READABILITY THEORY A. The Notion of Readability 1.

The Definition of Readability Readability refers to the easy degree of a text to be understood (Sakri, 1993: 135) in Nababan (1999: 62). The same definition stated by Richard et al (1985: 238) in Nababan (1999: 62) readability is how easily written materials can be read and understood. From the two definitions above the writer can conclude that readability is the easy degree a written text to be read and to catch the content by the readers. At the beginning, the readability is only related to reading activity. Then the readability is also used in translation because translating is always related to reading. Basically, in translation context, the readability is not only related to the readability of the target language text. This is appropriate with the reality of every translation process which always involves two languages at once. But, up to this day, the indicator used to measure the readability level of text still need to be proved. According to Gilmore and Root (1997: 102), in Nababan (1999: 62) the readability level of a text which is based on linguistic factors and human enchantment is not more than a support tool for a writer in adjusting the readability of a text with the ability of the readers. Apart from the unstable the measuring tool of the readability, a translator needs to understand readability concept of the source language text and the target language. A good understanding of the readability

concept will help the translator in doing the translation work. According to Wardah (1978: 2) in her thesis, readability level is used to show how communicate or how easy to understand a particular reading text is, both in terms of its contents and forms for a group of readers. To determine the readability level of text, the writer uses readability formula proposed by Robert Gunning (1952). Readability formulas are mathematical techniques used to determine how difficult it is for someone to read and understand a piece of writing. According to Gunning Fog Index, the Fog Index is obviously interesting in terms of its applicability and simplicity. The formula is used to determine the amount of fog, obscurity, ambiguity, or complexity in writing. Gunning proposed counting words of three or more syllabus. These he termed hard words. More than 100 different readability formulas exist, and many are being used by government agencies and business in an attempt to improve writing. Most readability formulas are based on an idea that short words and sentences are easier to understand than long words or sentences. For example, Robert Gunnings Fog Index works like this: 1. Find the average number of words per sentence (L), using a 100 + words passage. Count all of words (W) and all of the independent clauses (C) and divide (W: C). Dates count as a single word.

2. Find the number of different words (D), defined as those with three or more syllabus. 3. Add the average sentence length to the number of difficult words and multiply by 0.4. This will give you estimate of the average grade level that a reader should have obtained to understand the writing. That is, Gunning Fog Index = 0.4* (L+D). 2. The Factors which Determine the Readability of the Text Readability refers to the easy degree of a text to be understood. The definition of readability above is rather abstract because it has not involved interaction between reader and the text. In fact, reader has a role in deciding the readability of the text. The involvement of the reader in deciding the readability of the text is a really important addition element in linguistic factors. However, every text resulted has a purpose to be read, so that automatically that text involves the readers. The readability of a text is determined by some factors. According to Richard (1985: 238) in Nababan (1999: 62), readability depends on: the average length of the sentence, the number of a new word, Sakri (1993) in Nababan (1999: 63) also suggest the same factors, some as the quotation below: Keterbacaan, antara lain, bergantung pada kosakata dan bangun kalimat yang dipilih oleh pengarang untuk tulisannya. Tulisan yang banyak mengandung kata yang tidak umum lebih sulit dipahami dari pada yang menggunakan kosakata sehari -hari, yang sudah dikenal pembaca pada umumnya. Demikian pula bangun kalimat ganda susun yang panjang dan sangat menyulitkan pembaca akan memahaminya. Kesulitan yang dimaksud disini berkait dengan isi yang sukar dicerna. Isi yang

sukar, dalam batas tertentu, dapat disajikan dengan bahasa yang sederhana sehingga uraian keterbacaan tinggi. Besides those factors, there are other factors, such as: the use of foreign word and traditional proverbs (culture word), ambiguous word and sentence, and the incomplete sentence will also cause a low readability level. Diction and sentence forms as factors which influence the readability level in more details will be explained as follows: a. Diction Diction is choice and use of words, style, or manner of speaking and writing (Hornby, 1987: 239). In this research, diction is used to emphasize the manner of writing on the text, namely: the use of new words, the use of foreign words and traditional proverbs, and ambiguous words which are related to the factors of readability. 1) The Use of New Words The use of uncommon words in daily life will cause difficulties for readers to understand those words. So, that will directly cause the low of readability level. For example words: Anggit (concept), nas (text), langgas (transitive verbs). 2) The Use of Foreign Words and Traditional Proverbs Foreign words and traditional proverbs usually cause a readability problem because they are less understandable. Foreign words such as: Hard disk, Mouse, Desktop, Digital Camera will be difficult to understand by common readers. Traditional proverb such as:

