Name Anatomy Review 1. What is the main function of the respiratory system?

To bring oxygen into the body and eliminate carbon dioxide from the body. 2. Trace the pathway of air from the outside of the body into the body. Air enters the nose through the external nares. Then the air passes through the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary bronchus, and into the lungs. 3-4. Describe the location of the visceral and parietal pleura. Visceral pleura covers the surface of the lungs. Parietal lines the mediastinum, the diaphragm, and the thoracic wall. 5. What is the function of pleural fluid? Assists in breathing movements by acting as a lubricant. 6. Trace the pathway of air from the trachea to the respiratory zone. Trachea, to primary bronchi, to secondary bronchi, to tertiary bronchi, to smaller bronchi, to bronchioles, to terminal bronchioles, to respiratory zone. 7. Describe the difference between bronchi and bronchioles in terms of smooth muscle and cartilage. Bronchi have rings of cartilage that keep them open. Bronchioles have no cartilage, but they do have smooth muscle in their walls. 8. What is the function of the smooth muscle of the bronchioles? To allow airflow regulation by altering the diameter of the bronchioles. 9. Where is the conducting zone and what is its function? The conducting zone is the airway from the nasal cavity through the terminal bronchioles. Its function is to moisten, warm, and filter the air. 10. Where are three places alveoli are found? (1) In respiratory bronchioles where they are scattered in the walls. (2) In alveolar ducts, which are completely lined by alveoli. (3) In alveolar sacs, where they are found in clusters. 11. What are the names of the blood vessels that carry blood to the lungs? The pulmonary arteries and branches of the pulmonary arteries. 12. What are the names of the blood vessels that carry blood away from the lungs? The pulmonary veins and branches of the pulmonary veins.

13. Which contain blood that is higher in oxygen, the pulmonary arteries or the pulmonary veins? The pulmonary veins. 14. Where are the pulmonary capillaries found within the lung? They surround each alveolus. 15. What three cell types are found within alveoli? (1) simple squamous epithelium, (2) alveolar macrophages, (3) surfactant-secreting cells 16. What is the function of the alveolar macrophages, or dust cells, within alveoli? They creep along the inner surface of the alveoli, removing debris and microbes. 17. What is the function of the surfactant-secreting, or Type II cells, within alveoli? They secrete surfactant. 18. What is present on the inside surface of alveoli? Alveolar fluid, which is composed of water and surfactant. 19. What would happen if there were no surfactant in alveolar fluid? The alveoli would collapse due to the surface tension of the water. 20. Why is there no interstitial fluid in between the two layers of simple squamous epithelium in the respiratory membrane? Because pulmonary blood pressure is so low that little fluid filters out of the capillaries into the interstitial space. 21. What two important gases diffuse across the respiratory membrane? In which direction does each gas flow? Oxygen gas diffuses from the alveoli to the pulmonary capillaries. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the pulmonary capillaries to the alveoli.

Control of Respiration 22. What controls the basic rhythm of breathing? Respiratory centers located in the brainstem. 23. What monitors changes in arterial PCO2, PO2 and pH? Sensory receptors called chemoreceptors. 24. Explain how the inspiratory center initiates inspiration. The inspiratory center sends nerve impulses along the phrenic nerve to the diaphragm and along the intercostal nerves to the external intercostal muscles which continue for a period of about 2 seconds. This stimulates the inspiratory muscles to contract, initiating inspiration.

