PSYCH 003 Lecture Notes 1 13

Lecture Note 1 Introduction to Psychology Psychology is derived from the Greek word psyche meaning soul and logos which means study. Literally, it means the study of the soul. Eventually, psyche came to mean the mind , which transformed the psychology into the study of the mind. Objectives of Psychology: 1.To describe the behavior. What is the nature of this behavior? 2.To understand. Why does it occur? 3.To predict human behavior. When will it occur? 4.To influence or alter behavior in order to achieve an intended goal. What conditions affect it? Methods of Psychological Research: 1.Introspection Method. The individual studies himself, records his own feelings and experiences and later interprets them. 2.Observation Method. This involves describing and interpreting the reactions of individuals in the laboratory or in their natural setting. 3.Experimental Method. This makes use of controlled situations and the manipulation of variables then collecting the resulting data in order to prove tentative explanatory theories. 4.Survey Method. Data are obtained through written questionnaires or interviews from a sample of a larger group. The conclusion drawn about the sample is extended to the larger group. 5.Empiricism. Information is gained through direct observation and measurement.

The Schools of Thought in Psychology The difference lies in the assumptions and focus of each school as well as what research methods to use. Structuralism Proponent: Wilhelm Wundt Assumption: All complex substances can be analyzed through their component elements. The human conscious experience can be broken into elements such as images, physical sensation or feelings. Focus: Psychology should focus on identifying and studying these component elements that form the consciousness. Method of research: Introspection

Functionalism Proponent: William James Focus: The study of behavior as an integrated process and the operations or functions of conscious activity and how we adapt to our environment through learning. This school of thought was influenced by Charles Darwin s principle of natural selection. Functionalism wants to find out how human behaviors such as thinking, perception, habits and emotions aid survival. Method of research: Experimentation Gestalt Proponents: Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka Assumption: The whole is more than the sum of its parts.

Focus: Gestalt is a German word which means the whole. Psychology should study the whole pattern of behavior, experience and perception. Method of research: Introspection and observation Behaviorism Proponent: Watson, Thorndike, B.F. Skinner Assumption: Conditional reflexes are the elements of behavior. Behavior is learned through stimulus-response connections. Focus: The importance of learning and the influence of the environment on how an organism responds or behaves. Method of research: Experimentation and observation Psychoanalysis Proponent: Sigmund Freud Assumption: The mind is like an iceberg. What is visible above the water is the consciousness. What is submerged underwater is the unconscious mind. The unconscious is composed of thoughts, desires, sexual and aggressive impulses that are hidden or repressed which are sometimes revealed by dreams, emotions or slips of the tongue. Focus: The study of the unconscious mind and how it affects consciousness. The unconscious lies outside personal awareness. Method of research: Free association

Lecture Note 2 Branches of Psychology

Branches of Psychology 1. Developmental Psychology. This is the branch of psychology that studies intraindividual and inter-individual changes. It is concerned with all aspects of human growth and development process (cognitive, motor, emotional, and social) from prenatal to old age. 2. Comparative Psychology. This is the branch of psychology that studies and compares the behavior of different organisms, species and animals. It aims to discover the similarities and differences between animal behavior and human behavior. 3. Legal or Forensic Psychology. This is the branch of psychology that deals with the application of the principles of human behavior to legal processes. In criminology, it is concerned with the detection of guilt as well as the reliability of testimony. It also studies the psychology of delinquency and crime. 4. Social Psychology. This is the branch of psychology that studies the behavior of a group, its relationship with other groups and its social influences on the behavior of the individual. It focuses on how the individual behaves, thinks and feels in a group. 5. Parapsychology. This is the branch of psychology that investigates all psychological phenomena that cannot be explained using ordinary scientific principles. Examples of such phenomena include extra-sensory perception or E.S.P. 6. Experimental Psychology. This is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of behavior using experimentation. It is also concerned with the development of precise methods of measurement of behavior. Experiments are conducted to find out how people are motivated, how they perceive, think, feel and respond emotionally to given

situations. 7. Abnormal Psychology. This is the branch of psychology that studies deviant behavior and the cause of personality defects. 8. Counseling Psychology. This is the branch of psychology that deals with helping people in educational, career or social adjustments. It also deals with the administration and interpretation of psychological tests that measure intelligence, aptitudes and personality. 9. Clinical Psychology. This is the branch of psychology that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of emotional and behavioral disorders that are rooted in individual motivation, emotion and personality. 10. Educational Psychology. This is that branch of psychology that focuses on the practical application of psychological principles to education. It studies how the motivation and learning of students may be enhanced through educational strategies and techniques, taking into account their individual differences. 11. Industrial Psychology. This is that branch of psychology that is concerned with the selection, training, supervising and counseling of personnel in business and industry. It also deals with the evaluation of internal organization, effective supervision and communication and employee morale.

Physiological Bases of Behavior The Nervous System The human body is composed of a number of systems of organs, such as the cardiovascular system (the heart, arteries and veins), the digestive system (stomach, intestines, etc.), the respiratory system (lungs, trachea, etc.) but the most complex and elaborate of them all is the nervous system. It is composed of interrelating units that enable man to receive stimuli from the environment and make the necessary responses to such stimuli. The nervous system regulates the behavior of the whole individual in

order to survive. The Neuron The neuron or nerve cell process and carry information as well as activate muscles and glands. Therefore, everything that we do can be traced back to the neuron. The brain is composed of a mass of neurons. The Neuron has 3 parts: 1. Dendrites. They appear similar to the roots of a tree. These specialize in receiving signals from other neurons. 2. Cell Body. The cell body process the signal received by the dendrites. It also sends its own message to another neuron using the axon. 3. Axon. The axon is the thin fiber that carries signals away from the cell body and connects with the dendrites of another neuron. Axons may be .1 millimeter to as long as 1 meter. The 3 Types of Neurons: 1. Sensory. These neurons carry messages from the sense organs towards the central nervous system. 2. Motor. These neurons carry messages from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands. 3. Associating. These connect neurons to each other.

The Nerve Impulse: The nerve impulse is an electrical signal from one neuron to another. The microscopic space between two neurons over which the nerve impulse travels is called the synapse. The nerve impulse traverses the synapse when the axon terminals of the sending neuron release neurotransmitters to the dendrites of the receiving neuron. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that affect the behavior of other neurons. There are as many as 30 different neurotransmitters. Some examples of neurotransmitters are endorphin, dopamine and serotonin.

The neuron cannot be replaced. Damage to or destruction of neurons is permanent. The Central Nervous System The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The Brain The brain is composed of over 100 billion neurons. As we compare different animals from lower forms to higher forms, an increasing proportion of the brain is devoted to the cerebrum. The cerebrum is the highest brain area in humans. Its outer layer is known as the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is the wrinkled gray matter (mostly cell bodies of neurons) the visible outermost layer. The cortex is composed of two hemispheres that are connected by a band of fibers called the corpus callosum. These two hemispheres control the opposite sides of the body. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body. The functions of the left hemisphere: 1. It controls language 2. It processes information sequentially The functions of the right hemisphere: 1. It is better at spatial skills, patterns, music. 2. It processes information holistically. The Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex 1. Occipital lobe. This is the primary visual area. 2. Parietal lobe. This is responsible for touch, temperature and pressure. 3. Temporal lobes. They are responsible for auditory information.

4. Frontal lobe. This is associated with higher mental function and control of movement. Subcortex of the Brain The subcortex can be divided into 3 parts. 1. The Hindbrain (or brainstem). The hindbrain consists of the medulla and the cerebellum. The medulla has control over vital life functions including heart rate, breathing, swallowing and the like. The cerebellum regulates posture, muscle tone and muscular coordination. 2. The Midbrain. This is the information switching center of the brain. It serves as the link between the hindbrain and the forebrain. 3. The Forebrain. The forebrain contains the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus acts as a final switching station for sensory messages. The hypothalamus is the master control center for emotion and basic motives. The hypothalamus affects behaviors such as rage, sex, hormone release, eating and drinking, sleep, walking and emotion. The hypothalamus, parts of the thalamus and other brain structures form the limbic system. The limbic system has a major role in producing emotion and motivated behavior. The amygdala is strongly related to fear. Phobias and anxiety are connected with the function of the amygdala. The Peripheral Nervous System The peripheral nervous system has two subparts. 1. Somatic system. This carries messages to and from the sense organs and skeletal muscles. This system can make your hand move but cannot change your heart rate. 2. Autonomic system. This serves the internal organs and glands of the body. This system can stimulate digestion but cannot make you write a letter. The autonomic system can be subdivided further into two. 1) Sympathetic. This prepares the body for fight or flight situations because of danger or emotional arousal. 2) Parasympathetic. This calms the body after the danger or emotional arousal have ceased.

The Spinal Cord The spinal cord acts as a cable connecting the brain to the rest of the body. The spinal cord is responsible for the reflex arc. When a part of the body is accidentally subjected to pain like when you touch a hot surface, the body automatically pulls your hand away from the source of the pain even before you feel that you have been burned. No brain activity is required for the reflex arc.