ujung, mitoni, nyewu, which are cultural events in Javanese community, also cause difficulties for the readers to understand the text. 3) Ambiguous Word When certain word which appears in certain situation support the meaning, there will be double interpretation. Ambiguity will appear if the context does not support the meaning, so that, the translator will be doubt whether the word has meaning or not. Those words are ambiguous because they have more than one meaning, or it is usually called homonym. Homonym is word that is the same in term and sound as another but different in meaning (Hornby, 1987: 409). For example: the word bank means financial institution or edge of river. b. Sentence Forms In this research, sentences forms which are related to the factors of readability are ambiguous sentences, length of sentence, complex sentence. 1) Ambiguous sentence Ambiguous sentence is a sentence which has two meaning. For example: the sentence flying planes can be dangerous. The meaning of that sentence can be: (a) The action (flying planes) is dangerous. (b) Flying planes (the planes that are flying) are dangerous.

2) Length of Sentence Generally, the longer a sentence is the more difficult to understand. A long sentence uses many more words. In order to understand the sentence, the readers have to understand the meaning of each word in that sentence and then the readers have to understand the meaning from the relation among words in the sentence. The average length of sentence refers to the average amount sentence in the text.

3) Complex Sentence Complex sentence is a sentence which has more than one idea. It will cause difficulties for the readers to understand complex sentence. According to Wardhaugh (1977: 114-115), a sentence with one main, i.e. matrix, clause and one or more subordinate, i.e. embedded clause is called a complex sentence. (a) I went when I was sent for. (b) He asked what I wanted. According to Frank (1972: 223) such sentences also have two or more full predications. One of these is an independent clause, (or, main clause) that is similar to the similar to the form of the simple

sentence, and or more of these are dependent clauses (or, subordinate clauses). (c) The man who stole the jewelry hid it in his home.

B. Translation 1. The Definition of Translation There are some definitions of translation. Brislin (1976: 1) states that translation is the general terms referring to the transfer of thought and ideas from one language (source language) to another (target language), whether language is written in oral form. Pinchuck (1977: 35) in Yuwono (2000: 1) states that translation is transferring the meaning. According to Catford (1974: 1) in Yuwono (2002: 2) translation is a process of substituting a text in one language to another language. This definition stresses the importance of linguistic theory in translation. In fact, the translation process does not only deal with linguistic theory. It usually tends to maintain the form of language of the original text. A more complete definition is stated by Basnett (1988: 2) that is what generally understood as translation involves the rendering of source language text into the target language. So as to ensure: a. The surface meaning of the two languages will be approximately similar.

b. The structures of sources language (SL) will be preserved as closely as possible, but not to closely that target language (TL) will be seriously distorted. From the definition above, the translation has the same term equivalent. The meaning, context, thought, or message of both source of reproducing in the receptor language, the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language. First in meaning and secondly in style. The message of the source language and that of receptor language must be equivalent. The readers of the translation who know the target language only will be confused if the target language is influenced by the source language. Meanwhile the result of translation must be transferring the meaning of the source language clearly. In order to make the clear meaning of source language, it is expected that the meaning of target language can be understood by the readers. So, the result of the translation must be readable. In target language, readability is needed, because it makes the readers easier to catch the content of the translation text, conversely when the translation text is not readable. It will make the readers difficult to understand the content of the text well. So translator must understand both source and target languages well. A translator must be able to differentiate between lexicon, grammatical structures and cultural context of the source language and those of the

