MANUAL O F LUMBER- AND PLYWOOD-SAVING TECHNIQUES FOR RESIDENTIAL LIGHT-FRAME CONSTRUCTION

This Manual is based on research conducted for Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Assistant Secretary for Research and Technology, under Contract No. H-1081, and extensive changes

and additions sponsored by the NAHB

Research Foundation, Inc., occasioned by revisions in the American Softwood Lumber Standard sizes, allowable stresses, and grade and species designations.

NAHB Research Foundation, Inc.

Rockville, Maryland June1971

CONTENTS
FOREWORD

...........................................................

1.
2.
2.1 2.1 .1 2.1.2 2.2 2.3
2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.1 1 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.15.1 2.15.2

INTRODUCTION

.........................................................
3 3

FLOORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Planned Material Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E ngi neer ing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Band Joist Used as Lintel or Header . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reduce Size or Eliminate Band Joists, Sill Plates, Bottom Wall Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . In-line Floor Joist System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eliminate Bridging Between Floor Joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Economical Spacing of Floor Joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cantilever Floor Joist Over Center Support ................................ Floor Joist Cantilevered Over Exterior Walls ............................... Eliminate Solid Blocking Between Joists Over Center Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wood Girder Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eliminate Wood Sill Plates on Top of Steel Girders ......................... Single-Layer Plywood Flooring ........................................... Select Minimum Thickness Plywood Adequate for Subflooring . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plywood Glued to Floor Joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Single-Layer Hardwood Strip Flooring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Apply Hardwood Strip Flooring-Dry-Weather Method .................... Apply Hardwood Strip Flooring- Wet-Weather Method ....................

3 3

6 10 15 15 17 18 18 18 18 19 22 24 26 26 26 29 29 29 29
30 30 30 30 32 32 33

3.
3.1 3.1 .1 3.1.2 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.7
3.7.1
3.7.2

3.8

EXTERIOR WALLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Planned Material Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Engineering Design ..................................................... Space Exterior Wall Studs 24 Inches on Center in One-Story Houses and Top Story of Multi-Story Homes .................... Eliminate Mid-Height Exterior Wall Blocking .............................. Door and Window Framing in Non-Load-Bearing Exterior Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . Door and Window Framing in Load-Bearing Exterior Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lintel and Header Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lintel and Header Designs for Roof, Wall, and Floor Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lintel and Header Designs for Floor Loads Only ........................... Nailed and Nail-Glued Plywood Headers for Exterior Wall Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nailed Plywood Headers for Rough Opening Widths Nominally 4 Feet or Less ................................................ Nail-Glued Plywood Headers for Rough Opening Widths Between 4 and Nominal 6 Feet ........................................... Eliminate or Use Minimum-Cost Exterior Wall Sheathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33
33

33 33

Page
3.9 3.10 3.1 1 3.12 Minimum Thickness Plywood Siding and Sheathing ........................ Reduce Lap for Wood Shingles and Horizontal Wood Siding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eliminate Back-up Stud at Exterior Wall Corners ........................... Minimize Size and Amount of Furring Strips on Concrete Block Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 38 38 40 43 43 43 43 43 44 46 46

4.
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7

INTERIOR PARTITIONS A N D CEILINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reduce Amount of Closet Door Framing .................................. Eliminate Mid-Height Interior Wall Blocking .............................. Space 2x3 Interior Wall Studs 24 Incheso.c. ............................... Use Nominal 2x2's for Closet Wall Framing ................................ Eliminate Studs Used for Interior Wall and Ceiling Facing Back-up Blocking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eliminate 2x3 and 2x4 Bulkhead Framing ..................................

5.
5.1 5.1 1 5.1.2 5.2

5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6

ROOFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Planned Materials Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Engineering Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eliminate Wood Blocking Between Trusses Used for Plywood Sheathing Edge Blocking ........................................ Eliminate Wood Sill Plates on Top of Masonry Block Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Minimum Thickness Plywood Roof Sheathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Closed Soffit and Gable Overhangs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Open Soffit and Gable Overhangs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TRIM .................................................................... General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use Fewer Pieces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use Smaller Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eliminate Unnecessary Trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Substitute Lower-Cost Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use a Trim Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Training Employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Materials Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Purchasing Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51 51 51 51
51 52 54 54 54

6.
6.1 6.1 .1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4 6.1.5

57 57 57 57 57 57 57 59 59 59 60 60

7.
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4

APPENDIXES
2.1 Uplift resistance per anchor in pounds required for exterior walls Maximum allowable floor joist spans-40 Maximum allowable floor joist spans-30
Maximum allowable floor joist spans-40

2.2
2.3

2.4
2.5 2.6

Maximum allowable floor joist spans-30

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 psf, single span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 psf, single span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . 64 psf, two span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 psf, two span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Maximum span, girders supporting one-story floor loads, allowable bending stress not less than 1000 psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Maximum span, girders supporting one-story floor loads, allowable bending stress not less than 1500 psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maximum span, girders supporting two-story floor loads, allowable bending stress not less than 1000 psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maximum span, girders supporting two-story floor loads, allowable bending stress not less than 1500 psi . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grades, thicknesses, and fastening details for single-layer plywood flooring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maximum clear spans for glued plywood floor systems-1/2 plywood, joists spaced 16 O.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . , . . Maximum clear spans for glued plywood floor systems- 5/8 plywood, joists spaced 16 O.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.7
2.8

68
69 70 71 72

2.9
2.10 2.11
2.12 2.13

73

Maximum clear spans for glued plywood floor systems- 3/4 plywood, joists spaced 16 O.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Maximum clear spans for glued plywood floor systems- 5/8 plywood, joists spaced 19.2 O.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Maximum clear spans for glued plywood floor systems- 3/4 plywood, joists spaced 19.2 O.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.14 2.15
2.16 3.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
77

Maximum clear spans for glued plywood floor systems- 3/4 plywood, joists spaced 24 O.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maximum span, lintels and headers over exterior wall openings, roof loads only, minimum bending stress 1000 psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maximum span, lintels and headers over exterior wall openings, roof-ceiling loads, minimum bending stress 1500 psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78
79

3.2

.... . .. . . ..