Lecture Note 3 The Endocrine System The Endocrine System is made up of a number of glands that release chemicals known as hormones into the blood and lymph systems. Hormones affect internal activities and behavior and activate cells in the body. The Pituitary Gland The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain. It is called the master gland because it secretes hormones that control the other glands. It also regulates growth. The Thyroid Gland The thyroid gland is located in the neck and it regulates metabolism by releasing the hormone thyroxin. Metabolism is the rate at which energy is produced and expended in the body. If a person has an overactive thyroid, he will suffer from hyperthyroidism and will tend to be thin, tense, excitable and nervous. A person with hypothyroidism has an underactive thyroid and suffers from inactivity, sleepiness, slowness and being overweight. The Adrenal Gland When a person is frightened or angry, a number of important actions take place in his body to prepare him for action: his heart rate and blood pressure rise and stored sugar is released for quick energy, the muscles tense and receive more blood. The adrenaline hormone is released when a person is in fear. The noradrenaline hormone is secreted when the person is angry. The adrenal glands are located atop the kidneys. The adrenal cortex release corticoids, which are responsible for the regulation of salt in the body. It also helps the body adjust to stress. The Parathyroid Gland Located inside the thyroid gland are the parathyroid glands. They release parathormone that control the balance of various minerals in the bloodstream, especially calcium. A slight deficiency in this hormone causes tension and irritability. Islets of Langerhans These are a group of cells located in the pancreas. They secrete insulin which regulate the metabolism of glucose or blood sugar. Undersecretion of insulin causes diabetes mellitus. An excess of insulin makes the blood sugar drop so low that the cells in the brain are affected which may cause convulsion, unconsciousness and death. Gonads The female ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen causes the development of the female secondary characteristics. Progesterone is known as the pregnancy hormone. For males, testosterone is released by the testis and it regulates the development of the male sex organs. The Nature of Development Development is a progressive series of changes that occur as a result of maturation and experience. Development follows a definite, predictable pattern. Each phase of development has characteristic patterns of behavior and its hazards. Development is affected by cultural changes and social expectations for every stage.

Heredity Heredity is the transmission of traits from parents to offspring through the genes. Heredity brings about development through the process of maturation. A girl is born with all the ova she will ever have. A boy begins producing sperm cells at puberty. The ova and sperm cell carry 23 chromosomes each. When the sperm and the ova unite, these chromosomes pair up. Each chromosome is composed of long threads of a molecule called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Your sex is determined by your twenty-third pair of chromosomes, the sex chromosomes. Your mother provides the X chromosome, while your father provides either an X or Y chromosome. The fertilized egg or zygote contains all the hereditary potentials, which will later develop into traits. Heredity is entirely a matter of chance. Heredity places limits beyond which individual s cannot go. At any given time and age, the level of development is the product of the interaction between heredity and environment. These two are interrelated and interdependent. Hereditary potentials cannot develop in a vacuum. Learning cannot occur if the neuromuscular system is not ready. The Four Principles of Development 1. Development is orderly and follows a sequential pattern, which is predictable. Sitting precedes standing, standing precedes walking. 2. Development is a product of the interaction between maturation and learning. Maturation requires an adequate and appropriate environment. Learning takes place through the effort of the individual only when he is biologically ready to learn. 3. There are individual differences in development. Each child will go through these stages at his own rate. 4. Development proceeds by stages. One stage prepares the child for the next.

The Prenatal Period As the zygote passes down the fallopian tube into the uterus, the outer layer develops into the placenta, the umbilical cord and the amniotic sac. The inner layer develops into a new human being. About ten days after fertilization, the zygote becomes implanted in the uterine wall. Nerve cells appear during the third week and increase rapidly during the 2nd, 3rd and 4th months as long as the mother is not malnourished. Fetal heartbeat can be detected by the fifteenth week. Fetal movements appear between 18 and 22 weeks. Piaget s Stages of Cognitive Development Age Range Description of Stage Development Milestone Sensorimotor Stage Birth to almost 2 years Experiencing the world through senses and actions Object permanence Stranger anxiety

Preoperational Stage 2 to 6 years Representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning Ability to pretend Egocentrism Concrete Operational Stage 7 to 11 years Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetic operations Conservation Mathematical transformations Abstract logic Formal operational Stage 12 through adulthood Abstract reasoning Potential for mature moral reasoning

Lecture Note 4 Sigmund Freud s Psycho-sexual Stages of Development Each stage is dominated by the development of a particular erogenous zone (pleasure-giving area of the body). Each stage also poses a unique conflict that must be resolved before going to the next stage. Otherwise, fixation (addiction to the pleasure) on that stage occurs Oral Stage (age 0-1) This is marked by gratification of the mouth area by the infant through feeding sucking, biting. Those who become fixated on this stage tend to put things in their mouth such as pens and cigarettes. Anal Stage (age 2-3) This stage focuses on the child s toilet-training. The child needs to learn to inhibit the impulse to defecate. The child learns control over his anal area. Those who become fixated on this stage tend to become obsessed with control over his environment and himself i.e. everything has to be planned and neat. Phallic Stage (age 4-5) A 4-year old boy develops a strong sexual attraction for his mother and begins to see the father as his rival. This is called the Oedipus Complex, taken from the story of Oedipus Rex. A 4-year old girl at the start is close to her mother. But when she discovers that her body lacks a certain organ, she blames her mother and becomes attracted to her father who possesses the missing organ. This is called the Electra Complex. Latency Stage (age 6-11) Sexual impulses are lessened and the child engages in other activities. Genital Stage (puberty onwards) This stage is marked by the maturation of the reproductive system for boys and girls. The libido (sex impulse) is now directed towards activities such as forming friendships, starting a career, courtship and marriage. Erik Erikson s Psycho-social Stages of Development An individual develops a healthy personality by mastering and overcoming the crisis of each stage. Trust versus Mistrust (Birth to 1st year) Whether children come to trust or mistrust themselves and other people. Infants whose needs are met and shown genuine affection develop a sense that the world is safe and dependable. But if the environment is chaotic, unpredictable and rejecting, fear and suspicion result in the child. Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (2nd to 3rd years) A child begins to explore the world. When parents are patient and encouraging, children acquire a sense of independence and competence. If children are not allowed or are overprotected, a sense of shame and doubt develops.

Initiative versus Guilt (4th to 5th years) A child s motor and mental abilities expand. Parents who give children freedom in running, sliding, biking help them develop initiative. Otherwise, children regard themselves as nuisances in an adult world. They become passive. Industry versus Inferiority (6th to 11th years) In elementary, children become concerned with how things work and how they are made. They develop a sense of industry by receiving recognition for their achievements. Parents and teachers who support, reward, praise children encourage industry. Those who ridicule or ignore children s efforts make them feel inferior. Identity versus Role Confusion (12th to 18th years) Adolescence poses the question Who am I? The individual tries many roles, romantic involvement and vocational choice. An integrated and coherent self must be developed or role confusion occurs. This may result in the delinquent or the hoodlum. Intimacy versus Isolation (young adulthood) Intimacy is the capacity to reach out and make contact with other people through deep friendships. It is the ability to share with and care about another without fear of losing oneself. But the risk is rejection. So, others choose shallow relationships and tend to be withdrawn and isolated. Generativity versus Stagnation (middle adulthood) Generativity is being able to embrace society and future generations. It is marked by selflessness. Stagnation is preoccupation with material possessions and one s own physical well-being. A self-centered, embittered individual characterizes stagnation. Integrity versus Despair (old age) Integrity is a sense of satisfaction comes from one s accomplishments. Despair is the feeling that the time is now too short to attempt to start a new life.

Lecture Note 5 Sensation and Perception Sensation is the entire process of receiving information about the world through the mechanisms of the five senses. Perception is the process by which the brain interprets and organizes these sensations into meaningful patterns. What is the absolute minimum amount of energy necessary for a sensation to occur? Sense: Vision Stimulus: Electromagnetic waves Receptor Cells: Rods & cones Absolute Threshold: Candle flame seen 48 kilometers away Sense: Hearing Stimulus: Sound waves Receptor Cells: Organ of Corti Absolute Threshold: Tick of a watch under quiet conditions 20 feet away Sense: Taste Stimulus: Food Receptor Cells: Taste buds Absolute Threshold: 1 teaspoon of sugar in 2 gallons of water Sense: Smell Stimulus: Scent Receptor Cells: Olfactory cells Absolute Threshold: 1 drop of perfume diffused in a 3-room apartment Sense: Touch Stimulus: Pain, pressure, warmth, coldness Receptor Cells: Nerve endings Absolute Threshold: A bee s wing falling on your cheek from 1 centimeter height General characteristics of sense receptors: 1. Before any sensory receptor can be triggered, a minimum of sense receptor stimulation is required. 2. Sensitivity of sense receptors also involves a certain amount of difference among stimuli before one stimulus can be distinguished from another. 3. Ability to adjust to a particular stimulus (sensory adaptation).

I. Visual Sense The Electromagnetic Spectrum Longest wavelength Shortest wavelength Lowest frequency Highest frequency

Radio Microwave Infrared Visible light Ultraviolet X-ray Gamma ray

The Eye 1. Sclera (outer coat). A tough opaque layer of connective tissue to protect the eye s inner structures. In the front, it becomes the cornea, which is thin and transparent receiving light rays that will pass through the pupil. 2. Chloroids (middle pigmented layer). In front of the eye, it forms the iris. Its pigment is responsible for the color of the eye. The iris is arrangement of muscles and expands to change the size of the pupil depending upon the amount or intensity of illumination called light or dark adaptation. 3. Retina (inner layer). The retina contains 115 million rods and 6.5 million cones evenly distributed in the eye. An area of the retina called the fovea contains only cones. Rods. They are called rods because of their cylindrical shape. These function under low illumination and are sensitive to white, gray and black colors. Cones. These are conical in shape. The cones function in bright light. They are sensitive to both black and white as well as color and fine details. Note: The rods are insensitive to red light. Submarines, airplane cockpits use red light so that people can move quickly into the dark without having t adapt. How light is processed Light strikes the cornea. Light is gathered through the pupil. The crystalline lens behind the pupil focuses the rays on the retina. Once the receptors have been activated, the neural message is transmitted to the ganglion cells that form the optic nerve and is carried finally to the occipital lobe. Visual Acuity This is the sharpness of vision which can be measured in terms of the smallest object that can be seen at a standard distance or the greatest distance at which a standardized object can be seen. 20/20 vision: at 20 feet, you can distinguish what an average person can distinguish at 20 feet. 20/40 vision: at 20 feet you can distinguish what the average person can see at 40 feet. Accommodation of the Lens This is the process in which the lens become thinner to bring faraway objects into focus and thickens to focus on nearby objects. Defects of Vision 1. Presbyopia. This is a special form of far-sightedness that occurs with advancing of age. The lens hardens so that it fails in accommodation. A presbyopic person cannot focus clearly on near objects and must wear glasses to do so. 2. Hyperopia. This is also called farsightedness caused by a shortened eyeball making it hard for the lens to bulge enough to focus on near objects. The distance from the lens to the retina is too long making the image focus behind the retina. A farsighted person is able to see far objects clearly but not near ones. 3. Myopia. This is called near-sightedness. If the eyeball is elongated, the distance from the lens to the retina is too short making the image focus in front of the retina. The lens is unable to thin out enough to focus on far objects.

