Industrial Training at BSNL

1. INTRODUCTION
Today, BSNL is the No. 1 telecommunication company and the largest public sector undertaking of India and its responsibilities includes improvement of the already impeccable quality of telecom services, expansion of telecom services in all villages and instilling confidence among its customers. On October 1, 2000 the Department of Telecom Operations, Government of India became a corporation and was named as Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL). Today, BSNL is the largest Public Sector Undertaking of India and its responsibilities include improvement of the already impeccable quality of telecom services, expansion of telecom network introduction of new telecom services in all villages and instilling confidence among its customers. At present the BSNL is the World's Seventh Largest and India's First Telecommunication Company. BSNL is the largest telecom operator in India and is known to everyone for Basic Telephony Services for over 100 years. Presently the plain old, countrywide telephone service is being provided through 32,000 electronic exchanges, 326 Digital Trunk Automatic Exchanges(TAX), Digitalized Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) all interlinked by over 2.4 lakhs km of Optical Fiber Cable, with a host of Phone Plus value additions to our valued Customers. BSNL's telephony network expands throughout the vast expanses of the country reaching even to the remote parts of the country. Driven by the very best of telecom technology from chosen global leaders, it connects each inch of the nation to the infinite corners of the globe, to enable you to step into tomorrow. Along with its vast customer base, BSNL's financial and assets are vast and strong too. Scaling new heights of success, the present turnover of BSNL is more than Rs.351,820 million (US $ 8 billion) with net profit to the tune of Rs.99,390 million (US $ 2.26 billion) for last financial year. The infrastructure asset on telephone alone is worth about Rs.630,000 million (US $ 14.37 billion) .

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2. OVERVIEW OF TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORKS

INTRODUCTION : The telephone is a telecommunication device that is used to transmit and receive electronically or digitally encoded speech between two or more people conversing. It is one of the most common household appliances in the world today. Most telephones operate through transmission of electric signals over a complex telephone network which allows almost any phone user to communicate with almost any other user. Telecommunication networks carry information signals among entities, which are geographically far apart. An entity may be a computer or human being, a facsimile machine, a teleprinter, a data terminal and so on. The entities are involved in the process of information transfer that may be in the form of a telephone conversation (telephony) or a file transfer between two computers or message transfer between two terminals etc. With the rapidly growing traffic and untargeted growth of cyberspace, telecommunication becomes a fabric of our life. The future challenges are enormous as we anticipate rapid growth items of new services and number of users. What comes with the challenge is a genuine need for more advanced methodology supporting analysis and design of telecommunication architectures. Telecommunication has evaluated and growth at an explosive rate in recent years and will undoubtedly continue to do so. The communication switching system enables the universal connectivity. The universal connectivity is realized when any entity in one part of the world can communicate with any other entity in another part of the world. In many ways telecommunication will acts as a substitute for the increasingly expensive physical transportation. The telecommunication links and switching were mainly designed for voice communication. With the appropriate attachments/equipments, they can be used to transmit data. A modern society, therefore needs new facilities including very high bandwidth switched data networks, and large communication satellites with small, cheap earth antennas. VOICE SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS :

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Telecommunication is mainly concerned with the transmission of messages between two distant points. The signal that contains the messages is usually converted into electrical waves before transmission. Our voice is an analog signal, which has frequency characteristics. Voice frequencies: - The range of frequencies used by a communication device determines the communication channel, communicating devices, and bandwidth or information carrying capacity. The most commonly used parameter that characterizes an electrical signal is its bandwidth of analog signal or bit rate if it is a digital signal. In telephone system, the frequencies it passes are restricted to between 300 to 3400 Hz. In the field of telecommunications, a Telephone exchange or a Telephone switch is a system of electronic components that connects telephone calls. A central office is the physical building used to house inside plant equipment including telephone switches, which make telephone calls "work" in the sense of making connections and relaying the speech information. SWITCHING SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS : Telecommunications switching systems generally perform three basic functions: they transmit signals over the connection or over separate channels to convey the identity of the called (and sometimes the calling) address (for example, the telephone number), and alert (ring) the called station; they establish connections through a switching network and supervise the establishment and disconnection of the switching network connection. In some data or message switching when real-time communication is not needed, the switching network is replaced by a temporary memory for the storage of messages. This type of switching is known as store-and-forward switching. SIGNALING AND CONTROL : The control of circuit switching systems is accomplished remotely by a specific form of data communication known as signaling. Switching systems are connected with one for conversational use during the entire call; and they process the signal information to control amplitude and

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another by telecommunication channels known as trunks. They are connected with the served stations or terminals by lines. In some switching systems the signals for a call directly control the switching devices over the same path for which transmission is established. For most modern switching systems the signals for identifying or addressing the called station are received by a central control that processes calls on a time-shared basis. Central controls receive and interpret signals, select and establish communication paths, and prepare signals for transmission. These signals include addresses for use at succeeding nodes or for alerting (ringing) the called station. Most electronic controls are designed to process calls not only by complex logic but also by logic tables or a program of instructions stored in bulk electronic memory. The tabular technique is known as translator. The electronic memory is now the most accepted technique and is known as stored program control (SPC). Either type of control may be distributed among the switching devices rather than residing centrally. Microprocessors on integrated circuit chips are a popular form of distributed stored program control.

