understand in detail about what this theory has to say, in modern day. Cognition, the term itself means, to conceptualize, to know, to recognize. Precisely, it is the thought process which covers grasping the knowledge, remembering it, applying it, developing beliefs on it, reasoning it and retaining it. So a cognitive behavioral theory is a study that is descriptive about how the concept of cognition plays an important role in determining the behavioral pattern of a person. Let's figure out, how the cognitive behavioral theory is applicable in understanding and judging various personalities. Cognitive Behavioral Theory of Personality Every person is unique and bears an unparalleled personality. The personality traits are majorly shaped by culture, environment, lifestyle and habitat of a person. As explained by famous psychiatrists and psychoanalysts, the cognitive behavior of a person is quite influenced by the emotional quotient, which he develops over a period of time after much observation and retention of his perceptions and thoughts. Hence, every personality type comes under one of the four banners, which were characterized by the famous Greek physician Hippocrates. As per him, the personalities can be classified into four temperaments, each associated with a body fluid (called "humor"): The Optimistic (The sanguine crowd whose type is associated with the liquid blood)

 The Phlegmatic (The kind who are associated with phlegm and are lethargic and lackadaisical) The Melancholy (The ones who are sad and depressed and are related to the black bile) The Choleric (The aggressive crowd who are associated with the yellow bile) Every individual's personality is determined by a blend of these four temperaments in appropriate levels, depending on the instincts and judging ability of a person. When it comes to cognitive behavioral theory of personality, there are many contentious concerns which play a major role in development of personality traits, like determinism vs freewill, uniqueness vs universality, reactiveness vs proactiveness and optimism vs pessimism. Cognitive behavior is a vast subject which cannot be covered in a day. However, I hope this article on cognitive behavioral theory has been informative. Cognitive behavioral therapies, based on this theory have helped a great deal in identifying many personality disorders and treating them. Human mind is a complicated make which needs to keep a balance of the positive and negative emotions in order to sustain a sane thought process. So before I conclude this article, I would like to share the famous lines of David Burns with my readers: Aim for success, not perfection. Never give up your right to be wrong, because then you will lose the ability to learn new things and move forward with your life. Remember that fear always lurks behind perfectionism. Confronting your fears and allowing yourself the right to be human can, paradoxically, make yourself a happier and more productive person.. So true!

Aaron Beck Cognitive Behavior Theory

Cognitive Therapy (CT) was developed by American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck and is considered to be one of the therapeutic approaches to deal with problems relating to cognitive behavioral therapy. Aaron Temkin Beck is an American psychiatrist who has pioneered research on psychotherapy, psychopathology, suicide and psychometrics and developed the cognitive therapy. He became interested in psychiatry during an internship at the Rhode Island hospital, where he studied neurology as a specialty. Aaron Beck is considered as the father of cognitive behavioral therapy. Cognitive Behavior Theory According to Beck,"If beliefs do not change, there is no improvement. If beliefs change, symptoms change. Beliefs function as little operational units," which means that one's thoughts and beliefs (schema) affect ones behavior and subsequent actions. He believed that dysfunctional behavior is caused due to dysfunctional thinking, and that thinking is shaped by our beliefs. Our beliefs decide the course of our actions. Beck was convinced of positive results if patients could be persuaded to think constructively and forsake negative thinking. Cognitive Approach to Depression Behavioral theorists suggest that depression results from faulty and irrational psychological perception, causing distorted learning and reasoning. These depressive cognition could be a result of traumatic experience or incapability of adaptive coping skills. Depressive people have a negative perception or belief about themselves and their environment. More the severity of one's negative thoughts more is the severity of one's depression symptoms.