25. Explain how the inspiratory center initiates expiration The inspiratory center causes the phrenic nerve to stop firing for about 3 seconds, which allows the muscles of respiration to relax. The elastic recoil of the lungs and chest wall leads to expiration. 26-35. In each of these blanks, put "increase(s)" or "decrease(s)": If the arterial PCO2 increases, there is a(an) a. __increase__ in the PCO2 in the fourth ventricle. This causes a(an) b. __increase___ in hydrogen ions in the cerebrospinal fluid, which c. _decreases_ the pH of the cerebrospinal fluid. The hydrogen ions stimulate the central chemoreceptors to d. _ increase__ their rate of firing, which e. _ increases_ the nerve impulses to the respiratory centers. This f. _ increases_ the rate of nerve impulses to the respiratory muscles, resulting in a(an) g. _ increase _ in breathing rate and depth. As a result, there is a(an) h. __ increase __ in carbon dioxide exhalation which i. _ decreases_ the blood PCO2 to normal levels. 36. Do peripheral chemoreceptors directly respond to changes in the arterial blood, venous blood, or cerebrospinal fluid? Arterial blood 37-41. In each of these blanks, put "increase(s)" or "decrease(s)": An increase in carbon dioxide levels in the arterial blood result in a(an) a. __ decrease __ in blood pH. There is a(an) b. _increase __ in the rate of firing of the peripheral chemoreceptors, which c, __ increases__ the rate of respiration. As a result there is a(an) d. __ increase__ in carbon dioxide exhalation, which drives the chemical reaction to the left and e. _decreases__ PCO2 and pH returns to normal levels. 42-50. In each of these blanks, put "increase(s)" or "decrease(s)": The peripheral chemoreceptors also respond to acids such as lactic acid, which a. _ increases _ during strenuous exercise. The lactic acid enters the blood and b. _ increases _ the concentration of hydrogen ions which c. _ decreases _ the pH which d. _ increases _ the firing rate of the peripheral chemoreceptors. There is a(an) e. __ increase_ in nerve impulses to the respiratory centers, which f. _ increases _ the breathing rate and depth. There is a(an) g. _ increases_ in carbon dioxide is exhalation which h. __ decreases __ the PCO2in blood, driving the chemical reaction to the left, and i. _ decreases _ hydrogen ion levels. 51. What is the Hering-Breuer reflex? Stretch receptors in the visceral pleura and large airways send inhibitory signals to the inspiratory center during very deep inspirations, protecting against excessive stretching of the lungs. 52. Do changes in PCO2 and PO2 play a significant role in stimulating increased ventilation due to exercise? No they do not play a significant role.

53. What are the factors that stimulate increased ventilation during exercise? Learned responses, Neural input from the motor cortex, Receptors in muscles and joints, Increased body temperature, Circulating epinephrine and norepinephrine and pH changes due to lactic acid. Pulmonary Ventilation 54. How is the volume of the thoracic cavity changed? By muscle contraction and relaxation. 55. What two muscles contract during quiet inspiration? What is the effect of their contraction? The diaphragm and the external intercostals. As a result the thoracic cavity enlarges in all dimensions. 56. What happens to pressure when we increase the volume within the thoracic cavity and the lungs? Pressure decreases. 57. Explain what happens in quiet expiration. The diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles relax, and the elastic lungs and thoracic wall recoil inward. 58. What effect does quiet expiration have on the volume of the thoracic cavity? How does this effect the pressure within the cavity? The volume is decreased and therefore the pressure increases within the thoracic cavity. 59-61. What three factors cause the intrapleural pressure to be less than intrapulmonary (alveolar) pressure? (1) The surface tension of the alveolar fluid. (2) The elasticity of the lungs. (3) The elasticity of the thoracic wall. 62. Why does a lung collapse if you cut into the pleural cavity? Because the pressure of the intrapleural cavity becomes equal to atmospheric pressure. There is no longer less pressure in the intrapleural cavity compared to within the alveoli so the lung collapses. 63. If a pneumothorax occurs in one lung, why doesn't it also occur in the other lung? Each lung has its own pleural cavity and pleural membranes so that changes in the intrapleural pressure of one lung do not affect the other lung. 64. Does histamine constrict or dilate bronchioles? Constrict

65. Does epinephrine constrict or dilate bronchioles? Dilate 66. What two factors is lung compliance dependent upon? (1) The stretchability of the elastic fibers within the lungs. (2) The surface tension within the alveoli.