3. PCM PRINCIPLES
Pulse code modulation (PCM) is the process of converting an analog signal into a 2ndigit binary code. An analog signal is placed on the input of a sample and hold . The sample and hold circuit is used to capture the analog voltage long enough for the conversion to take place. The output of the sample and hold circuit is fed into the analog-to-digital converter (A/D). An A/D converter operates by taking periodic discrete samples of an analog signal at a specific point in time and converting it to a 2 n -bit binary number. For example, an 8-bit A/D converts an analog voltage into a binary number with28discrete levels (between 0 and 255). For an analog voltage to be successfully converted, it must be sampled at a rate at least twice its maximum frequency. This is known as the Nyquist sampling rate . An example of this is the process that takes place in the telephone system. A standard telephone has a bandwidth of 4 kHz. When you speak into the telephone, your 4-kHz bandwidth voice

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signal is sampled at twice the 4-kHz frequency or 8 kHz. Each sample is then converted to an 8-bit binary number. This occurs 8000 times per second. Thus, if we multiply, 8 k samples/s 8 bits/sample = 64 kbits/s we get the standard bit rate for a single voice channel in the North American DS1 System, which is 64 Kbits/s. The output of the A/D converter is then fed into a driver circuit that contains the appropriate circuitry to turn the light source on and off. The process of turning the light source on and off is known as modulation and will be discussed later in this module. The light then travels through the fiber and is received by a photo detector that converts the optical signal into an electrical current. A typical photo detector generates a current that is in the micro- or nanoamp range, so amplification and/or signal reshaping is often required. Once the digital signal has been reconstructed, it is converted back into an analog signal using a device called a digital-to-analog converter or DAC. A digital storage device or buffer may be used to temporarily store the digital codes during the conversion process. The DAC accepts an n-bit digital number and outputs a continuous series of discrete voltage steps. All that is needed to smooth the stair-step voltage out is a simple low-pass filter with its cutoff frequency set at the maximum signal frequency as shown in Figure .

Fig 3.1 Block Diagram

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Fig 3.2 D/A output circuit

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Fig 3.3 Digital waveforms

4. SIGNALING IN PCM SYSTEMS

In a telephone network,-the signaling information is used for proper routing of a call between two subscribers, for providing certain status information like dial tone, busy tone, ring back. NU tone, metering pulses, trunk offering signal etc. All these functions are grouped under the general terms "signaling" in PCM systems. The signaling information can be transmitted in the form of DC pulses (as in step by step exchange) or multi-frequency pulses (as in cross bar systems) etc. The signaling pulses retain their amplitude for a much longer period than the pulses carrying speech information. It means that the signaling information is a slow varying signal in time compared to the speech signal which is fast changing in the time domain. Therefore, a signaling channel can be digitized with less number of bits than a voice channel. In a 30 chl PCM system, time slot Ts 16 in each frame is allocated for carrying signaling information. The time slot 16 of each frame carries the signaling data corresponding to two VF channels only. Therefore, to cater for 30 channels, we must transmit 15 frames, each having 125 microseconds duration. For carrying synchronization data for all frames, one additional frame is used. Thus a group of 16 frames (each of 125 microseconds) is formed to make a "multi-frame". The duration of a multi-frame is 2 milliseconds. The multi-frame has 16 major time slots of 125 microseconds duration. Each of these (slots) frames has 32 time slots carrying, the encoded samples of all channels plus the signaling and synchronization data. Each sample has eight bits of duration 0.400 microseconds (3.9/8 = 0.488) each. The relationship between the bit duration frame and multi-frame is illustrated in Fig. 4.1(a) & 4.2 (b)

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Fig 4.1(a) Multiframe Concept

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Fig 4.2(b) 2.048 Mbps PCM Multiframe

We have 32 time slots in a frame; each slot carries an 8 bit word. The total number of bits per frame = 32 x 8 = 256 The total number of frames per seconds is 8000 The total number of bits per second is 256 x 8000 = 2048 K/bits. Thus, a 30 channel PCM system has 2048 K bits/sec.

5. MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES
MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES : There are basically two types of multiplexing techniques : i. ii Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Frequency Division Multiplexing Techniques (FDM) : The FDM technique is the process of translating individual speech circuits (300-3400 Hz) into pre-assigned frequency slots within the bandwidth of the transmission medium. The frequency translation is done by amplitude modulation of the audio frequency with an appropriate carrier frequency. At the output of the modulator a filter network is connected to select either a lower or an upper side band. Since the information is carried in either side band, single side band suppressed carrier mode of AM is used. This results in substantial saving of bandwidth mid also permits the use of low power amplifiers. Please refer Fig. 5.1. FDM techniques usually find their application in analogue transmission systems. An analogue transmission system is one which is used for transmitting continuously varying signals.