3.3

Maximum span, lintels and headers over exterior wall openings, roof-ceiling one-story floor-wall loads, minimum bending stress 1000 psi .............................................................

80

3.4

Maximum span, lintels and headers over exterior wall openings, roof-ceiling one-story floor-wall loads, minimum bending stress 1500 psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .. . . ... ... .
81

3.5

Maximum span, lintels and headers over exterior wall openings, roof-ceiling two-story floor-wall loads, minimum bending stress1000 psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

82

3.6

Maximum span, lintels and headers over exterior wall openings, roof-ceiling two-story floor-wall loads, minimum bending stress1500 psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

3.7 3.8 3.9

3.10

Maximum span, lintels and headers over exterior wall openings, one floor load, minimum bending stress 1000 psi.. ............................ Maximum span, lintels and headers over exterior wall openings, one floor load, minimum bending stress 1500 psi .......................... Maximum span, lintels and headers over exterior wall openings, two floors one wall load, minimum bending stress 1000 psi . . . . . . . .

84

85
86 87
88

+ +

..

.......

Maximum span, lintels and headers over exterior wall openings, one wall load, minimum bending stress 1500 psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . two floors Uplift resistance per anchor in pounds required for roofs

5.1

.....................

FOREWORD
The Department of Housing and Urban Development i s continually seeking ways to increase housing production and lower costs to better house the people of our Nation. The sharp rise in lumber prices early in 1969 led the President to appoint a Task Force to study lumber supply, demand, and price problems. That Task Force requested the Department to define and develop methods of using our Nations timber resources more efficiently in the production of housing. The Department of Housing and Urban Development continued and initiated a number of programs to conserve lumber and plywood including funding a study with the NAHB Research Foundation, Inc., that identified many techniques for saving lumber and plywood in the production of cost- and value-effective housing. The techniques identified in that study plus revisions and additions developed by the Foundation are contained in this Manual. The widespread use of these techniques would result in more effective use of lumber and plywood. However, as the amount of lumber and plywood used in housing is reduced, continued and increased care in workmanship and quality control i s necessary to assure that housing quality and livability continues to be as high as is needed and desired by our people. Some of the techniques contained in this Manual may differ from local building codes. In those instances, we encourage local authorities to give them careful consideration as a means to conserve the Nations timber resources, to increase housing production, and to reduce housing costs s o that more of the Nations families will be better housed. The techniques presented in this Manual are acceptable for use in housing having HUD FHA Mortgage Insurance.

MANUAL OF

lumber & Plywood

Saving Techniques
FOR RESIDENTIAL LIGHT- FRAME CONSTRUCTION

I. INTRODUCTION
Improved utilization of lumber and plywood i s essential to build housing needed to meet the national housing goal. In 1968 and 1969, the prices of lumber and softwood plywood greatly increased. As a result, the President appointed a Cabinetlevel task force to study both short- and long-range aspects of the lumber supply and price problems. The Presidents task force looked to the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) to find ways of utilizing lumber and plywood more efficiently in housing. HUD contracted with the NAHB Research Foundation, Inc., to conduct studies to identify techniques of constructing safe, durable, light-frame dwellings that would improve utilization and reduce waste of lumber and plywood. These studies were completed and submitted to HUD in November 1969. In the Fall of 1970, the American Softwood Lumber Standard sizes, allowable stresses, and grade and species

designations were extensively revised. This Manual is based on the original study conducted for HUD, but it incorporates extensive changes and additions, sponsored by the NAHB Research Foundation, Inc., which were necessary due to the revisions to the American Softwood Lumber Standard. The Manual is intended for use by code officials, building inspectors, builders, subcontractors, and others concerned with safe and cost-effective use of lumber and plywood. The scope of this study i s limited to construction techniques and methods that are generally acceptable without requiring extensive engineering analysis or structural testing. The techniques shown are intended to be compatible with light-frame construction. Only limited attention i s given to use of substitute or alternate materials. The techniques presented here are practical and suitable for use in constructing good quality, safe dwellings. Use of these

methods presumes adherence to good quality control and sound building practices. While no new labor skills are required to use these techniques, continuing attention to workmanship is needed to assure that housing quality i s not dimin-

ished.
All of the techniques and ideas for more
efficient lumber and plywood utilization are based on sound engineering practice. As always, engineered techniques should be applied with good judgment. Some of these techniques may not be applicable to unusual dwelling designs or under unusual load conditions without professional engineering review. Most of the lumber and plywood savings shown are in floors and walls. The majority of dwellings built today use roof truss systems, and these highly-engineered designs utilize lumber and plywood efficient-

ly. However, a few material savings ideas for roofs are identified. It i s estimated that the application of techniques included in this Manual could result in savings of over 1.5 billion board feet of lumber and more than 600 million square feet of plywood per year, assuming a total production rate o 1.5 million dwelf ling units per year. Use of these techniques could result in cost reductions of material and labor estimated to be several hundred dollars per dwelling unit. The NAHB Research Foundation, Inc., gratefully acknowledges the scientific advice and assistance provided by Harold B. Finger, Assistant Secretary, Research and Technology, HUD, and his staff; and the Architectural Standards Division of FHA. We wish to acknowledge also the cooperation and assistance provided by the American Plywood Association and the National Forest Products Association.