target language because translation is not only word-for word translation, but also phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence. From many definitions above, the writer knows that translation is a process of transferring thoughts and message from source language to target language, in the form of written or oral. It is the meaning that has to be transferred, while the form or the style may change. Also, the translation text in the target language must readable. 2. The Kinds of Translation Practically, there are some kinds of translation that have their own characteristics and forms. Some kinds of translation are found because of the differences and similarities of the source language structures, different kinds of text that are going to be translated and different purpose of translation. Catford in Yuwono (2000: 4) divides translation into three kinds namely: a. Word for word translation b. Literal translation c. Free translation According to Nababan (1999: 29) in translating practice he applied some kinds of translation, because translating practice was caused by four factors namely: (1) there are differences between the source language and target language; (2) there are differences on the kinds of the text material that will be translated; (3) there is assumption that translation as a

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communication tool; (4) there is a different purpose in translation of the text. Nababan (1999: 30) in his book Teori Menerjemah Bahasa Inggris differentiates kinds of translation: word for word translation, free translation, literal translation, dynamic translation, pragmatic translation, aesthetic-poetic translation, ethnographic translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation, and semantic translation. a. Word for word translation Word for word translation is translation based on the arrangement of word from the source language into target language. In this type of translation, the translator just transfer the meaning of each word based on the word order and part of speech of the source language. This type can be used if the source language (SL) and the target language (TL) have same structure. Example: I will go to New York tomorrow. Saya akan pergi ke New York besok. (Nababan, Nababan, 1999: 30) b. Free translation Free translation is the type of translation which is not bound to the search equivalence of the word or sentence but of the paragraph rank or discourse. This type of translation emphasizes on the transfer of the source language message. A translator has a freedom to express the idea of source language into target language through her own language

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style and structure but it is better for her not to change the message of the source language. Example: Killing two birds with one stone. Sambil menyelam minum air. c. Literal translation This type of translation is located between both types above, it is started by translation word for word translation but several parts of translation change related to the grammar of the target language. Examples: His heart is in the right place. Hatinya berada ditempat yang benar. (Nababan, 1999: 33)

d. Dynamic translation Dynamic translation is called natural translation. The message of the source language is transformed and expressed by using custom expressions in target language. All of thing that is still peculiar or less natural characteristic, not only on cultural context but also on the expression of target language can be avoided. This type emphasizes on message transformation and on particular expression of target language. Example: The Author has organized this book since 1995. Penulis telah menyusun buku ini sejak 1995.

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(Nababan, 1999: 33) e. Pragmatic translation Pragmatic translation refers to the translation of message with an interest in accuracy of the information that was meant to be conveyed in a source language form. The clearest example of pragmatic translation is in the treatment of technical documents in which information about, say, repairing a machine is translated into another language. Translator would have no concern other than getting the information across in the second language. (Brislinn, 1976: 3). Example: White cross Baby Powder is soft and smoothing, it absorbs moisture and keeps baby cool and comfortable. White cross Baby Powder lembut dan halus, menyerap kelembapan, menjaga kesegaran dan kenyamanan bayi anda. From the text above, in pragmatic translation, the grammar is ignored by the translator, because the pragmatic translation must be suitable to the context. Word soft for example, not parallel with word smoothing. And there is deleted subject on translation text sentences or on target text. From the phenomenon above, a translation gives more attention on the transfer information as complete as possible. f. Aesthetic poetic translation According to Brislin (1976: 3) Aesthetic poetic translation is kind of translation in which the translator takes into the effect, emotion, and

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feeling of an original language version, the aesthetic forms (e.g. sonnet, dramatic dialogue) used by the original author, as well as any information in message. Aesthetic poetic translation is called literary translation. The clearest examples are in the translation of literature. g. Ethnographic translation Ethnographic translation purposes to explicate the cultural context of the source and second language versions. A translator has to be sensitive to the way words used (e.g. yes versus yea American English), and must know how the words fit into the cultures that use the source and target language.