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Figure : 5.1 FDM Principle

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) : Basically, time division multiplexing involves nothing more than sharing a transmission medium by a number of circuits in time domain by establishing a sequence of time slots during which individual channels (circuits) can be transmitted. Thus the entire bandwidth is periodically available to each channel. Normally all time slots are equal in length. Each channel is assigned a time slot with a specific common repetition period called a frame interval. This is illustrated in Fig. 5.2.

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Fig 5.2 Time Divison Multiplexing

6. SWITCHES IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS
When electronic devices were introduced in the switching systems, a new concept of switching evolved as a consequence of their extremely high operating speed compared to their former counter-parts, i.e., the Electro-mechanical systems, where relays, the logic elements in the electromechanical systems, have to operate and release several times which is roughly equal to the duration of telephone signals to maintain required accuracy. Research on electronic switching started soon after the Second World War, but commercial fully electronic exchange began to emerge only about 30 years later. However, electronic techniques proved economic for common control systems much earlier. In electromechanical exchanges, common control systems mainly used switches and relays, which were originally designed for use in switching networks. In common controls, they are operated frequently and so wear out earlier. In contrast, the life of an electronic

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device is almost independent of its frequency of operation. This gave a motivation for developing electronic common controls and resulted in electronic replacements for registers, markers, translators etc. having much greater reliability than predecessors. IMPLEMENTATION OF SWITCHING NETWORK. : In an electronic exchange, the switching network is one of the largest sub-systems in terms of size of the equipment. Its main functions are Switching (setting up temporary connection between two or more exchange terminations), Transmission of speech and signals between these terminations, with reliable accuracy. There are two types of electronic switching system. viz. Space division and Time Division. their electromechanical

Figure 6.1 Evolution of electronic switching systems

SPACE DIVISION SWITCHING SYSTEM: In a space Division Switching system, a continuous physical path is set up between input and output terminations. This path is separate for each connection and is held for the

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entire duration of the call. Path for different connections is independent of each other. Once a continuous path has been established, Signals are interchanged between the two terminations. Such a switching network can employ either metallic or electronic cross points. Previously, usage of metallic cross-points using reed relays and all were favored. They have the advantage of compatibility with the existing line and trunk signaling conditions in the network. TIME DIVISION SWITCHING SYSTEM : In Time Division Switching, a number of calls share the same path on time division sharing basis. The path is not separate for each connection, rather, is shared sequentially for a fraction of a time by different calls. This process is repeated periodically at a suitable high rate. The repetition rate is 8 KHz, i.e. once every 125 microseconds for transmitting speech on telephone network, without any appreciable distortion. These samples are time multiplexed with staggered samples of other speech channels, to enable sharing of one path by many calls. The Time Division Switching was initially accomplished by Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) Switching. However, it still could not overcome the performance limitations of signal distortion noise, cross-talk etc. With the advent of Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), the PAM signals were converted into a digital format overcoming the limitations of analog and PAM signals. PCM signals are suitable for both transmission and switching. The PCM switching is popularly called Digital Switching. LATEST SWITCHING TECHONOLOGIES : The different types of electronic switches available are , (1) C-DOT (2) E10B (3) OCB (4) EWSD (5) 5ESS : Indian Made : France Made : France Made : Germany Made : USA Made

CDOT stands for Center for Development of Telematics. C- DOT is totally developed in India in 1984 by Dr. Sam Petroda, Head Quarters at Banglore. The Main

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Objective of C-DOT is to design and develop digital exchanges suitable for Indian environment. C-DOT DSS MAX is a universal digital switch, which can be configured for different applications as Local, Transit, or Integrated Local, and Transit(ILT) switch. Standard cards, racks, frames, cabinets and distribution frames are used which facilitate flexible system growth. C-DOT DSS FAMILY: The C-DOT is having 4 types of exchanges. (1) C-DOT 128 RAX. (2) C-DOT 256P RAX. (3) C-DOT SBM. (4) C-DOT MBM. All the above 4 types of switching systems are called as DIGITAL SWITCHING SYSTEM(DSS) FAMILY.

Fig 6.2 C-DOT AN-RAX SWITCH

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C-DOT SBM: It is the THIRD generation of C-DOT DSS Family. It is the DOUBLE the size of CDOT 256P RAX and also serves Rural Areas and Small Urban Areas. It has a total of 2024 terminations and it contains 10 frames, Base Module (BM) have 488 terminations and LM1 have 768 terminations and LM2 have 768 terminations. It is a Rural Automatic Exchange. It is controlled locally by Input-output processor(IOP) Module. It is now replaced by C-DOT RBMs(Remote Base Modules).