2. FLOORS
2.1 General

The following principles provide concepts that should help reduce the amount of lumber and plywood used in floors.
2.1.1 Planned Material Use Drawings showing size, grade, or quality, and location of all floor components should be prepared before construction begins. Floor dimensions should be modular as described in both UNICOM Manuals published by the National Forest Products Association. It i s preferable to use a 48-inch (major) module for the out-to-out floor dimension because this will require no cutting of the floor sheathing to fit the house width (depth). If a 48-inch modular width house cannot be used, it i s preferable to use a 24-inch (minor) module. Then, one row of sheathing will be 2 feet wide requiring cutting 4-foot-wide sheets in half, thus generating little or no waste. When purchasing T&G plywood, specify a face width of 48 inches. This is necessary to keep on the module line because some plywood i s tongue and grooved from the 48-inch original panel which makes the net face width 47-5/8 inches. This is not compatible with modular dimensioning and would cause much scrap and waste as well as extra labor for measuring and cutting. Floor joists should be placed in-line as shown in Figure 2.8 of this Manual and as shown in UNICOM. Joists are usually located on multiples of 4-inch increments, that is, 12, 16, or 24 inches or 8, 6, or 4 spaces in 8 feet. However, two other modular spacings of joists may be used to make more efficient use of joist lumber without creating planning problems, undue changes in (plywood) labor content or large amounts of scrap material. They are

13.7 inches 03-23/32) and 19.2 inches (1913/64) or seven and five spaces in 8 feet. Refer to Section 2.6 and Figure 2.10. If possible, floor openings for stair wells or mechanical systems should coincide with modular spacing of joists. Sometimes double joists are required under partition walls that are parallel to the joists. Location of partitions on or near the floor framing module will position them directly over or adjacent to a joist. Then, if a doubled joist i s required, it i s necessary to add only one joist. For partitions resting between joists, two additional joists would have been required by some codes. After floor drawings are completed, a materials schedule should be prepared listing exact quantities required and complete descriptions of the necessary sizes and qualities or grades. Checks should be made to prevent oversize or higher quality material than required from being ordered and to see if any material can be eliminated or if a lower cost material can be substituted. Ideas presented in this Manual may serveasaguide.
2.1.2 Engineering Design Engineering design of the floor system provides the maximum opportunity for material saving in most dwellings. joists, girders, and floor sheathing should be selected on the basis of calculations or from tables based on appropriate design conditions. There are so many variables in dwelling style, design loads, material grades and dimensions that it is not feasible to provide tables for all conditions. Appendixes 2.2 through 2.5 present allowable joist spans for most dwelling designs and for a wide range of lumber grades and species. Select joist size, grade, and spacing to minimize the quantity of lumber and plywood used. This also will usually be the cost-effective solution.

The above-mentioned appendix tables are taken from the publication, Span Tables for Joists and Rafters, recommended by the National Forest Products Association, and dated October 1970. The spans are based on surfaced (S4S) lumber having dimensions which conform to the American Softwood Lumber Standard, PS 20-70. These sizes are as follows: Nominal Reference 2x4 2x6 2x8 2x10 2x12 Dressed Size (inches) Surfaced Dry Surfaced Green 1-9/16 x 3-9/16 1-1/2 x 3-1/2 1-9/16 x 5-5/8 1-1/2 x 5-1/2 1-9/16 x 7-1/2 1-1/2 x 7-1/4 1-9/16 x 9-1/2 1-1/2 x 9-1/4 1-1/2 x 11-1/4 1-9/16 x 11-1/2

signed to the species and grades of lumber

by the grading rules-writing agencies are

determined either on the basis of ASTM Designation D245-69, Methods for Establishing Structural Grades for Visually Graded Lumber or on application of machine stress rating (MSR). Allowable unit stresses in bending (Fb), determined in accordance with the provisions of ASTM D245-69, are increased 15 percent for repetitive-member use which i s that condition where framing members such as joists, rafters, studs, planks, decking, or similar members are spaced not more than 24 inches, are not less than three in number, and are joined by floor, roof, or other load-distributing elements adequate to support the design load. As an example of use of the tables for joist design, refer to Appendix 2.2: Note that for an E of 1.7, 2x8s spaced 16 inches on center have an allowable clear span of 13-1 and require a grade and species of lumber having an allowable fiber stress in bending of 1310 psi or more. Reference to Table w-1 of Working Stresses for Joists and Rafters indicates that a No. 2, 2x8 Douglas Fir-Larch joist surfaced dry O surfaced green (19-Percent r maximum moisture content in use) has a n E of 1,700,000 psi and an allowable unit stress in bending (Normal Duration) of 1450 psi. Since the required Fb i s below 1450 psi (1310 psi), this grade and species i s satisfactory for the 13-1 span.