Beck devised the negative cognitive triad, which includes the following three main dysfunctional belief themes or schemas, a depressive person experiences. The depressed patients see themselves as inadequate, incapable of success and always as a victim of circumstances. The patient considers all past and present experiences through the kaleidoscope of negativity, constantly emphasizing on defeats, failures and a victim mentality. The depressed individual envisions the future, just as he interprets the past and present and sees only despair and hopelessness. These beliefs focus attention towards negative aspects of life and the way information is processed. As perception becomes more distorted, selective attention is placed on failures and everything is approached negatively. The depressed person maneuvers all his feelings towards hopelessness unconsciously. In 1961, he developed the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) that has a 21 item scale that uses a Likert scale to determine the severity of depression. It is one of the most widely used and referenced scales to measure depression. Treating Depression Aaron Beck put major emphasis on understanding and changing core beliefs as an approach to treating depression. By restructuring destructive thinking, he believed that positive changes could be brought in the patient. He considered the role of a therapist as crucial in the treatment. The therapist involves the patient in setting realistic goals and taking responsibilities for action and thought. By changing thought and perception, a change can be brought in behavior and emotional responses. A course is outlined to educate the patient on the concept of faulty thinking. New ideas and ways are generated to develop a positive outlook of oneself, experiences and the environment around. Sometimes, home assignments are also given to help the depressed person review and understand the impact of faulty thinking on his behavior and emotional well-being. Beck combined Sigmund Freuds psychoanalysis with his own understanding and observations of schema and developed the cognitive behavior theory. He further developed Beck Scale for Suicidal Ideation, Beck Hopelessness Scale, Beck Anxiety Inventory and Beck Youth Inventories to help treat all kinds of mental disorders. Today, psychiatrists worldwide use his cognitive behavior theory and various scales to treat patients suffering from depression.

Albert Ellis He was a famous American psychologist who developed the Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) in the 1950s. As per his approach, the human tendency is such that the person always wants to remain happy and gay, but life does not allow it. His revelations further stated that it is not just the events and circumstances that bring the feeling of sadness or sorrow, but such feelings of negation are also factored by the thought process and beliefs of the person. This idea was however, articulated about 2000 years back by the famous Greek philosopher Epictetus, whose famous lines illustrate this belief, "Men are disturbed not by events, but by the views which they take of them". Albert further stated that the cognitive thought process of a human being is controlled more by beliefs, of which most he believed to be irrational. These beliefs are also known as "The Three Basic Musts", which include the feeling of "must do well at any cost" (leads to anxiety symptoms and depression otherwise), "must be treated fairly as expected by human nature" (leads to rage and passive aggressive behavior otherwise) and "must get what is expected" (leads to procrastination and self pity otherwise). Besides he also has stated about the sense of disputing thoughts, insight and acceptance towards situations as behavioral facets of human personality.

Albert Bandura History of cognitive behavioral theory remains incomplete without the mention of Albert Bandura, the famous psychologist from Canada who has given valuable inputs to cognitive development theory. As per his learnings, the cognitive behavior of a man is greatly factored by aggression, which is an outcome of restricted emotions that have been bottled up for quite some time. His theory of cognitive behavior in humans mainly revolved around the concept of observation, attention and retention. He further stated that a person develops his instincts, intelligence and beliefs from his cognitive mind mapping (includes observation of the environment around him). Say, a person observes an incident. If it is interesting, he gives full attention to it and then retains it in his memory if he finds it interesting. Then he tries to apply his knowledge wherever his thought process allows him to. This is how the behavioral patterns of a person develop. Albert Bandura's theories on cognitive behavior have proved to be quite realistic. In 1977, Albert Bandura was honored as the Father of Cognitive theory.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy...
is a form of psychotherapy that emphasizes the important role of thinking in how we feel and what we do. Cognitive-behavioral therapy does not exist as a distinct therapeutic technique. The term "cognitivebehavioral therapy (CBT)" is a very general term for a classification of therapies with similarities. There are several approaches to cognitive-behavioral therapy, including Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, Rational Behavior Therapy, Rational Living Therapy, Cognitive Therapy, and Dialectic Behavior Therapy. However, most cognitive-behavioral therapies have the following characteristics: 1. CBT is based on the Cognitive Model of Emotional Response. Cognitive-behavioral therapy is based on the idea that our thoughts cause our feelings and behaviors, not external things, like people, situations, and events. The benefit of this fact is that we can change the way we think to feel / act better even if the situation does not change.