4. Astigmatism. This is a structural irregularity in the shape of the cornea, which bends incoming light in irregular ways distorting the image on the retina. 5. Color blindness. This can be caused by an inherited lack of one of the three types of cones, abnormally functioning cones or by deficiencies in the nerves that relay messages to the brain. Total color blindness (monochromatic) causes all colors to be in different shades of black and white. Partial color blindness, is caused by lost vision for one or two of the three fundamental colors (red, green or blue). 6. Tunnel vision. This is a condition caused by a concentric narrowing of the field of vision so that a person seems to be looking through a tunnel or pipe. 7. Diplopia. Also called double vision, this is caused by a muscular imbalance between the two eyeballs, which permits light to fall on non-corresponding retinas causing two images to form in the brain. 8. Scotoma. This is a temporary or permanent blind spot resulting from excessive use of tobacco or alcohol or from over exposure from light.

Lecture Note 6 Continuation of Sensation and Perception II. Auditory Sense (Hearing) Sound waves are the rhythmic movement of air molecules. Any vibrating object instrument or the vocal cords will produce sound waves. The 3 Attributes of Sound: 1. Frequency. This refers to the number of vibrations per second and determines the pitch of the sound. If the frequency is less than 20 hertz it is infrasonic. If the frequency is more than 20,000 hertz, the sound is ultrasonic. 2. Intensity. This refers to the amplitude of the sound wave or the height of its crests and determines loudness. If the crests are high, the sound is intense and vice versa. Exposure to sound above 85 decibels for prolonged periods may damage the inner ear. 3. Timbre. This refers to the overtones present in a sound which determines tonal quality. The 3 Parts of the Ear 1. The Outer Ear. This is composed of the pinna, auditory canal and the tympanic membrane (eardrum). 2. The Middle Ear. This is an air-filled chamber that is connected to the pharynx by the Eustachian Tube that serves to equalize pressure on the two sides of the eardrum. It is composed of three bones or ossicles namely the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and the stapes (stirrup). 3. The Inner Ear. This is also called the cochlea where the sound receptors are found. It is filled with fluid and shaped like a small shell that has 3 canals: the cochlear canal, tympanic canal, and the vestibular canal. The Process of Hearing Sound waves enter the pinna. It causes vibrations in the eardrum. These vibrations pass through the middle ear where the three ossicles amplify these vibrations into the inner ear where it reaches the cochlea. It is in the cochlea where the hair cells of the Organ of Corti move and bend sending neural impulses to the brain via the auditory nerve. Defects of Hearing 1. Conduction Deafness. This is deafness due to the inability to transmit vibrations . Hearing aids can help remedy this type of deafness. 2. Nerve Deafness. This results from damage to the nerves themselves or to the delicate parts of the cochlea. 3. Total and Partial Deafness. This results from otitis media an infection of the middle ear and damage to the cochlea. a tuning fork, the string of a musical

4. Tone Deafness. This is the inability of the person to differentiate tones although there is nothing wrong with his hearing. III. Gustatory Sense (Taste)

The taste of food is sensed by the receptor cells on the upper surface of the tongue called the taste buds. Much of the taste sensation depends also on (1) warmth, (2) mild irritation due to spices and (3) smell of the food.

The 4 Basic Taste Senses 1. 2. 3. 4. Sweet. This is on the tip of the tongue. Sour. This is on the side of the tongue. Salty. This is also on the tip and sides of the tongue. Bitter. This is at the base of the tongue.

Taste sensitivity depends on how many taste buds you have on your tongue. It can range from 500 taste buds to as many as 10,000 taste buds. Those who possess 10,000 are called the supertasters. Tobacco smoke temporarily reduces the sensitivity to taste. Smokers who give up smoking often find that food tastes better. IV. Olfactory Sense (Smell) As air enters the nose, it passes over 5 million nerve fibers lining the upper nasa passages, which trigger nerve signals that are sent to the brain via the olfactory nerve. The receptor cells are in the olfactory epithelium. At least 1000 types of receptors for smell exist. The Lock and Key Theory of smell The brain uses molecular fingerprints that identify each particular scent. It is said that there are different-shaped holes on the odor receptors and when a part of the molecule matches a hole of the same shape, the scent is then identified. Some Types of Odors: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Flowery: sampaguita Fruity: orange Spicy: pepper Resinous: smell of oil Burnt or smoky: smell of overcooked barbeque Foul or putrid: smell of bad eggs or garbage.

V. Cutaneous Sense (Touch) Thermal Experiences A greater change in temperature is needed to sense heat. Reaction to the sensation of warmth is slower than sensing cold. Anything that affects blood supply affects sensitivity. Kinesthetic Sensation (Sense of Active Movement) Receptor cells for this type of sensation are in the muscles. When the muscles stretch and in the tendons when the muscles contract. Equilibrium (Sense of Static or Passive Movement) Receptor cells give information about movements of the head and a sense of balance to the body. The semicircular canals are filled with fluid which resists movement by remaining stationary and causes hair cells attached to the moving walls to be stimulated.

Receptors in the vestibular canal make us constantly aware of the position of our head. It provides neural messages to keep us oriented to gravity and allows reflex muscular actions required to preserve our equilibrium. What causes motion sickness? Dizziness and nausea occur when sensations from the vestibular canal do not match information received from the eyes of the body. Internal Bodily Movement (Organic Sensation) This is the sensitivity to the visceral and other internal organs and the body. Examples are the sensations of thirst, hunger, nausea and bladder tensions. Perception This is the organization of sensory input into meaningful experiences. Organization in Perception 1. Figure and ground. One part usually stands out while the rest remain in the background. 2. Grouping. We tend to structure or organize what we see. a. Principle of Similarity. Stimuli which are similar tend to be perceived as forming a group. b. Principle of Proximity. The tendency to perceive stimuli that are near one another as belonging together. c. Principle of Closure. When fragmentary stimuli form enough of a familiar figure, we tend to perceive the whole figure, ignoring the missing part. d. Principle of Continuity. Stimuli forming a continuous irregular pattern are better perceived than discontinuous irregular stimuli. Factors that Influence Perception A. Stimulus Characteristics 1. Intensity. The more intense the stimulus, the more likely it is to be attended to and perceived. 2. Repetition. Advertisers use this very effectively. One minute spot commercials repeated every hour catches the attention of the viewer more than a 10-minute commercial once a day. 3. Contrast. Intensified difference from the immediate surroundings. Example: the use of uniforms. 4. Movement. Moving stimuli are more likely to attract attention than stationary ones. 5. Change in Stimulus. Change in the characteristics of the stimulus as a result of lighting and movement may aid perception of an object. Example: illumination on billboards, change in packing, variations in advertising jingles. B. Characteristics of the Perceiver 1. Motivation. Perception s highly selective. We tend to perceive more those objects or stimuli that are consistent with our motives.

2. Experience. Experiences that are rewarding and punishing tend to color our perception. 3. Physical characteristics of the individual. Frame of reference or the relationship between the environment and qualities of the perceiver. 4. Set. This is a temporary tendency to respond in a certain way 5. Interests and Attitudes. People attend to those aspects of the environment that they are interested in. 6. Attention. Human beings can only be aware of a very limited number of stimuli.

Depth Perception This is our ability to see three-dimensional space. The following are some principles: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Near things often appear in front of and cover up more distant objects. Objects appear smaller when farther away than when near. The lights and shadows upon parts of an object give depth cues. Lack of clarity or the presence of haze also conveys depth. Relative movement of near and far objects when the observer is moving with respect to the objects.

An illusion is an error in perception. Extra-Sensory Perception: 1. 2. 3. 4. Telepathy. This is mind-to-mind communication. Clairvoyance. The ability to see faraway places with your mind Precogition. The ability to perceive future events. Psychokinesis. The ability to move inanimate objects with your mind.

Lecture Note 7 The Nature of Consciousness Consciousness is an active awareness of all the many thoughts, images, perceptions and emotions that occupy the mind at any given time. The Unity of Consciousness Consciousness has a unity that integrates our experience into a whole. The Selectivity of Consciousness The selectivity of consciousness allows us to focus on some single aspect of that whole. For example, we can concentrate on an object s shape, color, size or any other characteristic. Consciousness and the Brain Consciousness guides brain activity while brain activity gives rise to consciousness. The Modes of Consciousness Consciousness has many modes. A person s states of consciousness vary from highly focused, systematic, purposeful thinking to loosely-focused, unstructured, free-wandering images. They vary between wakeful consciousness and altered states of consciousness. The Altered States of Consciousness

Two ways to induce altered states of consciousness: (1) Drastically reduce sensor input or create a sensory environment that is highly repetitive and boring (sensory deprivation); (2) Intensify sensory input or overload the senses (caused by traumatic experience or certain drugs). Characteristics of Altered States of Consciousness: 1. Thought tends to be rather shallow. Thought remains on the level of images and sounds. 2. The self and external reality may seem to blend. 3. Normal inhibitions may be lost during altered states of consciousness. 4. Perceptual hallucinations may occur. 5. The contents of the consciousness may become more vivid. Colors may e brighter, sounds sharper and emotions more acutely felt. The Continuum of Consciousness 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Normal waking Realistic fantasy : takes narrative form and is often problem oriented Autistic fantasy : lacks any orientation toward reality Reverie : has neither coherence nor control by the fantasizer and consists of unrelated scenes or memories Hypnagogic : vivid sights or intense sounds Dreaming

Sleep and Dreaming Sleep occupies 1/3 of our lives. The brain s wake center is in the reticular formation. The brain also contains sleep circuits that extend from the lower hindbrain to the thalamus and the cortex. The sleep-wake cycle is part of a set of naturally occurring daily rhythms in the body called circadian rhythms. (circa is Latin for about and dies means day). The circadian rhythm is on a 25-hour cycle. Sleep and the Electroencephalograph The electroencephalograph is a device used for recording the brain s electrical activity. The EEG measure the types of brain waves that occur during the sleep-wake cycle. These waves are compared according to their frequencies. These frequencies steadily drop as a person enters deeper stages of sleep.