Applicable design criteria for each condition of use appear at the top of each table. Generally these criteria (and spans) are recognized by the Federal Housing Administration, Department of Housing and Urban Development, and the model building code organizations. The allowable span i s the clear distance between supports. Use of the span tables requires reference to allowable fiber stress in bending (Fb) for the span. This i s given in the table directly below the span. The allowable stresses for each grade and species of lumber are contained in Tables w-1 and W-2 of the publication, Working Stresses for Joists and Rafters, recommended by the National Forest Products Association, dated October 1970. This publication and the one mentioned above can be obtained from NFPA*. The maximum modulus of elasticity (E) and fiber bending stress (Fb) values as-

2.2 Band Joist Used as Lintel or Header

A band joist over openings in walls (see Figure 2.1) acts as a beam over the openings. Usually, lintels or headers are placed over wall openings to transfer the floor and roof loads to the foundation wall. Such lintels or headers, however, can be eliminated if a band joist of proper size and design i s selected to span the opening.

*National Forest Products Association, 1619 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036.

Either a single or double band joist can be selected from Lintel and Header Design Appendixes 3.1 through 3.10. For example, assume that a basement foundation wall of a 28-foot-wide, onestory house has a 2-foot opening. From Appendix 3.3 for a 28-foot-wide, onestory house, it can be found that a 2x10 with allowable bending stress of 1000f would be adequate (2-2) for this span. A No. 2 grade 2x10 band joist will serve satisfactorily as a lintel or header for this example. See Appendix 3.3 for other suitable grades and species. Detail A of Figure 2.1 shows a plan view of the nailing pattern for the intersection of the I x band joist, the 2x band joist, and the 2x floor joist. Read 3.6 on lintel and header designs before using the Lintel and Header Design Appendixes 3.1 through 3.10.
2.3 Reduce Size or Eliminate Band Joists, Sill Plates, Bottom Wall Plates The size sill plate used on top of masonry block or cast-in-place concrete walls has traditionally been a 2x4, 2x6, or a 2x8. In most cases, the sill plates either could be eliminated or be a 1x4 and provide adequate bearing. An alternate condition i s to position the sill plate with the inside edge flush with the interior face of the foundation wall. This decreases the design span of the joist and in some cases will allow using a smaller size joist. Use appropriate sheathing or siding details, sill sealer, insulation or caulking to prevent entry of wind, rain, dust, or snow when sill plate i s recessed back from outside edge of foundation wall. When a joist rests on top of a hollowcore masonry block wall, as shown in Detail A, Figure 2.2, a 1x4 sill plate i s required to provide adequate bearing on the cross webs and face shells of the block.

When a joist bears directly on the cross web or on cores that have been filled with grout, mortar, or pea gravel concrete, the sill plate can be completely eliminated (see Detail B, Figure 2.2). When the top course is solid block or the wall i s cast-in-place concrete, no sill plate i s required. When a joist bears directly on the top of the wall, the clear span i s reduced. Reducing the span may reduce the joist size required. A band joist used at the ends of floor joists that rest on exterior walls traditionall y has been the same thickness as the floor joist. The band joist can be nominal I-inch (see Figure 2.2) rather than 2-inch-thick lumber and still perform i t s function properly, except where the band joist serves as a lintel or header over openings (see 2.2). The band joist helps to transmit stud loads on the bottom exterior wall plate to the foundation. When the roof live loads are in the order of 20 psf and combination siding/sheathing i s used, the band joist can be eliminated completely when not required for edge support of subfloor such as diagonal boards (see Detail A, Figure 2.3). Where roof loads are light, the band joist can be eliminated as shown in Figure 2.3, Detail A, for hollow-core foundations, and the band joist plus the 1x4 sill can be eliminated as shown in Detail B when the joist has solid bearing. Several combinations of framing are possible that take advantage of the above concepts. When single-layer combination sheathing/siding as shown in Figure 2.4 may be used, Detail A or B can be used depending on length of plywood sheet (4x8 or 4x9). Detail A shows how a 4x8foot sheet can be held below a roof overhang with level soffit return, also refer to Section 3.8, while Detail B shows a 4x9foot sheet running to the wall top. When using Detail A provide anchorage, as necessary, of top plate to top of wall studs. In

each detail, a 2x4 sill plate and a one-inch thick band joist would be acceptable when the foundation is core block. Ifthe foundation wall i s solid block, cast-in-place concrete, or has hollow-core masonry block
with cores filled with concrete under the joist, the 1x4 sill plate and band joist can be eliminated as illustrated in Detail C. In the case of horizontal lap siding, the band joist can be eliminated on hollowcore block as shown in Figure 2.5, Detail A. Both the band joist and sill plate can be eliminated (see Detail B) when the joist rests on solid block, cast-in-place conCrete, or core-filled block. In another case, the horizontal siding as shown in Figure 2.6 extends over the band joist. Detail A shows use of a one-inch thick band joist and a 1x4 sill plate on hollow-core block. Detail B shows the same condition except that joist rests on solid block, cast-in-place concrete, or core-filled block which allows elimination of the sill plate and band joist. If the exterior load-bearing wall stud spacing i s the same as the floor joist spacing and the studs fall directly over the joist, it i s possible to reduce the bottom plate size from a 2x4 to a 1x4 (see Figure 2.7).