<!-google_ad_client = "pub-8913815859546037"; /* 468x60, created 12/31/09 */ google_ad_slot = "0898271291"; google_ad_width = 468; google_ad_height = 60; //-->
2. CBT is Briefer and Time-Limited. Cognitive-behavioral therapy is considered among the most rapid in terms of results obtained. The average number of sessions clients receive (across all types of problems and approaches to CBT) is only 16. Other forms of therapy, like psychoanalysis, can take years. What enables CBT to be briefer is its highly instructive nature and the fact that it makes use of homework assignments. CBT is time-limited in that we help clients understand at the very beginning of the therapy process that there will be a point when the formal therapy will end. The ending of the formal therapy is a decision made by the therapist and client. Therefore, CBT is not an open-ended, never-ending process. 3. A sound therapeutic relationship is necessary for effective therapy, but not the focus. Some forms of therapy assume that the main reason people get better in therapy is because of the positive relationship between the therapist and client. Cognitive-behavioral therapists believe it is important to have a good, trusting relationship, but that is not enough. CBT therapists believe that the clients change because they learn how to think differently and they act on that learning. Therefore, CBT therapists focus on teaching rational self-counseling skills. 4. CBT is a collaborative effort between the therapist and the client. Cognitive-behavioral therapists seek to learn what their clients want out of life (their goals) and then help their clients achieve those goals. The therapist's role is to listen, teach, and encourage, while the client's

roles is to express

concerns, learn, and implement that learning.

For excellent cognitive-behavioral therapy self-help and professional books, audio presentations, and home-study training programs, please click here.
5. CBT is based on aspects of stoic philosophy. Not all approaches to CBT emphasize stoicism. Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, Rational Behavior Therapy, and Rational Living Therapy emphasize aspects of stoicism. Beck's Cognitive Therapy is not based on stoicism. Cognitive-behavioral therapy does not tell people how they should feel. However, most people seeking therapy do not want to feel they way they have been feeling. The approaches that emphasize stoicism teach the benefits of feeling, at worst, calm when confronted with undesirable situations. They also emphasize the fact that we have our undesirable situations whether we are upset about them or not. If we are upset about our problems, we have two problems -- the problem, and our upset about it. Most people want to have the fewest number of problems possible. So when we learn how to more calmly accept a personal problem, not only do we feel better, but we usually put ourselves in a better position to make use of our intelligence, knowledge, energy, and resources to resolve the problem. 6. CBT uses the Socratic Method. Cognitive-behavioral therapists want to gain a very good understanding of their clients' concerns. That's why they often ask questions. They also encourage their clients to ask questions of themselves, like, "How do I really know that those people are laughing at me?" "Could they be laughing about something else?" 7. CBT is structured and directive. Cognitive-behavioral therapists have a specific agenda for each session. Specific techniques / concepts are taught during each session. CBT focuses on the client's goals. We do not tell our clients what their goals "should" be, or what they "should" tolerate. We are directive in the sense that we show our clients how to think and behave in ways to obtain what they want. Therefore, CBT therapists do not tell their clients what to do -- rather, they teach their clients how to do. 8. CBT is based on an educational model. CBT is based on the scientifically supported assumption that most emotional and behavioral reactions are learned. Therefore, the goal of therapy is to help clients unlearn their unwanted reactions and to learn a new way of reacting. Therefore, CBT has nothing to do with "just talking". People can "just talk" with anyone. The educational emphasis of CBT has an additional benefit -- it leads to long term results. When people understand how and why they are doing well, they know what to do to continue doing well. 9. CBT theory and techniques rely on the Inductive Method. A central aspect of Rational thinking is that it is based on fact. Often, we upset ourselves about things when, in fact, the situation isn't like we think it is. If we knew that, we would not waste our time upsetting ourselves. Therefore, the inductive method encourages us to look at our thoughts as being hypotheses or guesses that can be questioned and tested. If we find that our hypotheses are incorrect (because we have new information), then we can change our thinking to be in line with how the situation really is. 10. Homework is a central feature of CBT. If when you attempted to learn your multiplication tables you spent only one hour per week studying them, you might still be wondering what 5 X 5 equals. You very likely spent a great deal of time at home studying your multiplication tables, maybe with flashcards. The same is the case with psychotherapy. Goal achievement (if obtained) could take a very long time if all a person were only to think about the techniques and topics taught was for one hour per week. That's why CBT therapists assign reading assignments and encourage their clients to practice the techniques learned.

10.