Fig 6.3 C-DOT SBM C-DOT MBM : It is the FOURTH generation of C-DOT DSS Family. It is also called as MAX (Main Automatic Exchange) and serves Urban Areas. C-DOT MAX is of 2 types. (1)MAX-L(Large):upto 16 no. of BMs are connected to MAX. (2)MAX-XL(Extra Large):upto 32 no. of BMs are connected to MAX. MAX-L has a capacity of 20,000 Lines + 3,000 Trunks. MAX-XL has a capacity of 40,000 Lines + 6,000 Trunks. It is a Main Automatic Exchange. It is controlled by Input-output

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processor(IOP) Module at OMC . C-DOT DSS is a universal digital switch which can be configured for different applications. Another important feature is the provision of both centralized operation and maintenance. All services are provided through a simple, interactive and man-machine interface. The equipment practices provide modular packaging. Hence it is easy to maintain exchange with software rather than man interference. Testing of various features have become easy and also modifying parameters presented in it. Hence CDOT switch can be maintained easily through software.

7. FIBER-OPTIC COMMUNICATIONS
INTRODUCTION: An optical telegraph was built by Claude Chappe in 1790s in France. In 1870, John Tyndall demonstrated the principle of guiding light through internal reflections. In 1880, Alexander Graham Bell invented the photo phone, which used unguided light to carry speech. A major breakthrough leading to high capacity optical communications was achieved with the invention of laser in 1960. The laser acted as a narrowband source of optical radiation suitable for use as a carrier of information. In 1966, Charles K. Kao at Standard Telecommunications Laboratories, England fabricated a low loss glass fiber, giving a loss of 1000 dB/km or so. Such a fiber could transmit light for a short distance only. But Kao suggested that purer glass materials would permit the use of fiber for longer transmission lengths. Kao had shown that it would be possible to transmit light signals over long distance using glass fiber and modulated infrared light. In 1970 Corning glass works, U.S.A. developed a low loss fiber giving a loss of 20dB/Km. This was the second major breakthrough to make optical communication a practical reality. By 1972, losses were reduced to 4dB/km. Today, the best fibers have a loss of < 0.2 dB/km.

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The information travels from the transmitter to the receiver over the information channel. There are basically two types of information channels: unguided or guided channels. Atmosphere is an unguided type of channel over which waves can propagate. Guided channels are those which guide the electromagnetic waves through them. Two wire lines, coaxial cable, waveguide and optic fiber are the examples of Guided information channels. Guided channels have the advantages of privacy, no weather dependence and the ability to convey messages within, under and around physical structures. An optical fiber is a thin strand of glass or plastic serving as the transmission medium over which the information passes. The basic fiberoptic system is a link connecting optical transmitter and receiver. Transmitter It converts an electrical signal into a light signal. The source is either a lightemitting diode or laser diode which does the actual conversion. The drive circuitry changes the electrical signal fed to the transmitter into a form suitable for the source. FiberOptic Cable It is the medium for carrying the light. The cable includes the fibers and its protective coverings. Receiver It accepts the light and converts it back into an electrical signal. The generator amplifies, reshapes the signal before passing it on. The range of wavelengths in the visible region extends from 0.4 m to 0.7 m. The visible range is not suitable for light transmission through glass fiber. In this region, the waves are attenuated to such an extent that only short transmission links are possible. Losses in the ultraviolet region are even greater. It is the infrared region from 0.8 m to 1.6 m which is used for fiber optic transmission. ADVANTAGES OF FIBERS Wide Bandwidth The information carrying capacity which increases with the bandwidth of the transmission medium, is very large in fibers. The bandwidth available on a pair of single

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mode fibers is in the order of several GHz. Thus, thousands of circuits can be carried on the fibers whether the information is voice, data or video or a combination of these. Low Loss

Bandwidth is an effective indication of the rate at which information can be sent. Loss indicates how far the information can be sent. As a signal travels along a transmission path the signal loses strength. This loss of strength is known as attenuation. In a copper cable, attenuation increases with the modulation frequency: the higher the frequency of the information signal, the greater is the loss. In an optical fiber, attenuation is flat: loss is the same at any signaling frequency until a very high frequency. Thus, the problem of loss is much more in a copper cable as information carrying capacity increases. The figure shows the loss characteristics Vs the channel bandwidth for fibers, and coaxial cable. Loss in coaxial cable increases with frequency, whereas loss in the optical cable remains flat. Electromagnetic Immunity Optic fibres are insulators. No electric current flows through them, either due to the transmitted signal or due to external radiation striking the fiber. For these reasons, fibres do

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not radiate or pickup electromagnetic radiation as in copper cables. Any copper conductor acts like an antenna, either transmitting or receiving energy. Since fibers do not radiate or receive electromagnetic energy, they make an ideal transmission medium. As a consequence to fiber's electromagnetic immunity, signals do not become distorted by EMI. Fibres offer very high standards in error free transmission. Small Size Fibres are hair thin in size. Fibers covered with protective coverings are still smaller than the equivalent copper conductor. The small size of fiber optic cables makes them attractive for applications where space is at a premium. Light Weight A glass fiber weighs considerably less than a copper conductor. A fiberoptic cable with the same information carrying as a copper cable weighs less than the copper cable. Weight savings are important in such applications as aircraft and automobiles. Greater Safety A fiber is a dielectric. It does not carry electricity. If the cable is damaged, it does not present any spark or fire hazard, so it cannot cause explosions or fires as a faulty copper cable can. Moreover, it does not attract lightning. The fiberoptic cable can be run through hazardous areas. Higher Security Fiber optics is a highly secure transmission medium, because the fibres do not radiate energy that can be received by a nearby antenna without getting detected. It is also extremely difficult to tap a fiber. PROPOGATION OF LIGHT IN OPTICAL FIBER : Fig 7 shows the propagation of light through a circular fiber with refractive indices of core and cladding being n1, n2 respectively and n1>n2. There are three possibilities of ray striking the corecladding interface. Light ray 1 injected into the fiber and striking the coretocladding interface at an angle greater than the critical angle. This is totally reflected back into the core. Since