Beta waves 14 cycles per second Fully awake Apha waves 8-12 cycles per second Eyes closed and relaxed Theta waves 3-7 cycles per second Begins to fall asleep Delta waves (This is called delta sleep) - 2 cycles per second Sleep Relaxation of the muscles, slow and regular breathing, significant drop in body temperature and pulse rate. The longer the preceding period of wakefulness, the greater the number of delta waves emitted and the greater their amplitude or strength. People deprived of delta sleep report physical discomfort, tenderness of the muscles and joints and increased sensitivity to pain. Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep goes through these different stages every 90 minutes. At the end of each cycle, instead of waking up, the person repeats the cycle. Near the end of each cycle, the individual experiences rapid eye movements or REM. REM sleep can occur 4-5 times a night. During REM sleep, dreams with vivid visual imagery and active participation by the dreamer occur 80% of the time. The Scanning Hypothesis says that the eyes move as the dreamer watches the activity unfolding in the dream. Dream Content It has been found that personally significant events and motives shape dreams. Pregnant women dream about unborn children. People under stress dream about the stressor. Aggressive individuals dream about fighting. Dreams and Freud Freud concluded that dreams reflect people s unconscious impulses to gratify drives or fulfill wishes that cannot be satisfied in reality. The manifest content of the dream disguises and dramatizes the hidden drives and wishes, which form the latent

content or real meaning of the dream. The bizarre features of the dream arises as the mind attempts to conceal the truth.

Sleep Disorders 1. Disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep Insomnia 2. Disorders of excessive sleep Sleep apnea Hypersomnia and Narcolepsy 3. Disorders of the sleep-wake schedule Jetlag and work-shift problems 4. Dysfunctions associated with sleep stages Nightmares, sleep-walking and sleep-related bed-wetting Hypnosis Hypnosis is a condition in which a person has little will of his own, and acts according to the suggestions of the person who brought about the condition. Hypnosis comes from a Greek word which means sleep. To induce a hypnotic state, a hypnotist uses persuasive suggestions, a procedure called hypnotic induction. The hypnotist suggests that you are feeling detached from everyday concerns. Among the hypnotic suggestions are calmness, drowsiness, sleepiness and comfort. Heightened suggestability is at the heart of the hypnotic experience. Hypnotic phenomena: 1. Loss of spontaneity. People stop planning what to do and wait for suggestions. 2. Selectivity. Concentrating on one stimulus blocking out all other awareness. 3. Reduced reality testing. A person may hallucinate with his eyes open. 4. Enactment of unusual roles. 5. Posthypnotic suggestability. Cues are suggested that may cause particular sensations of actions but without the subject remembering the suggestion. 6. Posthypnotic amnesia. Temporarily forgetting what happened during the hypnotic trance. Conditions for Hypnosis to work: 1. The subject must be open to hypnosis 2. There must be rapport between the hypnotist and a desire to cooperate by the subject 3. The more a subject engages in fantasy, imagery and imagination the more susceptible he/she is to hypnosis. 4. Subjects who fear the new and different, find it hard to concentrate or are unwilling to accept authority and submit themselves, will have less chance of being hypnotized. Meditation There are varied forms of meditation but one common element is that the meditator focuses on a single stimulus. One form of meditation called Zazen practiced by Japanese Zen Buddhists, focuses on the normal flow of their breathing without trying to control it. Other stimuli can be a candle flame or a part of one s body. Some claimed benefits of meditation include: neutralization of the stresses of daily life, enriches experiences and enhances overall contentment. By meditating, the body of the meditator may undergo slowed metabolism. Oxygen consumption may drop, breathing and heart rate may slow down, skin resistance to electrical conduction may rise and blood pressure may drop. Meditation is often used in many stress management programs. Biofeedback

This is the ability of the meditator to control certain body processes such as blood pressure and heart rate. In the Himalayas, some meditators are able to keep their body temperature high enough to melt surrounding ice. Lecture Note 8 Intelligence Intelligence has been associated with what the individual can do in a new situation of ever-increasing difficulty within a minimum amount of time. It measures actual of potential ability to perform selected tasks by complex learning and thinking. Intelligence also refers to variations in the ability to learn. David Wechsler's definition of intelligence: It is the global capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with the environment. We can define intelligence operationally by testing memory, reasoning and verbal fluency. The Intelligence Quotient IQ is both a reflection of prior educational achievement and a predictor of subsequent educational performance. It is also an effective predictor of performance in many occupations and other activities of adult life. IQ can be expressed as a single score that indicates the individual's general intellectual ability. IQ is not fixed and is susceptible to modification by environmental interventions. Special training programs and environmental changes affect IQ. IQ is an expression of an individual's ability level at a given point in time, in relation to age norms. Stanford-Binet IQ score: Scores on intelligence are generally reported in terms of mental age. IQ = mental age (MA) / chronological age (CA) x 100 IQ reflects education, maturity and experience. IQ gradually increases until about the age of 40. When IQ declines, the possible causes are: chronic illnesses, drinking problems or un-stimulating lifestyles. Testing Intelligence A test has to be reliable and valid. A test is reliable if when taken repeatedly, yields approximately the same score each time a person takes it. A test is valid when it measures what it claims to measure. Intelligence tests are useful in selecting children for special learning institutions. In many companies, intelligence tests are used as a preliminary screening instrument for prospective employees. Intelligence tests are also used in clinical testing to identify the mentally retarded. An alternative to the Stanford-Binet test is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS III). Performance intelligence is measured by solving puzzles, assembling objects, completing pictures and other non-verbal tasks. Verbal intelligence is measured by asnwering questions involving vocabulary, general information, arithmetic and other language symbol oriented tasks. Aptitudes An aptitude is a capacity for learning certain abilities. Persons with mechanical, artistic or musical aptitudes are likely to do well in those areas.

IQs are generally not good predictors of real world success. However, when scores are in the gifted range, the likelihood of outstanding achievement does seem to be higher. Intelligence Levels: IQ level Severe mental retardation Below 25 Incapable of learning Requires close supervision (caregiver) Moderate mental retardation 25-50 Incapable of school learning Mild mental retardation 50-70 Can complete grade 3-4 Borderline defective 70-80 Low average 80-90 Normal or average 90-110 High average 110-120 Superior 120-130 Very superior 130-140 Genius 140 +

Causes of Mental Retardation Familial retardation occurs mostly in poor families where nutrition, intellectual stimulation, medical care and emotional support may be inadequate. About 50% of mental retardation are related to physical disorders including: 1. Phenylketonuria (caused by specific genes) 2. Chromosomal aberration 2.1 Down symdrome: results from flaws in the parent's egg or sperm cells (not usually hereditary) 2.2 Fragile x syndrome: this is sex-linked in which boys are affected 1 out of 1200. 3. Infection, raditaion or toxic substances during the prenatal period 4. Prenatal factors such as head injury or oxygen deprivation resulting in 4.1 microcephaly (skull fails to grow and is extremely small) 4.2 hydrocephaly (caused by a build up of cerebrospinal fluid which damages the brain and enlarges the head) 5. Poor nutrition, frequent pregnancies or frequent absences of adult males in the home. Giftedness Gifted children are those who possess an untrained and spontaneously expressed natural ability in at least one ability domain significantly beyond that typically seen in children of the same age. "No one is paid to sit around being capable of achievement. What you do is always more important that what you should be able to do." - Whimbey, 1980 Talents are most likely to blossom when combined with support, encouragement, education and support. Signs of Giftedness: 1. 2. 3. 4. A tendency to seek out and identify with other children and adults An ability to absorb information rapidly An early fascination with explanations and problem solving Talking in complete sentences as early as 2-3 years of age

5. 6. 7. 8.

An unusually good memory Precocious talent in art, music or number skills An early interest in books Showing kindness, understanding and cooperation toward others

Gifted and talented children can show diversity of personalities. The role of the child's motivation and environment such as family, school and peers may hinder the realization of the child's abilities. Not all gifted children are achievers. Gifted learners are those who have abilities in one or more subjects in the statutory school curriculum. Talented learners are those who have abilities in art, design, music and performing arts such as drama and dance. Students who are gifted and have learning disabilities are those who possess an outstanding gift or talent and are capable of high performance, but who also have a learning disability that makes some aspect of academic achievement difficult. These learning disabilities include poor self-concept and lack of motivation, children whose exceptional abilities have never been identified and sit around the classroom doing ordinary course work well below their potential. Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. This intelligence includes the ability to effectively use language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically; and language as a means to remember information. Writers, poets, lawyers and speakers are among those that Howard Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence. Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. In Howard Gardner's words, it entails the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking. Musical intelligence involves skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. According to Howard Gardner musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one's whole body or parts of the body to solve problems. It is the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Howard Gardner sees mental and physical activity as related. Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas. Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. It allows people to work effectively with others. Educators, salespeople, religious and political leaders and counsellors all need a well-developed interpersonal intelligence. Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations. In Howard Gardner's view it involves having an effective working model of ourselves, and to be able to use such information to regulate our lives.