joists are lapped, can be eliminated, for

such double joists serve only as band joist fillers in cases where joists are lapped. Some lumber yards supply preassembled in-line joists (see Figure 2.8, Detail B). They are made up in lengths equal to the widths of the house. Preassembled in-line joists can be positioned much faster than lapped joists resulting in substantial labor savings. The availability of structural end-jointed lumber i s another concept making in-line joists feasible. End-jointed lumber i s produced in a variety of practical lengths. Such lumber i s manufactured by gluing shorter lengths together to make longer lengths. This has to be done under a controlled manufacturing process in accordance with standards covering machining and gluing structural joints. When this i s the case, a single, continuous piece of lumber can span the entire house width with bearing points a t the ends and intermediate locations as required by the design. Structural end-jointed lumber should conform to requirements set forth in the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development publication FHA Use of Materials Bulletin No. U M 51, dated November 18,1969. Appendixes 2.4 and 2.5 present allowable spans for joists continuous over a central support, that is two-span conditions. The tables show the allowable (single) clear span by joist size, spacing, and E. The number given below the span refers to the required allowable fiber bending stress (Fb) of the joist. Continuity over the center support increases floor stiffness significantly when all other variables are held constant or al-

2.4 In-line Floor Joist System Floor joists positioned in-line (see Figure 2.8 Detail A) facilitate modular floor sheathing application. When holding floor sheathing to i t s 4- by 8-foot modular dimension less cutting and waste are involved and application i s much faster. Research* has shown that joints in adjacent 4- by 8-foot plywood panels can occur over the same joist. Staggering of these joints i s unnecessary. By keeping floor sheathing modular and joist at the floor joists in-line, the ends of the house, traditionally used when

double

*Plywood Roof Sheathing Study, A Structural Comparison of Staggered versus Non-Staggered Butt joints, NAHB Research Foundation, Inc., November 1965.

lows the span to be increased substantially for the same size joist, However, this also requires a considerably higher allowable fiber bending stress.
2.5 Eliminate Bridging Between Floor Joists Cross bridging is unnecessary and not required between floor joists to obtain satisfactory structural performance (see Figure 2.9).* Flooring and subflooring a t tached to the joist perform the functions formerly attributed to bridging. Bridging can be eliminated between wood floor joists with nominal depths to width ratios up to and including 6 (2x12s).

*Bridging in Residential Floor Construction. NAHB, November 1965.

2.6 Economical Spacing o Floor Joists f Traditionally, floor joists have been spaced either 16 or 24 inches on center because these provide an even number of spaces with 8-foot floor sheathing lengths, Figure 2.10 illustrates three other joist spacings that are modular in 8 feet: 8 spaces @ 12 inches; 7 spaces @ 13.7 inches (1323/32); and 5 spaces @ 19.2 inches (1913/64). These may be more economical joist spaces than either 16 or 24 inches. For example, use of 12- or 13.7-inch spacing may avoid the need to increase joist depth and be both cost and material use effective. Or, in another example, use of 2x10s instead of 2x8s increases material use 25 percent, but using 2x8s @ 13.7 inches instead of 16 inches on center only increases material use 16.7 percent and that

may produce sufficient additional structural advantage. Likewise, a given size floor joist that i s either insufficiently strong or s t i f f enough for a spacing of 24 inches might be satisfactory on a spacing of 19-13/64 inches. Similarly, if joists spaced 16 inches on center would be strong and stiff enough for a 19-13/64-inch spacing, it would be more economical to use the wider spacing. The 19.2-inch spacing also reduces joist labor material handling and plywood fastening time. Since 518-inch-thick plywood i s frequently used with joists 16 inches on center, the 19.2-inch spacing has another a d vantage in that 5/8-inch Douglas Fir or Southern Pine plywood may be used on joist spacings of 20 inches. Engineering design allows selection of the smallest size joist for each spacing that i s just large enough to meet structural requirements. Appendixes 2.2 through 2.5 present numerous joist spans by size, spacing, modulus of elasticity, E, and fiber bending stress, Fb. Comparing total costs, including joist support system and floor sheathing, for several available joist sizes, spacings, and grades will enable selection of the lowest cost floor system. This will usually represent the most efficient use of lumber and plywood, but this depends on local price differences among the various sizes, grades, and species.

spans.) This essentially provides structural continuity over the center support of the two spans and results either in a stiffer floor for the same span or affords an opportunity to reduce lumber use or increase the span. This i s feasible because under the normal design conditions of an equal uniform load in both spans the bending moment in a two-span joist, continuous over the center support i s zero several feet (in most house depths) from the center support. This facilitates use of a structural end joint having lesser momentcarrying capacity than the joist itself. The use of this method requires engineering calculations for each specific set of conditions. The American Plywood Association, Tacoma, Washington, and the Timber Engineering Company, Washington, D.C., will supply design tables they have prepared far floor joist systems cantilevered over the center support. Cantilevered in-line floor joists have all the advantages of in-line joists described in Section 2.4. In addition, a smaller joist often can be used. Depending on the strength and stiffness properties of the lumber, it may be possible, using a cantilevered floor joist, to select a lower cost grade of lumber (of the same size) that will span the same distance as the higher grade required for the single-span condition. The use of single-piece structural endjointed lumber as an alternate for cantilevered floor joists might be considered as another cost-effective design (see Section 2.4). For lumber having approximately the same allowable fiber-bending stress, the span may be increased about a foot, with 2x8s 16 inches on center, when the joist is continuous over the center support. This means the house depth may be increased about 2 feet without changing joist size,