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the angles of incidence and reflection are equal, the reflected light will again be reflected. The light will continue zigzagging down the length of the fiber. Light ray 2 strikes the core cladding interface at an angle less than the critical angle. Such a ray continues travelling to cladding. It then strikes the outer surface of the cladding at an angle greater than the critical angle of incidence, so it is reflected back into the cladding. It will then reenter the core, pass through the cladding on the opposite side and is reflected again into the cladding and then to core. The cladding is usually inefficient as a light carrier, and the light in the cladding becomes attenuated fairly rapidly. Such a ray does not contribute to the light energy travelling to the distant end, and it is lost over distance. Light ray 3 strikes the core cladding interface at an angle less than the critical angle, so it is refracted into the cladding, where it meets the claddingair interface at angle less than the critical angle of incidence for claddingair. This ray escapes into air and does not contribute to light propagation in the fiber. Fig. 7 Light Propagation through Fiber

In the aforesaid analysis, it is made clear that the injected light should meet the core tocladding interface at angles greater than the critical angle so that light is totally reflected internally and travels down the length of the fiber. The propagation of light is governed by

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the indices of the core and cladding and by Snell's law. This analysis has considered only meridional rays those that pass through the fiber axis each time they are reflected. Other rays, called Skew rays, travel down the fiber without passing through the axis. The path of a Skew ray is typically helical, wrapping around and around the central axis. Such a ray is ignored.

8. MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS
GSM
INTRODUCTION: A GSM system is basically designed as a combination of three major subsystems: the network subsystem, the radio subsystem, and the operation support subsystem. In order to ensure that network operators will have several sources of cellular infrastructure equipment, GSM decided to specify not only the air interface, but also the main interfaces that identify different parts. There are three dominant interfaces, namely, an interface between MSC and the base Transceiver Station (BTS), and an Um interface between the BTS and MS.

GSM NETWORK STRUCTURE : Every telephone network needs a well-designed structure in order to route incoming called to the correct exchange and finally to the called subscriber. In a mobile network, this structure is of great importance because of the mobility of all its subscribers. In the GSM system, the network is divided into the following partitioned areas. GSM service area PLMN service area MSC service area Location area Cells

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MS : The MS includes radio equipment and the man machine interface (MMI) that a subscribe needs in order to access the services provided by the GSM PLMN. MS can be installed in Vehicles or can be portable or handheld stations. The MS may include provisions for data communication as well as voice. A mobile transmits and receives message to and from the GSM system over the air interface to establish and continue connections through the system. BASE STATION SYSTEM : The BSS is a set of BS equipment (such as transceivers and controllers) that is in view by the MSC through a single A interface as being the entity responsible for communicating with MSs in a certain area. The radio equipment of a BSS may be composed of one or more cells. A BSS may consist of one or more BS. The interface between BSC and BTS is designed as an A-bis interface. The BSS includes two types of machines: the BTS in contact with the MSs through the radio interface and the BSC, the latter being in contact with

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the MSC. The function split is basically between transmission equipment, the BTS, and managing equipment at the BSC. A BTS compares radio transmission and reception devices, up to and including the antennas, and also all the signal processing specific to the radio interface. A single transceiver within BTS supports eight basic radio channels of the same TDM frame. A BSC is a network component in the PLMN that function for control of one or more BTS. It is a functional entity that handles common control functions within a BTS. BTS : As stated, the primary responsibility of the BTS is to transmit and receive radio signals from a mobile unit over an air interface. To perform this function completely, the signals are encoded, encrypted, multiplexed, modulated, and then fed to the antenna system at the cell site. Trans-coding to bring 13-kbps speech to a standard data rate of 16 kbps and then combining four of these signals to 64 kbps is essentially a part of BTS, though, it can be done at BSC or at MSC. The voice communication can be either at a full or half rate over logical speech channel. In order to keep the mobile synchronized, BTS transmits frequency and time synchronization signals over frequency correction channel (FCCH and BCCH logical channels. The received signal from the mobile is decoded, decrypted, and equalized for channel impairments. Random access detection is made by BTS, which then sends the message to BSC. The channel subsequent assignment is made by BSC. Timing advance is determined by BTS. BTS signals the mobile for proper timing adjustment. Uplink radio channel measurement corresponding to the downlink measurements made by MS has to be made by BTS.