Lecture Note 9 Motivation The question of motivation is the question of why. Why do we behave the way we do? Human experience involves a causative factor that produces a kind of response. In explaining behavior, we start with an active driving force: the individual seeks, the individual wants, the individual fears. We also specify an object toward which that active driving force is directed: he seeks wealth, he wants peace and he fears illness. Motivation is the study of the relationship between the driving force and the object which the driving force is directed. It is the study of dynamics of behavior. What are the wants, desires, drives or urges that cause people to behave as they do. In order to understand the behavior of the individual and to know why he behaves as he does, we have to look into his motive and its goal because there will be no goal if there will be no motive. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Is increasing incentive the best way to increase motivation? It is possible to increase motivation by giving rewards for performance. People are self-motivated to do certain things. Some tasks are interesting and enjoyable and provide their own rewards. When a person does something for no obvious tangible reward, we say that he or she has intrinsic motivation. A person who does something in order to receive a particular tangible reward, we say that he or she has extrinsic motivation. The Variability of Behavior Different people behave differently in the same situation. For example, some people will drink alcohol at a party while others while others won t. This is a difference in behavior between people. Circularity of Explanations Imagine a person who goes to a lot of parties. Suppose he eats a lot of food at one party. On another day, at another party, he eats nothing. We postulate the existence of motivation for food and explain the behavioral variability by saying that the man was hungry at the first party but not at the second party. He eats food. Why? Because he was hungry. How do you know he was hungry? Because he ate food. Motivational Constructs The strength of a certain motivation is often defined as depending upon the length of time since the person has been satisfied. The existence and degree of hunger is determined by the number of hours it has been since the man has eaten the hours of food deprivation. There are three unobservable motivational concepts. 1. Need. A need is a lack of something required for optimal adjustment to the environment like the need for water and food. It may also mean the existence of an unpleasant condition, which has to be relieved or eliminated. 2. Drive. This refers to the energy level mobilized by the person as a result of being deprived of the goal object for the goal object. Need level and drive level are closely related. 3. Incentive. Not all goal objects are desired equally. Objects that people are motivated to obtain are called goal objects or incentives. The motivating characteristics of a particular goal object relative to other objects in the same general class is called the incentive value of the object. Motivation is the joint effect of drive and incentive. Drive level is derived primarily from the organism s needs, which may

either be cognitively or biologically based. Incentive level refers to the attractiveness of the various goal objects. Drive relates to the internal state of the organism. Incentive refers to the external situation. Motivation is then the push and pull of drives and incentives, working together and accounts for the variability of human behavior. Motivation as a Pushing Force: Drive Our bodies have a system for detecting needs for food, water and sex. As the need gets greater, the body activates systems to satisfy the need. Drive consists of: 1. the energizing part the body mobilizes its resources to provide increased energy to the organism for the purpose of obtaining the needed substance; 2. the directive function the guiding function that seeks particular goal objects.

The energizing part activates behavior, the directive function directs the same behavior toward particular objects. Motivation as a Pulling Force: Incentive The incentive theory of motivation stresses the attracting or repelling power that particular stimuli appear to exert on reward and punishments and the conditions reinforcing behavior. Incentive refers to the motivation the person has to achieve a particular goal object. Reinforcement refers to learning the fact that a particular response increases in probability of occurrence in attaining the goal object is contingent upon making that response. The behaving organism knows what the consequences of its behavior will be. There are positive incentives we are attempting to obtain. There are negative incentives circumstances we are trying to avoid. circumstances

The Incentive Theory is concerned with the objects, events and states of affairs that people find rewarding or punishing and are thus motivated to achieve or avoid. The emphasis is on the goals of behavior. What are people trying to acquire - food, drink, love, fame? What are people trying to avoid -pain, anxiety, frustration, starvation, poverty and the like. It may include complicated states of affairs like receiving a promotion, winning an election, feeling satisfied with one s accomplishments and so on. Theories of Motivation I. Instinct Theories An instinct is an innate biological force that predisposes someone to behave in a certain way when specific environmental conditions are present. Accordingly, rational goal setting and decision-making are controlled by innate forces. Limitation: Nowadays, the concept of instinct is reserved for lower animals, where complex behaviors are programmed genetically. II. Drive Reduction Theories Under this theory, there are three components. First, a person has a biological need. Second, the biological need causes an aroused state or drive. Third, the person engages in some behavior to reduce the drive and return the body to a more balanced state. Limitation: It cannot explain why we continue to engage in certain behaviors after our needs are met. It also cannot explain why we sometimes seek ways to increase our states of tension. III. Cognitive Theories

Under these theories, there are three concepts. 1. Expectation. People develop expectations about the consequences of their actions, place certain values on these consequences and set their goals accordingly. 2. Self-determination. This is a person s belief that he or she is in control of what happens. 3. Attribution. These are the explanations we offer why things happen. People who attribute successes to their own abilities and failures to their lack of effort, tend to persist in working toward goals. People who attribute success to nothing more than luck and failure to innate shortcomings in themselves, tend to give up rather easily. A person s expectations, sense of self-determination and attributions determine the goals you set for yourself and how hard you work toward them. The Origin of Motives Motives originate either from a biological source or from environmental influences. Biological needs are the need for water or food. Environmental needs include social acceptance.

Maslow s Hierarchy of Needs

Self-actualization Personal growth and fulfillment Aesthetic Needs Beauty, balance, form, etc. Cognitive Needs Knowledge, meaning, self-awareness Esteem Needs Achievement, status, responsibility, reputation Belongingness and Love Needs Family, affection, relationships, work group, etc. Safety Needs Protection, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc. Biological and Physiological Needs Basic life needs air, food, water, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep etc For Abraham Maslow, self-actualization is the highest drive. But before a person can turn to it, he or she must satisfy other lower motivations. The hierarchy is dynamic; the dominant need is always shifting. The hierarchy does not exist by itself, but is affected by the situation and the general culture. Satisfaction is relative; it is different for each person. Maslow felt that unfulfilled needs lower on the pyramid would inhibit the person from climbing to the next step. Selfactualizing people tend to focus on problems outside themselves, are spontaneous and creative, have a clear sense of what is true and phony, and are not bound too strictly by social conventions. Self-actualizing people have peak experiences, which are profound moments of love, understanding, happiness or rapture,

when a person feels more whole, alive, self-sufficient and yet part of the world, more aware of the truth, justice, harmony, goodness and so on.

Classification of Motives There are three classifications of motives: (1) survival, (2) social and (3) ego-integrative. These motives or pressures within the individual keep changing. What the person does in one situation does not necessarily hold true in another similar situation at a different time. I. Survival (physiological) Motives These are motives that are gained at birth and are not learned. They are the basic needs for human life. A. Hunger Hunger depends chiefly on deprivation: it initiates a complex set of chemical and neurological events that cause the organism to seek food with increasing intensity as deprivation progresses. The hypothalamus is primarily responsible for food intake. Damage to its satiety center will cause hyperphagia an abnormally increased desire for food. Damage to its hunger center will cause hypophagia an abnormally decreased desire for food. Hunger is somehow dependent on the chemical composition of the blood. Blood sugar increases soon after eating. The liver is the central processor in the physiology of nutrients. It processes amino acids into glucose, fatty acids into ketones, glucose into energy (to be used) or fats (to be stored). The liver analyzes the levels of various substances and regulates its processes accordingly. B. Thirst To keep bodily fluids within some critical range, we have developed a complex and sophisticated homeostatic system. If fluid levels are too high, the body gets rid of the excess water by sweating or by urinating. If fluid levels are too low, the body conserves water by inhibiting urine formation and activates our motivation to seek out water. To slow down urine formation, the pituitary gland secretes the anti-diuretic hormone. Too much salt in our diet cause water to leave the body s cells and they become dehydrated. C. Sleep There is a strong desire to rest when one is tired. The urge for sleep is a sign that the body needs rest and relaxation. The reticular activating center that lies in the hypothalamus of the brain is known as the sleep center. There is also a wakefulness center in the hypothalamus. D. Air Hunger When we find ourselves in a closely overcrowded area or in a packed elevator, we realize how urgent and intense our need for air is. Anoxia (oxygen deprivation) can damage brain tissues. E. Cold and Warmth A human being is warm-blooded. When the temperature of the body goes too low or too high we are driven to regulatory behavior. The body automatically adjusts to temperature changes to maintain normal body temperature. When it is cold, our body reacts by increasing muscular activity, increased blood pressure and blood leaves the surface of the body and goes

into deeper tissue. When there is excess heat, body activity slows down, perspiration cools the body surface, arteries on the surface of the body dilate exposing a great volume of blood to the outer surface to be cooled. F. Pain Avoidance Physical pain serves as an early warning device of possible injury. Some people have increased sensitivity to pain called hyperalgesia. How we react to pain is a product of learning and cultural conditioning. G. Elimination Drive The elimination drive starts from the bladder and the lower colon. When these are distended, the receptor cells in their walls are stimulated and cause the drive to seek relief from the tensions produced. II. Social Motives A. Achievement Motivation. The need to seek out situations in which they can compete against some standards to prove themselves. Those who have low achievement need tend to choose tasks that are either very easy or very hard, because they have a strong desire to avoid failure. B. Altruism Motivation. This is behavior carried out to benefit another without anticipation of rewards from external sources. This indicates concern for people and a high degree of cooperation. C. Affiliation Motivation. This is the desire to connect or associate with others manifested in joining clubs or organizations. This is related to the need for social approval. D. Dependency. This is the need to seek aid, protection or sympathy from another. It is the need to depend on others, to have someone to look up to and to depend on for help. E. Social Approval Motive. We exert great effort to win the approval of others by behaving in accordance with what society expects of us. F. Need for Power. This is the tendency to gain influence over others behavior and to be seen by others as a powerful individual. G. Need for Security and Safety. This motivates people to be cooperative, thereby building a society that enables individuals to live in peace and harmony. This is the need to feel secure in one s home, work and social relationships, one s ability to cope with problems, developing attitudes of confidence enabling him to progress successfully in whatever he undertakes. H. Affection Drive. The need for affection comes from innate stages of human development and also learned from experiences. I. Need for Independence. This is the desire to assert one s self and to seek freedom from restricting stimulus. This is the need to resist the influence of others; the need to feel that one has power over his actions. J. Sex Drive. Sexual desire is a normal and natural feeling for women and men. However, sexual desire can change over time and can increase or decrease depending on the situation. Sexuality, like all aspects of a relationship takes effort to perfect. Sex drive is also called libido. Sexual desire can change in response to outside forces like stress. Working through issues about sexual desire takes open communication. Good sex first begins outside the bedroom. There are many ways in which to express sexual desire. Many women enjoy cuddling, hand-holding, back rubs and kissing. When both partners agree on the types of sexual activity that is desirable, there is usually little conflict. When one partner wants sexual activity that differs from his partners wishes, relationship problems may develop. Men and women have differing sex drives. Men have testosterone that makes him more active in sexual activity.