Respiratory System
1. Name and describe the contributions to homeostasis made by the respiratory system's two main functions for homeostasis. - gas exchange = obtaining O2 for energy, eliminating CO2 to prevent acidosis and to regulate pH disturbances from any source. - sound production = for communication 2. Explain the need for adaptability in gas exchange. - must or gas exchange to maintain O2, CO2, and pH homeostasis as body activity or or other factors disturb O2, CO2, or pH. 3. Name and describe the three processes involved in gas exchange. (pp. 95-96) (1) ventilation (air exchange = breathing) (2) perfusion (pulmonary blood flow) (pp. 69, 102, 106) (3) diffusion (alveolar exchange of O2 and CO2) (pp. 102, 106) 4. Name and briefly describe each of the two parts of ventilation. (pp. 95, 97) - (1) inspiration is active using the diaphragm (more efficient) and or other muscles like the external intercostals (less efficient) to increase volume and decrease pressure - (2) expiration is normally passive from elastic recoil of the thorax and abdomen, but may be active using muscles (internal intercostals, abdominal) 5. Describe work of breathing and explain its significance relative to the goals of the respiratory system. - work of breathing = amount of O2 used for ventilation - usually less than 5% of total O2 brought in by the respiratory system - work of breathing consumes some of the O2 brought in by the system, leaving the remainder for use by the body - work of breathing leaves less O2 for the remainder of the body - work of breathing produces CO2, requiring that the respiratory system eliminated this CO2 as well as that produced by the rest of the body - work of breathing means more CO2 must be removed to prevent CO2 build-up

- work of breathing acts counter to the goals of the respiratory system 6. Compare and contrast the mechanisms and outcomes from quiet ventilation (quiet breathing) and forced ventilation (forced breathing). - quiet ventilation moves less air at slower rates = less minute volume than forced ventilation (See objectives above for details). - also, quiet respiration is passive, while forced expiration is active and uses more O2 and produces more CO2 7. Explain how the rate of ventilation is determined. - rate of ventilation = minute volume = volume per breath x breaths/minute 8. Name and define total lung capacity and the parts thereof plus dead space. (p. 105) - total lung capacity = tidal volume + inspiratory reserve capacity + expiratory reserve capacity + residual volume - dead space = volume in airways 9. Name and explain the importance of the five requirements for proper ventilation. - (1) open airways (p. 94), (2) defense mechanisms (pp. 99, 100), (3) proper pressure changes (p. 97), (4) compliance, (5) control systems (p. 99) 10. Name two age changes that affect each of the five requirements for proper ventilation, describe the results of these age changes on ventilation, and describe the results of these changes on (1) maximum minute volume, (2) maximum rate of gas exchange, (3) maximum rate of providing O2 and removing CO2 for body cells, and (4) work of breathing. (1) open airways (1) mucous has viscosity plus (2) cilia have number and rate of movement -> clearance -> narrower airways -> max. minute volume and work of breathing -> maximum rate of gas exchange and O2 and CO2 servicing (3) narrowing smaller airways -> maximum minute volume plus work of breathing plus residual volume ( closing volume) -> maximum rate of gas exchange and O2 and CO2 servicing (4) widening larger airways -> dead space -> stale air in lungs -> rate of diffusion -> maximum rate of gas exchange and O2 and CO2 servicing (Note that age-related TV helps compensate for residual volume (2) defense mechanisms (1) defense mechanisms (mucociliary clearance; swallow, gag, cough; ? phagocytosis?; immune function) -> risk of respiratory blockage, injury, and infection

-> risk of limited respiratory functioning (3) proper pressure changes (1) weaker muscles -> maximum minute volume (2) stiffer skeletal elements plus (3) altered chest shape and posture -> maximum pressure changes -> maximum minute volume plus work of breathing (partial compensation by diaphragmatic breathing) (4) limper lungs (altered collagen helices) -> recoil -> maximum minute volume plus work of breathing (5) shallower alveoli (p. 104)-> surface area -> surface tension -> recoil - maximum minute volume plus work of breathing - all changes-> maximum rate of gas exchange and O2 and CO2 servicing (4) compliance (1) limp collagen helices -> lung compliance (2) stiffness of all other parts overrides lung compliance -> overall respiratory stiffness -> maximum rate and amount of inspiration -> maximum minute volume and work of breathing -> maximum rate of gas exchange and O2and CO2 servicing (5) control systems (1) sensitivity of neurons (respiratory center, aorta, carotids, ?muscle and joints?) > detection of altered O2, CO2, and pH -> adaptation (2) ?decline in neuron pathways? -> reduced control (3) lung sensitivity to norepinephrine -> responsiveness (1) + (2) + (3) -> speed and degree of adaptation - more rapid dyspnea on exertion Overall results include maximum flow rate, volume/breath, maximum breathing rate (breaths/minute) -> maximum minute volume plus work of breathing -> maximum rate of useful gas exchange 11. Describe age changes in lung volumes and the effects of these changes on the ability of the respiratory system to carry out its functions. (p. 105) - decreases in TLC, IR, and ER with increases in RV and dead space (and slight increase in TV) cause decrease in maximum minute volume and decrease in efficiency due to mixing a lower amount of fresh air with a higher volume of stale air. All these changes cause decrease in rate of diffusion and therefore decrease maximum rate of activity. 12. Describe the overall effects of age changes altering ventilation on a person's ability to carry out activities of different intensities. - age changes affecting ventilation are not important during light or moderate rates of activity