BTS-BSC Configurations : There are several BTS-BSC configurations: single site; single cell; single site; multicell; and multisite, multicell. These configurations are chosen based on the rular or urban application. These configurations make the GSM system economical since the operation has options to adapt the best layout based on the traffic requirement. Thus, in some sense, system optimization is possible by the proper choice of the configuration. These

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include Omni directional rural configuration where the BSC and BTS are on the same site; chain and multidrop loop configuration in which several BTSs are controlled by a single remote BSC with a chain or ring connection topology; rural star configuration in which several BTSs are connected by individual lines to the same BSC; and sectorized urban configuration in which three BTSs share the same site amd are controlled by either a collocated or remote BSC. BSC : The BSC, as discussed, is connected to the MSC on one side and to the BTS on the other. The BSC performs the Radio Resource (RR) management for the cells under its control. It assigns and release frequencies and timeslots for all MSs in its own area. The BSC performs the intercell handover for MSs moving between BTS in its control. It also reallocates frequencies to the BTSs in its area to meet locally heavy demands during peak hours or on special events. The BSC controls the power transmission of both BSSs and MSs in its area. The minimum power level for a mobile unit is broadcast over the BCCH. The BSC provides the time and frequency synchronization reference signals broadcast by its BTSs. The BSC also measures the time delay of received MS signals relative to the BTS clock. If the received MS signal is not centered in its assigned timeslot at the BTS, The BSC can direct the BTS to notify the MS to advance the timing such that proper synchronization takes place. MSC : As stated, the main function of the MSC is to coordinate the set up of calls between GSM mobile and PSTN users. Specifically, it performs functions such as paging, resource allocation, location registration, and encryption. Specifically, the call-handling function of paging is controlled by MSC. MSC coordinates the set up of call to and from all GSM subscribers operating in its areas. The dynamics allocation of access resources is done in coordination with the BSS. More specifically, the MSC decides when and which types of channels should be assigned to which MS. The channel identity and related radio parameters are the responsibility of the BSS, The MSC provides the control of interworking with

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different networks. It is transparent for the subscriber authentication procedure. The MSC supervises the connection transfer between different BSSs for MSs, with an active call, moving from one call to another. This is ensured if the two BSSs are connected to the same MSC but also when they are not . In this latter case the procedure is more complex, since more then one MSC in involved. The MSC performs billing on calls for all subscribers based in its areas. When the subscriber is roaming elsewhere, the MSC obtains data for the call billing from the visited MSC. Encryption parameters transfers from VLR to BSS to facilitate ciphering on the radio interface are done by MSC. The exchange of signaling information on the various interface toward the other network elements and the management of the interface themselves are all controlled by the MSC. Finally, the MSC serves as a SMS gateway to forward SMS messages from Short Message Service Centers (SMSC) to the subscribers and from the subscribers to the SMSCs. It thus acts as a message mailbox and delivery system. VLR : The VLR is collocated with an MSC. A MS roaming in an MSC area is controlled by the VLR responsible for that area. When a MS appears in a LA, it starts a registration procedure. The MSC for that area notices this registration and transfers to the VLR the identify of the LA where the MS is situated. A VLR may be in charge of one or several MSC LAs. The VLR constitutes the databases that support the MSC in the storage and retrieval of the data of subscribers present in its area. When an MS enters the MSC area borders, it signals its arrival to the MSC that stores its identify in the VLR. The information necessary to manage the MS is contained in the HLR and is transferred to the VLR so that they can be easily retrieved if so required. HLR : The HLR is a database that permanently stores data subscribers. The HLR is the reference database for related to a given set of subscriber parameters. Various

identification numbers and addresses as well as authentication parameters, services subscribed, and special routing information are stored. Current subscriber status including a

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subscribers temporary roaming number and associated VLR if the mobile is roaming, are maintained. The HLR provides data needed to route calls to all MS-SIMs home based in its MSC area, even when they are roaming out of area or in other GSM networks. The HLR provides the current location data needed to support searching for and paging the MS-SIM for incoming calls, wherever the MS-SIM may be. The HLR is responsible for storage and provision of SIM authentication and encryption parameters needed by the MSC where the MS-SIM is operating. It obtains these parameters from the AUC. The HLR maintains record of which supplementary service each user has subscribed to and provides permission control in granting services. The HLR stores the identification of SMS gateways that have messages for the subscriber under the SMS until they can be transmitted to the subscriber and receipt is knowledge. Some data are mandatory, other data are optional. Both the HLR and the VLR can be implemented in the same equipment in an MSC (collocated). A PLMN may contain one or several HLRs. AUC : The AUC stores information that is necessary to protect communication through the air interface against intrusions, to which the mobile is vulnerable. The legitimacy of the subscriber is established through authentication and ciphering, which protects the user information against unwanted disclosure. Authentication information and ciphering keys are stored in a database within the AUC, which protects the user information against unwanted disclosure and access. In the authentication procedure, the key Ki is never transmitted to the mobile over the air path, only a random number is sent. In order to gain access to the system, the mobile must provide the correct Signed Response (SRES) in answer to a random number (RAND) generated by AUC. Also, Ki and the cipher key Kc are never transmitted across the air interface between the BTS and the MS. Only the random challenge and the calculated response are transmitted. Thus, the value of Ki and Kc are kept secure. The cipher key, on the other hand, is