2.7 Cantilever Floor Joists Over Center

Support In a 28-foot-depth home with a center support for the floor joists, use of a 10foot and an 18-foot joist, end joined to be 28 feet long, would provide a nominal 4foot cantilever of the joist joint over the center support. (Thus, the joint occurs nearthe point of zero moment with the design condition of uniform load in both

grade, or spacing. For example, No. 1 Hem-Fir (surfaced dry or surfaced green) has an E of 1,500,000 psi and an Fb of 1400 psi. Referring to Appendix Table 2.2 shows that 2x8s 16 inches on center may be used on a clear span of 12-7 providing the Fb i s 1200 psi or more. Assuming typical use of three 3.5-inch-wide plates (at sill and center bearing), this joist could be used on a 26-foot-depth home. However, for the same joist with continuity over the center support the allowable span i s 13-8 with an Fb of 1418 psi. This i s sufficiently close to 1400 psi to be within the limits of safe practice. Thus, use of the continuous or cantilevered joist (over the center support) engineered design example above enables use of 2x8s instead of 2x10s.
2.8 Floor Joist Cantilevered Over Exterior Walls
Some house types have the upper story walls bearing on floor joists that cantilever over the walls of the story or foundation below. When this design is employed, it may be possible to use a smaller floor joist for the upper story span. A set of structural engineering calculations should be made to determine the minimum size and grade of joist suitable for the design. In many cases, such engineering design calculations will indicate that the next lower size joist may be used or that the depth of the upper story may be increased, usually 2 feet or more, without increasing the joist size.

shows a method of using 1x2 wood strips nailed to the bottom o the wood joist f on each side of the center beam that accomplishes the same function but uses less lumber. If a ceiling is placed on the under side of the joist, then neither the solid blocking nor 1x2 strips i s required.
2.10 Wood Girder Designs Selection of wood girders that support floor joists near the center of the house should be based on structural engineering designs. Appendixes 2.6 through 2.9 on girder designs have been prepared for one- and two-story houses of varying depths where trusses transfer the roof loads to the outer walls. The girder, therefore, carries only floor loads. M a n y codes specify larger girders than are necessary for center floor joists supports because it would require extensive tables and calculations to provide information necessary to cover the many cases involved. Appendixes

2.6 through 2.9 provide a wide choice of girder designs. The allowable girder span S shown may also be used for designs where the girder i s supported by two or more columns.

2.9 Eliminate Solid Blocking Between Joists Over Center Support Some building codes require solid blocking between floor joists over the center bearing support. According to some, blocking is required to keep the bottom of the joist from moving laterally. Figure 2.11

2.11 EliminateWood Sill Plates On Top of Steel Girders Many building codes require that a 2x4 or 2x6 continuous wood nailer be placed on top of steel beams used to support floor joists near the center of the house. This continuous wood nailer can be eliminated since the floor joist can be held down by nails driven directly into the bottom of the floor joist and clinched to the steel beam flange as shown in Detail A, Figure 2.12. In-line joists may be temporarily aligned over center support by toenailing butt ends with a I6d nail.

2.13 Select Minimum Thickness Plywood Adequate for Subflooring When conventional plywood subflooring is used (see Figure 2.14), then the minimum thickness plywood subflooring should be selected from the table below. SinglePanel Ident if icat ion Index (1), (2), (3),and (4)

layer plywood floors are described in 2.12, and single-layer hardwood strip floors, in 2.15. All plywood to conform to requirements contained in U. s. Department of Commerce Product Standard, PS 1-66.

Plywood Thickness (inches)

Maximum Span (5) (inches)

Common Nail Size & Ty pe

Nail Spacing (inches) Panel InterEdges mediate 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

IO 10 IO 10 10 6 6

30/12 32/16 36/16 42/20 48/24 1-1/8 Groups 1 & 2 1-1/4Groups 3 & 4

5/8 1 /2 3/4 5/8 3/4 1-1/8 1-1 /4

12 (6) 16 (7) 16 (7) 20 (7) 24 48 48

8d 8d (8) 8d 8d
8d

10d (9)
10d (9)

Notes: (1)These values apply for Structural I and II. Standard sheathing and C-C exterior grades only. (2) Identification Index appears on all panels except 1-1/8 and 1-1/4 panels. (3) In some non-residential buildings, special conditions may impose heavy concentrated loads and heavy traffic requiring subfloor constructions in excess of these minimums. (4) Edges shall be tongue and groved or supported with blocking for square edge wood flooring, unless separate underlayment layer (1/4 minimum

thickness) i s installed. (5) Spans limited to values shown because of possible effect of concentrated loads. A t indicated maximum spans, floor panels carrying Identification Index numbers will support uniform loads of more than 100 psf. (6) M a y be 16 if 25/32 wood strip flooring i s installed at right angles to joists. (7) M a y be 24 if 25/32 wood strip flooring is installed at right angles to joists. (8) 6d common nail permitted if plywood i s 1/2. (9) 8d deformed shank nails may be used.