Social Cognitive Theory

explanation of behavioral patterns History and Orientation In 1941 Miller and Dollard proposed the theory of social learning. In 1963 Bandura and Walters broadened the social learning theory with the principles of observational learning and vicarious reinforcement. Bandura provided his concept of self-efficacy in 1977, while he refuted the traditional learning theory for understanding learning. The Social Cognitive Theory is relevant to health communication. First, the theory deals with cognitive, emotional aspects and aspects of behavior for understanding behavioral change. Second, the concepts of the SCT provide ways for new behavioral research in health education. Finally, ideas for other theoretical areas such as psychology are welcome to provide new insights and understanding. Core Assumptions and Statements The social cognitive theory explains how people acquire and maintain certain behavioral patterns, while also providing the basis for intervention strategies (Bandura, 1997). Evaluating behavioral change depends on the factors environment, people and behavior. SCT provides a framework for designing, implementing and evaluating programs. Environment refers to the factors that can affect a persons behavior. There are social and physical environments. Social environment include family members, friends and colleagues. Physical environment is the size of a room, the ambient temperature or the availability of certain foods. Environment and situation provide the framework for understanding behavior (Parraga, 1990). The situation refers to the cognitive or mental representations of the environment that may affect a persons behavior. The situation is a persons perception of the lace, time, physical features and activity (Glanz et al, 2002). The three factors environment, people and behavior are constantly influencing each other. Behavior is not simply the result of the environment and the person, just as the environment is not simply the result of the person and behavior (Glanz et al, 2002). The environment provides models for behavior. Observational learning occurs when a person watches the actions of another person and the reinforcements that the person receives (Bandura, 1997). The concept of behavior can be viewed in many ways. Behavioral capability means that if a person is to perform a behavior he must know what the behavior is and have the skills to perform it. Concepts of the Social Cognitive Theory Source: Glanz et al, 2002, p169. Environment: Factors physically external to the person; Provides opportunities and social support Situation: Perception of the environment; correct misperceptions and promote healthful forms Behavioral capability: Knowledge and skill to perform a given behavior; promote mastery learning through skills training Expectations: Anticipatory outcomes of a behavior; Model positive outcomes of healthful behavior Expectancies: The values that the person places on a given outcome, incentives; Present outcomes of change that have functional meaning Self-control: Personal regulation of goal-directed behavior or performance; Provide opportunities for self-monitoring, goal setting, problem solving, and self-reward Observational learning: Behavioral acquisition that occurs by watching the actions and outcomes of others behavior; Include credible role models of the targeted behavior

Reinforcements: Responses to a persons behavior that increase or decrease the likelihood of reoccurrence; Promote self-initiated rewards and incentives Self-efficacy: The persons confidence in performing a particular behavior; Approach behavioral change in small steps to ensure success Emotional coping responses: Strategies or tactics that are used by a person to deal with emotional stimuli; provide training in problem solving and stress management Reciprocal determinism: The dynamic interaction of the person, the behavior, and the environment in which the behavior is performed; consider multiple avenues to behavioral change, including environmental, skill, and personal change. Conceptual Model

Source: Pajares (2002). Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy. 12-8-04. From http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/eff.html. Favorite Methods Surveys, experiments and quasi-experiments are used. See for therapeutical techniques Bandura (1997) and Glanze et al (2002) Scope and Application The Social Cognitive Theory is relevant for designing health education and health behavior programs. This theory explains how people acquire and maintain certain behavioral patterns. The theory can also be used for providing the basis for intervention strategies Example A project was started to prevent and reduce alcohol use among students in grades 6 till 12 (ages 1113). The program took three years and was based on behavioral health curricula, parental involvement and community task force activities. The conclusion was that students were less likely to say they drank alcohol than others who did not join the program. With observational learning, negative expectancies about alcohol use and increased behavioral capability to communicate with parents the results were obtained. However, at the end of the 10th grade the differences were no longer significant. A new program in the 11th grade was started in which reduced access to alcohol and the change of community norms to alcohol use for high-school age students were key elements. With (1) community attention (2) parental education (3) support of alcohol free events (4) media projects to dont provide alcohol and (5) classroom discussions the program started. After the 12th grade a significant result showed that the alcohol use decreased. Furthermore, the access to alcohol was reduced and the parental norms were less accepting of teen alcohol use at the end of the study.

The outcomes of the SCT show that actions of the community level to change these constructs resulted in less drinking among teens. The community level appears to have success in changing the environment and expectancies to alcohol use by reducing teen access to alcohol, changing norms and reducing alcohol use among high school students. Example form Glanz et al, 2002, p 176-177 (summarized)