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transmitted on the SS7 link between the home HLR/AUC and the visited MSC, which is a point of potential vulnerability. On the other hand, the random number and cipher key is supposed to change with each phone call, so finding them on one call will not benefit using them on the next call. The HLR is also responsible for the authentication of the subscriber each time he makes or receives a call. The AUC, which actually performs this function, is a separate GSM entity that will often be physically included with the HLR. Being separate, it will use separate processing equipment for the AUC database functions. EIR (EQUIPMENT IDENTIFY REGISTER) : EIR is a database that stores the IMEI numbers for all registered ME units. The IMEI uniquely identifies all registered ME. There is generally one EIR per PLMN. It interfaces to the various HLR in the PLMN. The EIR keeps track of all ME units in the PLMN. It maintains various lists of message. The database stores the ME identification and has nothing do with subscriber who is receiving or originating call. There are three classes of ME that are stored in the database, and each group has different characteristics. White List: contains those IMEIs that are known to have been assigned to valid MSs. This is the category of genuine equipment. Black List: contains IMEIs of mobiles that have been reported stolen. Gray List: contains IMEIs of mobiles that have problems (for example, faulty software, wrong make of the equipment). This list contains all MEs with faults not important enough for barring.

CDMA
INTRODUCTION : Access network, the network between local exchange and subscriber, in the Telecom Network accounts for a major portion of resources both in terms of capital and manpower. So far, the subscriber loop has remained in the domain of the copper cable providing cost effective solution in past. Quick deployments of subscriber loop, coverage of inaccessible

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and remote locations coupled with modern technology have led to the emergence of new Access Technologies. The various technological options available are as follows: 1. Multi Access Radio Relay 2. Wireless In Local Loop 3. Fiber In the Local Loop

DIFFERENT CODES : Walsh Code : In CDMA the traffic channels are separated by unique Walsh code. All such codes are orthogonal to each other. The individual subscriber can start communication using one of these codes. These codes are traffic channel codes and are used for orthogonal spreading of the information in the entire bandwidth. Orthogonality provides nearly perfect isolation between the multiple signals transmitted by the base station. The basic concept behind creation of the code is as follows: (a) Repeat the function right (b) Repeat the function below (c) Invert function (diagonally)

Long code : The long pseudo random noise (PN) sequence is based on 242 characteristic polynomial. With this long code the data in the forward direction (Base to Mobile) is

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scrabled. The PN codes are generated using linear shift registers. The long code is unique for the subscribers and is known as users address mask. Short Code : The short pseudo random noise (PN) sequence is based on 215 characteristic polynomial. This short code differentiates the cells & the sectors in a cell. It also consists of codes for I & Q channel feeding the modulator. ADVANTAGES : CDMA wireless access provides the following unique advantages: Larger Capacity : let us discuss this issue with the help of Shannons Theorem. It states that the channel capacity is related to product of available band width and S/N ratio. C = W log 2 (1+S/N) Where C = channel capacity W = Band width available S/N = Signal to noise ratio. It is clear that even if we improve S/N to a great extent the advantage that we are expected to get in terms of channel capacity will not be proportionally increased. But instead if we increase the bandwidth (W), we can achieve more channel capacity even at a lower S/N. That forms the basis of CDMA approach, wherein increased channel capacity is obtained by increasing both W & S/N. The S/N can be increased by devising proper power control methods. Vocoder and variable data rates: As the telephone quality speech is band limited to 4 Khz when it is digitized with PCM its bit rate rises to 64Kb/s Vocoding compress it to a lower bit rate to reduce bandwidth. The transmitting vocoder takes voice samples and generates an encoded speech/packet for transmission to the receiving vocoder. The receiving Vocoder decodes the received speech packet into voice samples. One of the important feature of the variable rate vocoder is the use of adaptive threshold to determine the required data rate. Vocoders are

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variable rate vocodes. By operating the vocoder at half rate on some of the frames the capacity of the system can be enhanced without noticeable degradation in the quality of the speech. This phenomenon helps to absorb the occasional heavy requirement of traffic apart from suppression of background noise. Thus the capacity advantage makes spread spectrum an ideal choice for use in areas where the frequency spectrum is congested. Seamless Hand-off : CDMA provides soft hand-off feature for the mobile crossing from one cell to another cell by combining the signals from both the cells in the transition areas. This improves the performance of the network at the boundaries of the cells, virtually eliminating the dropped calls. No Frequency Planning : A CDMA system requires no frequency planning as the adjacent cells use the same common frequency. A typical cellular system (with a repetition rate of 7) and a CDMA system is shown in the following figures which clearly indicates that in a CDMA network no frequency planning is required.

Fig: 8.2 CDMA frequency

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Fig: 8.3GSM Frequency

High Tolerance to Interference : The primary advantage of spread spectrum is its ability to tolerate a fair amount of interfering signals as compared to other conventional systems. This factor provides a considerable advantage from a system point of view.