Plywood Grades and Species Group (1) (7) Groups 1,2,3,4 Underlayment-Interior, Underlayment-Interior (with Exterior glue) or Underlayment-Exterior (C-C Plugged) Same Grades as above, but Group 1 Only

Minimum Plywood Thickness

1/4 (2)

Fastener Size (approx.) Fastener Spacing (inches) and Type Panel InterEdges mediate (set nails 1/16) (5) 18 Ga. Staples (6) or 3d ring-shank nails 16 Ga. Staples (6) 3 3 6 6 each way 6 each way 8 each way 6 each way

3/8 (3)

3d ring-shan k nails 18 Ga. Staples (6) or 3d ring-shank nails

1/4 (4)

effect of gluing together the butt or T&G edges of the plywood sheets. Research on this added effect, sponsored by the Research and Technology Office of HUD, has been undertaken by the NAHB Research Foundation, Inc. Longer spans are possible with a given size floor joist when plywood i s glued to the joist. Thus, floor joist framing lumber may be reduced for some spans when glued construction i s used. Nail gluing of the floor sheathing to the joists also improves quality by reducing floor squeaking and increasing floor stiffness. The American Plywood Association Laboratory Report 118, "Field-Glued Plywood Floor Test," contains a design example for field-glued plywood floors that indicates how floors can be designed using this concept

This method should be used in areas where and when there is little chance of precipitation or heavy fog and when it i s possible to erect rapidly exterior and interior bearing walls, roof trusses, and dry-in the roof with building paper.
2.15.2 Apply Hardwood Strip FlooringWet-Weather Method If rain, snow, or heavy fog i s likely, erect exterior and interior bearing walls, complete the roof framing and dry-in the roof with building paper before laying hardwood strip flooring. Before erecting walls, place a filler block of hardwood strip flooring on top of the floor and band joists as shown in detail A and B of Figure 2.17. Then erect the exterior walls, load-bearing partitions, and roof. Place building paper over the roof to keep flooring dry. Install floor as follows: Strip flooring that runs parallel to the exterior wall can be installed as shown in Detail A of Figure 2.17. Strip flooring running perpendicular to the exterior wall can be installed as shown in Detail B of Figure 2.17. In this case, 2x2 blocking nailed to the band joist serves as a ledger for the ends of the flooring strips. Flooring can be face nailed into the 2x2 ledger. Details C and D of Figure 2.17 show details for laying strip flooring up to interior load-bearing walls; Detail C , for strip flooring layed parallel running to walls; and Detail D, for strip flooring layed perpendicular to wall. It i s suggested that hardwood strip flooring be layed from exterior walls toward interior load-bearing partitions. Then, non load-bearing partitions can be placed on top of the hardwood strip flooring.

2.15 Single-Layer Hardwood Strip Flooring Hardwood strip flooring can be applied directly to floor joists for joist spacings up to 16 inches apart. Each piece of strip flooring must bear on at least two joists, and adjacent pieces cannot break or have end joints in the same span between joists. 2.15.1 Apply Hardwood Strip FlooringDry-Weather Method When rain, snow, or heavy fog i s not likely and before the house i s closed in, lay hardwood strip flooring across joists to form a working platform (see Figure 2.16). If part of the floor surface i s to be covered with resilient tile or carpeting, this area should be constructed with a singlelayer combination subfloor underlayment plywood (see 2.12).

3. EXTERIOR WALLS
3.1 General The following principles provide concepts that should help reduce the amount of lumber and plywood used in exterior walls. 3.1.1 Planned Material Use Drawings that show the size, grade, quality, and location of all exterior wall components should be prepared before construction begins. House length and width dimensions should be modular as described in UNICOM Manuals I and I I published by the National Forest Products Association. It i s preferable to use a 48inch (major) module for length and width dimensions of the house because the wall sheathing or siding that i s in 4x8-foot sheets will require no cutting to adjust for non-modular lengths and widths of the house. When the major module cannot be used, it i s preferable to use a 24-inch (minor) module for overall house dimensions. A plan view of the exterior wall framing should be prepared showing the location of all stud framing. Stud spacing should be 24 inches for one-story houses or the second story of two-story houses. Rough opening widths of windows or doors usually are not a major or minor module. Double studs are used ordinarily at each side of window and door openings. If the double studs on either or both sides of a rough opening coincide with the modular stud wall framing, fewer studs are required. When the architectural design will allow positioning window edges on stud modules and the use of door or window rough opening widths that are modular to stud spacings, fewer studs will be used. In addi-

tion, edges of 4-foot-wide sheathing or siding often will be located at the edges o f the door or window openings, and less waste will result from cut-outs for windows and doors. Modular rough openings for windows and doors suggested in UNICOM are highly recommended for efficient use of plywood siding, sheathing, and stud framing. Drawings of the wall framing can be used to prepare a schedule of wall materials needed. The amount of lumber and plywood ordered for the wall i s determined from this schedule, The schedule should list for each wall item the exact quantity required and completely describe the size and quality or grade of the item. Each item on the wall material schedule should be checked to determine whether a larger size or a higher quality i s being ordered than i s required. Lumber savings ideas in this Manual will help eliminate unnecessary items on the materials list. Low-cost substitutes for conventional exterior wall components should be evaluated. Preplanning walls can reduce plywood sheathing scrap and waste about 7 or8percent. 3.1.2 Engineering Design Sizes of lintels and headers used over door and window openings are determined by engineering design calculations. This Manual contains lintel and header design appendixes for several house configurations, lumber sizes, and grades. The house designer should select the smallest size and least costly grade of lumber that will span an opening adequately. Because of the many structural design variables involved in addition to such factors as local roof loads, it may be possible to reduce lintel and header sizes further than contained in the appendixes through more rigorous structural analysis.