Testosterone, especially during puberty, may cause strong emotions. The things that stimulate men often include pictures, watching sexual movies or staring at attractive women. For women, words, intimate emotions or signs of affection like touching or kissing may arouse women. Often, just letting your partner know what you like or what makes you aroused is a more effective way in working out problems on sexual activity. When watching a sexual movie, never tell your partner I wish you were more like that movie star. This can damage selfesteem and ruin your relationship. Never make fun or threaten your partner. Good communication between partners is the key to a healthy sex life. Telling your partner It would be great if we could do ____________ is something you say outside the bedroom. Women have a lower sex drive when their lives are stressful. Men actually use sexual activity to reduce stress. Childbirth and breastfeeding may lead to a decrease in estrogen, which may cause vaginal dryness. This leads to painful sexual intercourse for the woman. Depression can make all activity including sex difficult. Women do not automatically experience orgasm. Sometimes, it takes more effort for the to experience orgasm. The truth is that most women cannot have orgasm by intercourse alone they may need manual or oral stimulation of the clitoris. The clitoris is the small round bump at the very top of the female genitalia that is super sensitive to touch. Since our educational system does not comprehensively teach sexual activity, men may not fully understand female sexual responses. In some instances, the female may have to teach her partner what she likes. It is important to remember that we are responsible for our own sexual pleasure. Women may become discouraged or frustrated if they are not satisfied sexually.

Lecture Note 10 Emotions

People are almost always undergoing some type of emotion or feeling. Emotional states vary within a day. Consciously or unconsciously, external stimuli affect our emotional equilibrium. One is in better control of his emotions if one is in better control of his environment. Emotions are so complicated and powerful that sometimes such is expressed in a variety of attitudes, gestures and forms. Positive Emotions: I feel myself Well well-being Happy happiness Healthy health Gay gaiety Strong strength Accompanied company Negative Emotions: Uncomfortable discomfort Unfortunate unfortunate Sick sickness Sad sadness Weak weakness Lonely loneliness Each and every emotion says a quality in the positive or negative scale. Changes of emotional intensity transpire either towards the negative or the positive side. Wukmir (1967) said that emotions the very mechanism that perceives what is favorable for survival. Emotion is an immediate answer of the organism that informs about the degree of acceptability of the perceived situation. Emotions act as a compass to find favorable situations to survive and to move away from unfavorable situations. Emotional appraisal is carried out by a variety of physiological-chemical mechanism depending on the complexity of the organism. Emotions are positive when they are towards life and survival and negative when it is towards death and extinction. Emotion comes from the Latin word movere, which means to move. Humans would listless and accomplish nothing if there were no emotions to motivate them. Emotion is a name for expressed feelings. They have to do with the chemical constitution of the body. Emotions are related to a basic human characteristic called willpower. The guideline used by the ancient Greeks may be helpful, nothing in excess, everything in moderation. Emotional maturity comes with the passage of time and is based on experience and reflection on the past. If an individual can be immersed in others, in interesting hobbies or work, or in meaningful causes, that person can develop positive emotions.

Emotional Aspects 1. Physiological changes. This involves changes in the blood chemistry, brain waves, and conditions of internal organs. 2. Neural responses are affected. Heart rate, blood supply, respiration change, muscles react, goose flesh sometimes appear, eyelids and eyeballs protrude, kidneys and bladder also become more active during emotional crisis. 3. Observable changes in behavior. This denotes the changes in facial expressions, body movements, and vocal expressions. 4. Subjective experiences. This connotes the relativity of emotions. An individual no matter what he is experiencing is always evaluating the situation. Effects of Emotions Sickness and disorders are sometimes caused by the inability of the organism to handle stressful situations. In order to be healthy and stress-free, emotions must be properly managed, directed and expressed. Proper handling of emotions leads to enjoyment, endurance and even strength. Controlling Emotions Since emotion is inevitable in human experience, it is best to have emotional maturity for proper self-control of emotions. Emotional maturity means management and supervision of experiences in such a way that it will not result in negative emotions which may lead to physiological complications. Guilford s (1964) steps toward emotional maturity 1. Avoid emotion-provoking situations 2. Change the emotion-provoking situation. It is always better to be a friend than to be an enemy. It is better to forgive than to seek revenge. It is better to make peace than war. 3. Increase skills for coping with the situation. More opportunities of socialization leads to better coping skills. 4. Re-interpret the situation. Everything is relative. If one needs to change the world, one need only to change his perception of the world. 5. Keep working toward your goal. Problems and difficulties are part and parcel of this existence. Have an objective. As long as one works towards an objective, there is happiness, contentment and achievement to look forward to. 6. Find a suitable outlet. Sigmund Freud calls this concept displacement, which is a defense mechanism. An indirect solution is a better alternative than no solution. 7. Develop a sense of humor. Laughter makes everything bearable.

Lecture Note 10 B Emotions continued Group Activity: List all the things that make you angry, afraid, happy or sad. Demonstrate the non-verbal ways of expressing these emotions. How do you manage anger, fear and sadness? How do you deal with these emotions? Fear Fear can be a poisonous emotion. It can torment us, rob us of sleep and preoccupy our thinking. People can literally be scared to death. Fear can also be contagious. Fear is an adaptive response. Fear prepares our bodies to flee from danger. Fear binds people together for mutual protection. Fear of punishment constrains us from harming others. Fear can also be learned by observation. We tend to adopt some fears of our parents and other family members. Fear learning happens in the amygdala of the brain. The amygdala may cause the body to experience diarrhea or shortness of breath in extreme cases of fear.

Anger Often anger is a response to a friend s or loved one s perceived misdeeds. Anger is especially common when another person s act seems willful, unjustified and avoidable. But blameless annoyances foul odors, high temperatures, aches and pains also have the power to make us angry. Should anger be expressed or kept under control? It depends on the culture. Individualized culture would advise a person to release his anger. But in group-centered cultures, anger is seen as a threat to group harmony. The advice to vent one s anger presumes that emotional expression provides emotional release or catharsis. The catharsis hypothesis assumes that we reduce anger by releasing it. But expressing anger may breed more anger. Retaliation and escalation may turn a minor conflict into a major confrontation. What is the best way to handle anger? First, bring down the physiological arousal level of anger by waiting. Second, vent the anger by doing something else like exercising, playing an instrument, confiding your feelings to a friend or to a diary.

Happiness One s state of happiness or unhappiness colors everything else in the world. People who are happy perceive the world as safer, makes decisions easily, rate job applications more favorably, and report greater satisfaction with their whole lives. When your mood is gloomy, life as a whole seems depressing. Let your mood brighten and suddenly your relationships, your self-image and your hopes for the future all seem more promising. When we feel happy, we are more willing to help others. This is called the feel-good, do-good phenomenon. On the other hand, Positive Psychology states that if you do good for others like family, close friends and even strangers, there is a tendency to feel good as a result.

Predictors of Happiness Happy people tend to have high self-esteem, optimistic and outgoing, have close friendships or a satisfying marriage, have a meaningful religious faith, sleep well and exercise. People usually feel happier if mentally engaged by work or active leisure. Theories of Emotion James-Lange Theory Common sense tells us that we cry because we are sad, lash out because we are angry, tremble when we are afraid. According to William James however, we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble. After you successfully evade an oncoming car as you cross the street, you may then feel your heart beating fast and only then do you shake with fright. The feeling of fear follows the body s response. This theory was followed up by Lange. James asserted that in order to feel cheerful, sit up cheerfully, look around cheerfully and act as if you already possessed cheerfulness. Cannon-Bard Theory Cannon and Bard however concluded that the physiological arousal and the emotional experience occur simultaneously. Your heart begins pounding as you experience fear but that one does not cause the other. Cognition and Emotion What is the connection between what we think and how we feel? Do emotions always grow from thoughts? Is the heart always subject to our mind s appraisal of a situation? Can we experience emotions apart from thinking? Can we change our emotions by changing our thinking? Schachter proposed his two-factor theory which states that emotions have two ingredients: the physical arousal and a cognitive label. Our emotional arousal response is often linked to our interpretation of the event. According to Robert Zajonc, emotional reactions are sometimes quicker than our interpretations of a situation. He believes that cognition is not necessary for emotion. Some neural pathways involved in emotion bypass the cortical areas involved in thinking. One such pathway runs from the eye via the thalamus to one of the brain s emotional control centers. Richard Lazarus disagrees. He claims that some emotional responses do not require conscious thinking. Even instantaneously felt emotions require some sort of quick cognitive appraisal of the situation. The appraisal may be effortless and we may not be conscious of it, but it is still a function of the mind. We may fear the spider even if we know it is harmless. Some simple emotions require no conscious thought.