9. BROADBAND TECHNOLOGIES
The confluence of two forcesthe globalization of business and the networking of information technologyhas created the Internet economy. Advances in telecommunications and data technology are creating new opportunities for countries, businesses and individuals just as the Industrial Revolution changed fortunes around the globe. The new economy is defining how people do business, communicate, shop, have fun, learn, and live on a global basisconnecting anyone to anything. The evolution of Internet has come into existence & Internet service is expanding rapidly. The demands it has placed upon the public network, especially the access network, are great. However, technological advances promise big increases in access speeds, enabling public networks to play a major role in delivering new

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and improved telecommunications services and applications to consumers .The Internet and the network congestion that followed, has led people to focus both on the first and last mile as well as on creating a different network infrastructure to avoid the network congestion and access problems. The solution to this is Broadband. Broadband indicates a means of connectivity at a high or broad bandwidth, which is capable of delivering multiple services simultaneously. There were no uniform standards for Broadband connectivity and various countries followed various standards. Recently ITU had stepped in and has defined Broadband. According to International Telecommunication Union Broadband is defined as Transmission capacity that is faster than primary rate ISDN, at 1.5 to 2 Mb/s But in developing countries, as the average financial capability as well as usage, is low, broadband is redefined. Recognizing the potential of ubiquitous Broadband service in growth of GDP and enhancement in quality of life through societal applications including tele-education, telemedicine, e-governance, entertainment as well as employment generation by way of high speed access to information and web-based communication, Government of India have finalized a policy to accelerate the growth of Broadband services. Broadband Policy 2004 defines Broadband as An always-on data connection supporting interactive services including, Internet access and has the capability of the minimum download speed of 256 kilo bits per second (kbps) to an individual subscriber from the Point Of Presence (POP) of the service provider. The interactive services will exclude any services for which a separate licence is specifically required, for example, real-time voice transmission, except to the extent that it is presently permitted under ISP licence with Internet Telephony. Features of Broadband ; Fast connection to the Internet Access to the services which would otherwise be impossible on a slower dial up connection. These include facilities such as downloading music or video footage, listening to your favorite radio station or downloading (or sending) large attached files with emails.

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Always-on connection Means that you are permanently connected to the internet; hence no need to dial up a

connection every time you want to surf the web, send email, etc. Flat-rate billing If you choose an uncapped rate there will be no additional charges for the time you are online. You can use it as much or as little as you would like, for a fixed fee. Some connections are available at a lower cost, but limit you to the amount of data being downloaded (known as 'capped rate'). Dedicated connection Simultaneous use of both telephone & data line. Broadband Services :

High speed Internet

Means that you are permanently connected to the internet, and don't need to dial up a connection every time you want to surf the web, send email, etc.

Broadcast (BTV) & Time-shifted TV (TVOD)

Besides regular BTV services, Time shifted TV provides subscribers with virtual DVD controls to pause, start, stop, rewind and fast forward live TV programs. Users also have the flexibility to watch any previous broadcasted programs without pre-recording.

Video on Demand
Enables the user to select from an online library of content and select any of the available choices for viewing at a convenient time with full DVD like controls. This is similar to borrowing a Video for viewing.

Video Multicasting
Similar to cable or terrestrial broadcast the user can join at any time but the stream begins and ends at the pre appointed times.

Interactive Gaming

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Enables multiple players to play online games pitted against each other or against computers, through gaming servers employed by gaming content providers.

Audio and Video Conferencing

Share ideas, information, and applications using video or audio.

Dial VPN Service:

This service allows remote users to access their private network securely over the service providers core network.

Distant Learning
Consists of electronic classrooms with two-way and multi-way communication among teachers and students.

Bandwidth on Demand:
Customer can change bandwidth as per his / her requirement. For example a customer

with 256 kbps can change to 1 Mbps during the video Conferencing session. Most of these services require the service provider to have tie-ups with the various content providers.

10. INTELLIGENT NETWORKS

IN Services were introduced in a few cities in the country to begin with. Following charges have been fixed for the experimental phase up to 31st March 2000 from 01-04-1999 or date of starting of the experimental trial whichever is later. To begin with, the charges for the free phone service and premium rate service and VCC are given below w.e.f. 01-04-99. "IN" stands for Intelligent Network. Intelligent

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Network provides a framework to create various services in a centralized place independent of the switch. In IN, calls generated by a subscribers are routed (Circuit Switched) to the nearest Service Switching Points, which in turn , consults, the Service Control Points (SCP) on high speed CCS 7 links to get the necessary information for further routing of the call. IN Services can be used by subscriber connected to any type of exchange using existing telephones. IN Services have been started at Mumbai, Delhi, Calcutta, Indore, Bhopal, Jaipur, Hyderabad, Chandigarh and Gwalior. These services will be gradually introduced in State Capitals, Major Towns and National Capital Region Towns. Six services have been finalized for implementation in BSNL in the first phase. They are, Free Phones, Premium Rate, Virtual Card Calling, Virtual Private Network, Universal Number and Televoting.

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