h. Linguistic translation According to Casagrande (1954: 337) in Brislin (1976: 4) linguistic translation is concerned with equivalent meanings of the constituents morphemes of the second language and with grammatical form. Example: 1) Harry is willing to help 2) Harry is difficult to help The sentences of (1) and (2) above have the same surface structure. But, they have different in grammar. In the first sentence, Harry acts the activity to help on the other hand, in the second sentence, Harry is patient of the verb to help. Surface structure (1) Harry is willing to help Deep structure Harry is willing to help me

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(2) Harry is difficult to help (Nababan, 1999: 39) i. Communicative translation

Harry is difficult for one to help

In his book Approach to Translation, Newmark (1981: 26) in Nababan (1999: 40) states that translation has the function as means of communication. This is expressed on the statement as

followstranslation is basically a means of communication or a manner of addressing one or more persons in the speaker presence:. In that expression, the meaning which can be interpreted as a means of communications, the translation has the function as an instrument to convey an opinion or feeling to the people. Basically, communicative translation emphasizes transferring of message, meaning, and function of language translating. Example: Jimmy Carter was the President of the United States, have different meaning with, Jimmy Carter is the President of the United States. j. Semantic translation According to Newmark (1981: 39) in Nababan (1999: 45) this semantic translation resembles with communication translation. Semantic translation concentrates on looking for the equivalence of word only, with attached on cultural source language. The translation in this type tries to transfer the context meaning of source language as nearly as possible by syntax.

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Examples: context situation 1 Mr. Andrew Harry : You must not go out this evening. : Yes dad

Context situation 2 Mr. Andrew Harry : You must not go out this evening : Yes sir.

Both examples above show that Harry gives different responses, that is reflected from uses of the words. In dialogue 1, Harry uses word Dad, and sir dialogue 2, both of them refer to the same references, that is Mr. Andrew (Harrys father). (Nababan, 1999: 45).

3. The Process of Translation The process of translation can be defined as the activity of translation. The translation process usually is used by a translator as a guide in translating text from source language into target language. Nida (1975: 80) in Yuwono (2000: 63) illustrates the process of translation converse three steps namely analysis, transfer and restructuring. Source Language Text Receptor Language Translation

Analysis

Restructuring

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Transfer

From the diagram above, it can be seen that there is a process in translating text. First, a translator faces a written text in the source language, then tries to understand the content of the text. In addition to that point, a translator has to transfer the meaning into the target language exactly, without any change of meaning in target language. The translators last work is she has to restructure the transfer into a good language.

C. Folklore 1. The Definition of Folklore Etymologically, the folklore word is compound word which is derived from two syllabus folk and lore. Folk has the same meaning as a collective word. According to Alan Dundes, folk is a group of people who have physical, social, and cultural identity features. So that, we can differentiate it from other group. The identity features are among others: the same skin color, the same hairstyle, the same of job, the same of language, the same in educational level, and the same religion. However, the most important thing is they have a tradition, that is, culture which is

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inherited hereditary from their ancestor. There are at least two generations which can be claimed by them as a join property and they realize their identity (Dundess, 1965: 2; 1977: 17 -35; 1978: 7) in Dananjaja (1994: 1) So, folk is synonym word of collective, also it has physical identity feature or the same culture, and folk has a personal awareness as a unit society. Lore is folk tradition. It means that the parts of the culture, which are inherited by oral or by examples which are completed by movement signals or remainder tolls. So folklore is a part culture of collective, which is traditionally spread and inherited hereditary among any kinds of collective in any versions, whether in oral form or example completed by movement signals or reminder tools (Dananjaja, 1994: 2). According to Brunvand (1965: 5) in Danandjaja (1994: 2) the definition of folklore may be as those materials in culture that circulate traditionally among members of any group in versions, whether in oral or by means of customary example. In order to able to differentiate folklore from other culture, firstly the books writer has to find out the main feature of folklore, which can be formulated as follows: a. Usually, the folklore process are spreaded and inherited orally, that is, spreaded up by words from mouth to mouth in one generation to the next generations.