Lecture Note 11 Learning Is it possible to observe or measure learning? Learning is difficult to quantify or qualify. What one could measure are changes in behavior. Therefore, learning is best defined as a change in behavior, a mode of adjustment or even a form of adaptation. Learning is a process, which is composed of ways where built-in responses are modified. It involves the modification of behavior and the formation of habits and routine where the results lead to a new mode of behavior. Learning is a life-long process. People learn something new every day. In fact, learning can even be equated with evolution. As long as one continues to learn, one continues to evolve. Of all the species of living things, man is the only creature capable of complex learning due to his innate higher mental skills. However, the rate and skill of learning differ for different individuals. Some are simply fast learners as compared to others. Some concepts about learning: 1.Learning is a restructuring of behavior. 2.Learning is a response caused by experience. 3.The level of maturation determines learning. 4.Learning is a process of development. 5.Learning needs stimulation. 6.Learning changes behavior through experience and training. Nature of Learning Learning is best defined as a process, which results in changes in the individual s way of responding as brought about by experience. Learning is can also be presented in such a way that which alters behavior. Behavior is affected and influenced by experience. New sets of behavior are set in motion when an individual interprets the world surrounding him, responds and relates to it, and then responds to the consequences of its own responses. Learning here takes roots and the organism is never the same again. Learning is a never-ending cycle. Knowledge and skills are constantly accumulated. Some even go to the extent of saying that learning is interactive and developmental. Stimulus and Response Theories Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning was first formulated by Nobel Prize winner Ivan Pavlov. In this pioneering study, Pavlov studied the behavior of dogs and he would connect a conditioned stimulus (the sound of a tuning fork) to an unconditioned stimulus (meat) to elicit the response (salivation). By synchronizing the presentation if the conditioned stimuli and the unconditioned stimuli, the dog would respond by salivating. Instrumental Conditioning Instrumental Conditioning was formulated by Edward Lee Thorndike. In Instrumental Conditioning, no new stimuli were introduced; instead responses became instrumental in receiving a reward. Thorndike formulated the stimulus-response theory also known as the theory of connectionism. Here, learning consisted of the formation of a connection between a specific situation or stimulus and a specific response.

Thorndike s Laws of Learning:

a.Law of Effect If the connection between the stimulus and response is made and is followed by a satisfier, the connection is strengthened. If the connection is followed by an annoying result, the connection is weakened. If something is to be learned, a reward must be presented for the desired behavior, and if something is to be eliminated or unlearned, punishment must follow the response. This law states that the strength of a connection is influenced by the consequences of a response. b.Law of Exercise Connection is made stronger with use and weakened with disuse. Repetition of a response strengthens its connection with the stimulus, while disuse weakens it. The law states that the strength of a connection is determined by how often the connection is used. The repetition of the experience increases the probability of a correct response. c.Law of Readiness When a person is ready to respond, the giving of the response is satisfying and being prevented from doing so is annoying. The potential learner must have the maturation necessary for the desired learning to be welcomed without the possibility of being irritated. d.Law of Belongingness The connection is increased if the paired stimuli are familiar or common with the quality of belongingness. Results strengthen the connection between whatever stimuli were present and the response made just prior to the appearance of the satisfying result.

The classic example of Thorndike s S-R theory was a cat learning to escape from a puzzle box by pressing a lever inside the box. With much trial and error behavior, the cat learns to associate pressing the lever (S) with opening the door (R). The SR connection is established because it results in a satisfying state of affairs (escape from the box). The law of exercise says that the connection was established because the S-R pairing occurred many times and was rewarded (law of effect) as well as forming a single sequence (law of readiness).

Operant Conditioning Burrhus F. Skinner formulated Operant Conditioning which focused on the behaviors produced by the response. Skinner built upon both classical and instrumental conditioning, particularly, Thorndike s law of effect. He termed the satisfying or annoying states as operant, due to their effect on the learning environment. Learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual s response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner s S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of the response when it is withdrawn (not punishment). Social Learning Theory The focus of the Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura is that learning occurs within the social context. It states that people learn from each other, by observational learning, imitation and modeling. Principles of Social Learning Theory:

1.People learn by observing the behavior of others, especially the outcomes of such behaviors. 2.Learning can occur without a change in behavior. In contrast to what many behaviorists suggest, social learning theorists say that because people can learn through observation alone, learning may not follow their performance. 3.Cognition plays a role in learning. Cognition affects learning. Expectation and awareness of future punishment and reinforcements can have a major effect on the behavior of people. 4.Social learning theory can be a bridge for transition between the cognitive learning theories and the behaviorist learning theories. Different individuals are often the models of behavior of others. 1.The observer is reinforced by the model. A student who adopts the dress code of his peers so as to be accepted and thus reinforced by the group. 2.The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be imitating someone else. The teacher might notice the imitation and compliment the observer thus reinforcing the behavior. 3.The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Learned behavior from others might produce reinforcing and satisfying results. 4.Consequences of the model s behavior might affect the observer s behavior explicitly. Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur: 1.Attention. The person must pay attention to the model. 2.Retention. The observer must be able to remember the behavior that is observed. 3.Motor reproduction. This is the ability to replicate the behavior that the model demonstrates. 4.Motivation. Learners must have the desire to demonstrate and show what they have learned. Implications of Social Learning Theory a.People learn by observing other people. b.Knowing the consequences of a particular behavior can increase the appropriate behavior and decrease inappropriate behavior. c.Modeling serves as an alternative for teaching new behavior. d.Appropriate behavior must be shown and exposed to others and inappropriate behavior not shown. e.People should be exposed to a variety of other models. f.Self-regulation provides an effective method for improving behavior.

Learning from your mistakes is wise. But learning from the mistakes of others is wiser.

Lecture Notes 12 Frustration, Mental Health and Adjustment Frustration and Adjustment Adjustment means the never-ending process of overcoming impediments to the satisfaction of the unlimited wants of man. Since wants and desires of man will always be unlimited, the dissatisfaction leads to frustration. The intensity and result of frustration however varies. Personal frustration could come into play where the cause of frustration might be the individual himself, such as low intelligence, physical deformity, lack of skill or even insecurities which hampers the attainment of a certain objective. Environmental frustration could be another element leading to dissatisfaction. Environmental frustration denotes the conditions outside the person which prevents and individual from fully satisfying his needs. Defense Mechanisms The major function of defense mechanism is to assist an individual to be conscious of what is possible and unattainable and devises certain strategies so as to assist the individual in continued existence. Defense mechanisms operate at the unconscious level and that they deny, distort and falsify the perception of reality, so as to make frustration and anxiety less threatening to the sanity and functioning of an individual. Sigmund Freud enumerated a number of defense mechanisms. Repression. This is also known as motivated forgetting. This is the process of excluding distressing thoughts, feelings and experiences from consciousness. The result could lead to the inability to remember past traumatic events. For example, a child may forget the molestation done to her, but after some years might remember the incident. Projection. This is an act where a person attributes his/her unacceptable thoughts, feelings, behaviors and experiences to others or to the environment. Projection enables a person to blame the other people or the environment for something that is initially the result of his own shortcomings. Displacement. This refers to the expression of an impulse or emotion that is redirected from a more threatening source to a less threatening source. Rationalization. This is also known as sour-graping. This is the attempt of a person to cope with frustration and anxiety in order to distort reality and protect self-esteem or the image of oneself. Regression. This is the process of reverting back to earlier development level involving less mature response and the usual lower level of aspiration. It is a way of alleviating anxiety and frustration by retreating to an earlier period of life that was more secure and pleasant. Reaction formation. This is the act of preventing dangerous desires from being expressed by exaggerating opposed attitudes and types of behavior and using them as a barrier. For example, a person threatened by his or her own sexuality may become a rabid crusader against pornography. Sublimation. This refers to the gratification of frustrated sexual desires by substituting non-sexual activities. The individual diverts these impulses so that they may be expressed in socially approved thoughts and actions. Denial. This is the refusal to face an unpleasant reality. When a person refuses to acknowledge that an unpleasant event has occurred, that person is engaging in denial. Fantasy. This is the gratification of frustrated desires through imaginary achievements in daydreams. Compensation. This is the act of covering one s weakness by emphasizing a desirable trait or making up for frustration in one area by over-gratification in another.

Identification. This is the process increasing one s feeling of self-worth by identifying one s self with another person or institution of respectable standing. Internalization. This is the incorporation of external standard or values into the ego so that a person is unaffected by external factors. Undoing. This is also known as atonement. It is the act of expiation or penance in counteracting undesirable acts, thoughts and deeds. Sympathism. This is the desire to gain sympathy from others, thus bolstering feelings of self-worth despite failures. Acting out. This is the process of reducing and decreasing anxiety aroused by forbidden desires by permitting their expression. Abnormal Reactions to Frustration As a rule, an individual responds to a certain frustration in a certain way. Some will run from the source of the frustration, while others will face the source. When a person is well-adjusted, a person copes with it in a logical and ethical manner ensuring the satisfaction of his needs. However, if the person is unable to face his frustration and challenges when it becomes intense and overwhelming, a person s coping mechanism becomes inadequate, thus leading to abnormal reactions. Abnormal reactions are usually divided into two, the neurotic responses and psychotic responses. Neurosis is a mild form of mental disorder and an abnormal pattern that lowers functioning and efficiency of an individual. Neurosis is characterized by anxiety, unhappiness, and mal-adaptive behavior. Accordingly, needs and responses are neurotic because they are unrealistic and unreasonable. For Karen Horney, neurosis is an attempt to make life bearable, as a way of interpersonal control and coping. Horney describes ten patterns of neurotic needs. The Ten Neurotic Needs 1. The neurotic need for affection and approval. This refers to the indiscriminate need to please others and be liked by them. 2. The neurotic need for a partner. This includes the misleading notion that love will solve all of one s problems. 3. The neurotic need to restrict oneself within narrow borders. This is the unreasonable need to be undemanding, satisfied with little and to be inconspicuous. 4. The neurotic need for power. This is the unrealistic need to have control over others and for a faade of omnipotence. This is dominance for its own sake, often accompanied by contempt for the weak and a strong belief in one s own rational powers. 5. The neurotic need to exploit others and get the better of them. This refers to the manipulation and the belief that people are there to be used. 6. The neurotic need for social recognition and prestige. This is being overly concerned about appearances and popularity. It is the fear of being ignored, to be thought of as un-cool and plain. 7. The neurotic need for personal admiration. This is the desire to remind people of how important he or she is. 8. The neurotic need for personal achievement. This is the need to be number one in any and every endeavor. If he does not become number in a task, he will devalue the task. 9. The neurotic need for self-sufficiency and independence. This is the feeling of not needing anybody. They refuse help and are reluctant to commit to a relationship. 10. The neurotic need for perfection. This is the drive to be perfect and the fear of being perceived as flawed. Anxiety Neurosis. This is a neurosis characterized by extreme generalized feeling of helplessness, indecision and