13. Describe the overall effects of age changes in pulmonary vessels (perfusion) on gas exchange. - little or no effect except possibly a decline in maximum rate of perfusion and maximum rate of gas exchange 14. Name the three requirements for effective diffusion. - large, thin, moist surface area 15. Describe the two age changes in alveoli and indicate their effect on diffusion. (p. 104) - flatter (shallower) and thicker -> decline in maximum rate of diffusion 16. Name the two overall effects of age changes in the respiratory system on its ability to provide homeostasis for O2 and CO2and pH. - lower maximum rate of gas exchange plus decreased efficiency from increased work of breathing -> decline in maximum rate of work - decreased rate and amount of adaptability of respiratory system -> faster dyspnea on exertion - note: retention of adequate respiratory functioning for light or moderate activity levels 17. Describe the effects of amounts of exercise and levels of health on age changes affecting ventilation. - exercise and good health minimizes rate and degree of age changes - lack of exercise and poor health increase rate and degree of age changes 18. Describe non-biological effects from age changes in the respiratory system related to biological age changes in respiration. - select specific examples of social, psychological, and economic effects and interactions with biological and the other types of effects 19. Name several types of air pollution and explain why reducing exposure to air pollution is important. - smoking, occupational air pollution (fibers, coal, sawdust, asbestos, exhaust fumes, solvent fumes), urban air pollution, farm air pollution - air pollution increases the adverse effects of aging on respiration, leading to decreased maximum speed and endurance, disability, disease, and death

20. Name four reasons for the increased incidence and severity of respiratory system diseases as age increases. - (1) increased risk and incidences of exposure to factors, (2) increased duration of exposure to factors, (3) lowered body defenses, (4) more time for slow diseases to develop 21. Name ways (one for each) that lung cancer reduces each of the three processes in respiration (ventilation, perfusion, and diffusion). - ventilation; narrower airways, pressure on lungs, fill alveoli - perfusion; distorts, compresses, and reduces blood vessels (hemorrhaging) - diffusion; thickens alveolar walls, replaces alveolar walls 22. For either chronic bronchitis, emphysema or pneumonia, explain three ways that the one you choose reduces respiratory functioning. - chronic bronchitis: produces mucous (narrows airways), cilia and ciliary action ( clearance and risk of infection), swelling of airways (narrowness -> ventilation, especially expiration), coughing ( work of breathing) - CLE -> collapsing airways -> residual air and work of breathing and blood vessels -> perfusion (and CHF) - PLE -> elimination of alveoli -> ventilation ( elasticity and surface tension and residual air) and work of breathing, perfusion ( blood vessels and CHF, diffusion ( surface area) - pneumonia; bacterial -> filled airways and possible death of lung tissue: viral -> thicker respiratory membranes: fungi andTB -> death of lung tissue: Dusts and vapors -> pulmonary fibrosis -> lung stiffness (and vessels and thicker respiratory membranes) - blebs -> pneumothorax -> decrease inspiration -> decreased ventilation 23. Describe non-biological effects from age changes in the respiratory system related to diseases of the respiratory system. - select specific examples of social, psychological, and economic effects and interactions with biological and the other types of effects 24. List four adverse effects from smoking including three from outside the respiratory system. - free radical formation; decreasing antioxidants; amplifies age changes and incidences of diseases in skin; increases risks of high blood pressure, blood clots, and atherosclerosis; increases incidence of cataracts; increases risks of osteoporosis; increases risk of diabetes mellitus; decreases immune system functioning; increases risk of many cancers. 25. Name two adverse effects either from snoring or from age changes in vocalization.

- snoring: (1) blood pressure, (2) O2 and CO2, (3) overworks heart, (4) disrupts sleep, (5) disturbs others, (6) social, psychological, and economic side effect -vocalization: (1) control of volume and pitch, (2) control of word formation -> difficulty being understood, (3) volume; all changes -> social and psychological impact.