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b. Folklore has a traditional characteristic, that is, spreaded up in a relative constant or standard form. Folklore spread among certain collectives in a long period of time (at least in two generations). c. Folklore exists in various versions. That is, because of the spreading process orally, not by a print or record form. Because of forget fullness process of people or interpolation. Folklore is easily changed. d. Folklore has an anonym characteristic. It means that the first creator is unknown. e. Usually, folklore has a formula or pattern form. f. Folklore has a function in a collectives life. Folktale for examples: it has a function as an education tools, fun, social protest, and projections of a deep wish. g. Folklore has prelogical characteristic. It has its own logic which does not agree with general logic, for example in verbal and partly verbal folklore. h. Folklore becomes a join property in certain collectives. This is as a result from the unknown creator. i. Folklore is commonly smooth and plain so that it looks rough and spontaneous. This is because folklore is the most honest manifestations of human and it is as humans expression of emotional projection. 2. The Kinds of Folklore

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According to Jan Harold Brunvand, in Danandjaja (1994: 21-22) based on the type, folklore can be classified into three groups based on the type: a. Verbal folklore b. Party Verbal folklore c. Non Verbal folklore The explanation of the type of folklore, is as follows: a. Verbal folklore Verbal folklore is a folklore of which form is originall verbal. The y examples of verbal folklore are as follow: (1) Folk speech: dialect, nick name, traditional rank, and nobility title. (2) Traditional question: puzzle. (3) Traditional expression: proverb and pemeo. (4) Folk poem: poetry and rhyme. (5) Story of people fairy tales: myth, legend and folklore. (6) Folk song. b. Partly Verbal Folklore. Partly verbal folklore is a folklore which form is a combination of oral and non-oral elements. For examples: peoples trust which refers to superstition by modern people that can be calledmyth. It consists of a statement which has oral characteristic which is added by signals gesture.

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The form of folklore included into this group are: folks playing, folks theater, folks dance, folks ceremony, and folks party. c. Non Verbal Folklore. Non verbal folklore is a folklore which form is non-verbal, although the technique of making it is taught verbally. This can be divided into sub groups, namely: (1) Material : such as, the form of folk house, the folks architect, the folks hand made, dress, articles of the body, food and beverage, and the traditionally drugs. (2) Non material : such as, the traditional signal gesture, the sound of folk communication, and folk music.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alberta, Sr, CB.2000. The Multi Coloured Lake. Jakarta: PT. Gramedia. Bassnet, Susan. 1998. Translation Application and Research. England: Routledge and Co. Ltd. Brislin, Richard. W. 1976. Translation: Application and Research. New York: Gardener Press Inc. Danandjaja, James. 1994. Folklore Indonesia. Jakarta: P.T. Pustaka Utama Grafiti. Frank, Marcella.1972. Modern English: A Practical Reference Guide. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc. Hardjana, HP.2000. The Old Widow with a Gabus Fish. Jakarta: PT. Gramedia.

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Hornby, A.S. 1987. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English. London: Oxford University Press. Machali, Rochayah. 2000. Pedoman Bagi Penerjemah. Jakarta: PT. Gramedia. Martini, Tuty. 2005. The Readability of Translation of Text of the Legend of Banyuwangi Folklore (Thesis). Klaten: Widya Dharma University Klaten Press. Nababan, M, R. 1999. Teori Menerjemah Bahasa Inggris. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar Offset. Newmark, Peter. 1988. About Translation. London: Long Bun Press Ltd. Seliger, H, W and Shahomy, E. 1989. Second Language Research Method. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sudaryanto. 2001. Metode dan Aneka Teknik Analisis Bahasa; Pengantar Penelitian Wahana Kebudayaan secara Linguistis . Yogyakarta: Duta Wacana University Press. Sutopo, H.B. 2002. Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif; Dasar Teori dan Terapannya dalam Penelitian. Surakarta: Sebelas Maret University Press. Wardah. 1978. A Survey on the Readability Level of Indonesian Translation of Some English Novels. Malang: IKIP Malang. Wardhaugh, Ronald. 1972. Introduction to Linguistics. New York: MC Graw Hill Book Company. 49 Yuwono, Suhud, Eko. 2000. Teori Terjemahan I (BPK). Klaten: Widya Dharma University Press. _______, _________. 2000. Teori Terjemahan II (BPK). Klaten: Widya Dharma University Press.