apprehension. The individual fears the future and is constantly worried, tense and ill at ease. He is afraid to make decisions, feels helpless and is afraid of making mistakes. Phobia. This is the unrealistic fear of a certain object or situation. The person is unable to overcome his fear even though one knows it is irrational. Obsessive-Compulsive (OC) neurosis. Obsession here refers to a useless and irrational idea. Compulsion refers to the useless and irrational act. A serious OC neurosis is characterized as a mania (e.g. megalomania the tendency to over evaluate oneself, kleptomania the compulsion to steal anything, pyromania the tendency to set things on fire). Conversion Reactions. This refers to hysteria in which psychological conflicts are converted into physical symptoms (e.g. hysterical blindness a person cannot see though there is no medical impairment of vision, hysterical paralysis, hysterical mutism, hysterical deafness, hysterical anesthesia). Hypochondria. This is the unusual and irregular preoccupation with the activities of one s body and the state of one s health. A hypochondriac is someone who looks for symptoms of any disease in himself and believes that he is afflicted with that disease. Disassociative Reactions. This is an extreme reaction where an entire episode in one s life is repressed from memory and consciousness. Amnesia. This is the loss of memory of past experiences. The individual temporarily forgets all experiences associated with the experience the subject wants to forget. Fugue. This is an extreme form of disassociative reaction where the loss of memory continues for a long duration and is accompanied by actual physical flight. Multiple Personality. This is an extreme disassociative reaction characterized by the development of two or more personalities alternating with the individual s consciousness. Maladaptive Behaviors connected with neurosis 1. Alcoholism. This is compulsive drinking. An alcoholic uses the effects if liquor as a way of coping and facing his frustrations and problems. The alcoholic keeps on increasing his consumption to relieve stress, tension and frustration. Then memory blackouts occur. Loss of control over one s drinking follows. The final stage is alcoholic psychosis characterized by hallucinations, disorientation, disturbed mental functions and deterioration of personality. 2. Substance or drug abuse. This is similar to alcoholism with drugs as the focus of abuse. 3. Promiscuity or sexual deviations. Promiscuity is the indiscriminate acquisition of a sexual partner. Sexual deviation is synonymous with perversion or engaging in distorted sexual practices.

Deviations in Sexual Behavior a. Masturbation b. Sodomy c. Voyeurism d. Exhibitionism e. Transvestism. Cross-dressing f. Sadism g. Masochism

Deviations in the Sexual Object a. Homosexuality b. Fetish c. Pedophilia d. Zoophilia e. Incest Psychosis Psychosis is a serious form of personality disturbance. While the neurotic does not lose contact with reality, the psychotic is not in touch with reality anymore. Schizophrenia is a form of psychosis characterized by distortion of reality. Symptoms include loosening of associations, ambivalence, withdrawal and inappropriate affect. Manic-depression is another form of psychosis which results in the distortion of emotional responses swinging between elation and depression without any connection to what is happening in the environment. A person is out of touch with reality when there is: 1. Disorder in perception. Hallucinations occur. 2. Disorder in orientation. Not knowing the time and place or the identities of people. 3. Disorder in thinking. The person suffers from delusions a. Delusions of grandeur. A person believes he is someone important in society b. Delusions of reference. This is also called paranoia where a person believes that everything happening in the environment is directly related to him. c. Delusions of persecution. A person believes that people are against him and are plotting against him. 4. Disorder in emotions. A person displays inappropriate and exaggerated reactions to stress, frustrations, problems. Mental Health and Mental Hygiene This refers to the state of adjustment of an individual to himself and to the environment with satisfactory results. The individual is not overwhelmed by tension and stress, does not engage in behavior that society does not approve. The person is emotionally and intellectually stable. He is well-adjusted. The The The The The The The The The The The The The The The The The The most destructive habit: worry greatest joy: giving greatest loss: loss of self-respect most satisfying work: helping others ugliest personality trait: selfishness most endangered species: dedicated leaders greatest natural resource: the youth greatest fix: encouragement greatest problem to overcome: fear most effective sleeping pill: peace of mind most crippling failure disease: excuses powerful force in life: love most dangerous pariah: a gossiper worst thing to be without: hope deadliest weapon: the tongue two most power-filled words: I can greatest asset: faith most worthless emotion: self-pity

The The The The The

world s most beautiful attire: a smile most prized possession: integrity most powerful channel of communication: prayer most contagious spirit: enthusiasm most welcome words: I am sorry

Treatment of Abnormal Behaviors I. Psychological Treatment 1. Psychotherapy a. Insight therapy. This is the gaining of insights into oneself b. Action therapy. This is the learning of new skills to correct one s behavior. c. Directive approach. Giving reassurance, suggestions and advice. d. Non-directive approach. The opposite of directive approach. e. Psychoanalysis. Bringing unconscious thoughts to the conscious level. f. Free association. The person is free to talk about anything. g. Dream analysis. 2. Behavior therapy. The person is taught skills to correct behaviors, to break up incorrect associations. Behavior is modified in order to resolve conflicts and problems. Counter-conditioning. The subject is reconditioned to associate pleasantness rather than anxiety with a certain object, person or an event. 3. Group therapy. Grouping people with similar difficulties and working towards the solution of their common source of problems. II. Medical Approach. This involves pharmacotherapy, shock therapy and psychosurgery.

Lecture Notes 13 Personality

The individual s attitudes, behavior and feelings in social situations make up his or her personality. There are many factors that affect an individual s personality. These are traditions, family background and genetic make-up. Researches have shown that people with particular personality traits are more suitable for certain occupations or specific activities. There are many theories concerning the development of personality and the causes of personality differences. The Greek physician Hippocrates believed that people behave in a certain way because they have a predominance of one type of bodily fluid, or humor. Accordingly, people with calm or passive personalities have one dominant humor, while impulsive and temperamental people have a different type of dominant humor. The German psychiatrist Ersnt Kretschmer believed that personality was determined by the person s body type such as plump, lean or athletic. He suggested that short people were more likely to be social, friendly and lively. Psychoanalytic Approach Modern personality theory began with the work of Sigmund Freud, who developed psychoanalysis. As a personality theory, psychoanalysis places importance on the unconscious processes that affect behavior. Personality is the result of the expression or satisfaction of psychological impulses in childhood. Freud proposed that an individual s personality is established in the first few years of life that is associated with the period of psychological development. Freud described the three structures of personality: the id, which is the repository of instincts and provides the source of psychic energy for all psychological processes; the ego, which interacts with the demands of reality in fulfilling instinctual desires; and the superego, which represents the internalization of social and parental standards and ideals of behavior. Freud said that these structures are in constant battle in trying to influence behavior. Humanistic Approach American psychologist Gordon Allport, on the other hand, proposed a trait theory of personality. A trait is an inclination to behave in a consistent manner over time and in different experiences and situations. In this theory, it was identified that there are traits common to all persons in a given culture. There are also traits that grow out of personal experiences that are unique to different individuals. Another theory of personality is situationism. It emphasizes the importance of characteristics of the situation in which people find themselves, rather than on traits within the person. In situationism, human behavior is determined by the influences of each situation. For example, the degree to which a person may display of honesty in a situation may be different if the person knows that dishonesty can be detected and exposed. Or if the rewards for dishonesty are high and other people behave dishonestly, a person may become dishonest himself. However, factors in a situation influence and affect people in different ways. Another theory is interactionism. The significance of both trait and situational determinants of behavior are recognized and given credence. Interactionism takes into account both an individual s tendency and predisposition to a type of response and the elements of the situation. It states that traits and the situation both influence behavior. Behavioristic Approach There is also a nature-versus-nurture debate on how the personality is formed. Nature refers to an individual s genetic make-up and nurture refers to the individual s environment, which includes family influences. American behavioral psychologist John B. Watson contends that individual behavior is the result of environmental factors, especially the learning experiences. He argued that the way in which children are raised determines their personality. Ongoing researches contend that the tendency for certain personality characteristics such as temperament, extroversionintroversion, anxiety and aggression, dependence-independence, can be inherited. It must be emphasized however, that

what may be inherited is just the tendency. A person may still overcome such tendencies by freely choosing to do so. Genetic Approach Genetic studies often focus on studies involving identical twins that have been separated and grew up in different home environments. Other studies involve adoptions in which the adopted child naturally has a biological make-up completely different from their adoptive parents. Certain genetic studies have asserted that females are more socially adoptive than boys, boys are more prone to behavioral and learning disorders than girls. Autism is four times more common in boys than in girls. Personality Assessment There are numerous methods of personality determination including personality scales and inventories. In personality inventories, people are given a set of situational questions and are asked to choose among a given list of actions to take. Each item is designed to measure one particular trait such as introversion-extroversion. To make sure that the individual is consistent in his answers, a number of similar questions measuring introversion-extroversion are spread throughout the questionnaire. A pattern of answers must be seen in order to make a conclusion. Other assessment instruments involve the use of projective tests. These tests present a variety of stimuli to the individual. The individual is then asked to interpret the stimuli. These tests are projective because the person is projecting his or her own meaning into the test material. The most popular types of projective tests are the Rorschach ink blot test and the Thematic Apperception Test. Personality Disorders Personality characteristics are maladaptive if they cause impairment in everyday living or if they lead to stress and discomfort. When this happens, it becomes a personality disorder. Personality disorders are life-long patterns of behavior that leads to maladjustment and the inability to deal with day-to-day activity. Individuals with an antisocial personality disorder, infringe and defy the rights of other people with no regard to social rules. These individuals often fight, steal, physically or mentally abuse others or undermine authority. There is difficulty in: keeping a job, maintaining functioning personal relationships, and keeping out of trouble with the law.