32 Space Exterior Wall Studs 24 Inches On .

Center In One-Story Houses and Top Story Of Multi-Story Homes The 2x4 stud framing in exterior walls of one-story houses should be spaced 24 inches on center. There is no reason to space studs closer as long as faclng materials on the exterior wall can span 24 inches. In fact, the commonly used IS-inch spacing may have arisen from when wood lath was used. Tradesmen may have found it difficult to plaster on lath when studs were spaced more than 16 inches apart, Today, many readily available sheet materials will span 24 inches.

framed so roof trusses and floor joists bear

on front and rear walls rather than on end walls. Therefore, door and window openings in end walls of houses with gable roofs do not require lintels or headers. Figure 3.1 illustrates the method of framing such openings in non-load-bearing exterior walls. If possible, jamb studs on one or both sides of window or door openings should be located on the module of the wall stud framing to eliminate extra studs required when openings are not so located. There is less waste in sheet facing materials when the jamb framings of wall openings are located on the module of the stud spacing.

3.3 Eliminate Mid-Height Exterior Wall Blocking Mid-height wall blocking i s not necessary between studs and should be eliminated. Top and bottom plates of framed walls act as fire stops. Unless balloon framing i s used, mid-height blocking i s of little use as a fire block. Mineral wool or glass fiber insulation that f i l l s the entire wall cavity acts as a fire stop. Mid-height wall fire blocking is not needed when this noncombustible insulation f i l l s wall cavities. One-half-inch-thick gypsumboard applied horizontally does not require blocking behind the horizontal taped joints when stud spacing i s 24 inches on center or less. The taped joint i s strong enough to resist usual occupancy loads placed on the gypsumboard without wood back-up blocking.

3.5 Door And Window Framing In LoadBearing Exterior Walls Lintels or headers over door and window openings carry roof and floor loads from the structure above. The minimum size and most economical grade of lumber in the lintel or header that will support the roof and floor loads from above should be selected. The practice of using over-size lintels or headers that are continuous along the top of the wall i s wasteful. Use of Lintel and Header Design Appendixes 3.1 through 3.10 described in 3.6 will help in the selection of a header size and grade of lumber that provides adequate strength and stiffness at a minimum cost. When the header i s kept directly under the field-applied top plate, it i s most effective as a beam (see Figure 3.2). The double 2x4 top plate i s not required over the header. Single 2x4s can serve as nailers at door and window heads and at sills for windows. If possible, jamb studs on one or both sides of the window or door openings should be located on the module of the wall stud framing eliminating studs re-

3.4 Door and Window Framing in NonLoad-Bearing Exterior Walls Lintels and headers can be eliminated from framing over doors and windows providing there are no floor or roof loads acting downward over the opening. End walls of most houses with gable end roofs are

the sizes and spans shown. Appendixes 3.1

and 3.2 apply to headers carrying roof truss

loads; Appendixes 3.3 and 3.4, headers carrying roof truss loads plus a one-story wall and floor loads; and Appendixes 3.5 and 3.6, headers carrying roof truss loads plus twostory wall and floor loads. 3.6.2 Lintel and Header Designs for Floor Loads Only When window or door openings occur directly under an opening in the story or stories above, the header may be carrying floor loads only. When the lower opening width i s equal to or smaller than the opening width above and the lintel or header is not loaded by the jamb studs from the opening above, a smaller lintel i s permissible (see Detail A, Figure 3.3). Appendixes 3.7 and 3.8 contain lintel and header designs for locations within houses that carry one-floor load only. Appendixes 3.9 and 3.10 pertain to lintel and header designs that carry two-floor loads and one-wall load. When the lower opening lintel or by header is loaded jamb studs On the Openings above (see Detail B, Figure 3.3) or there are no openings in the story above (see Detail C, Figure 3.3), smaller lintels or headers are not permissible, and lintels and headers must be selected from Appendixes 3.3,3.4,3.5, and 3.6.
3.7 Nailed and Nail-Glued Plywood Headers for Exterior Wall Openings Performance tests have been made on two plywood header designs. These headers can be substituted for conventional lintels or headers in exterior wall openings in single-story houses or in the top story of multi-story houses up to 36 feet wide. These designs may be used whenever the wall i s sheathed with 1/2-inch-thick material. FHA roof and ceiling design loads are assumed to be transferred to the exterior walls through trusses or rafters.

3.7.1 Nailed Plywood Headers for Rough Opening Widths Nominally 4 Feet or less Figure 3.4 shows construc tion details and material requirements for a nailed 1/2inch-thick plywood header. This design is suitable for rough opening widths Up to nominal 4-foot openings. 3.7.2 Nail-Glued Plywood Headers for Rough Opening Widths Between 4 and Nominal 6 Feet Construction details and material requirements for nail-glued plywood headers spanning more than 4 feet and up to nominal 6-foot openings are shown in Figure3.5. 3.8 Eliminate or Use Minimum-Cost Exterior Wall Sheathing Exterior sheathing can be eliminated completely from any house. Figure 3.6, Detail A, shows a cost-effective wall construction that uses no sheath. ing, yet has high strength. Decorative 4by 8-foot structural sheet siding of plyWood, hardboard, or high-density fiberboard attached to 2x4 stud framing on 24-inch centers performs well. The sheet siding provides the structural racking strength required to resist horizontal wind and earthquake loads on the structure. When siding provides low-racking strength, such as with horizontal sidings, it may be necessary to use let-in 1x4 bracing at corners (see Figures 2.4, Detail A and 3.6, Detail B). Each wall must contaln
at least one 8-foot or three 4-foot 1 braced wall sections. The 1x4 brace fastened to each stud and each plate two 8d common wire nails. The above designs eliminate If sheathing i s used, however sideration should be given t terials having minimum densit y wood f iberbo

board sheathing products.

Figure 3.7 shows two methods of using low-cost sheathing for exterior walls. Detail A illustrates use of a fiberboard or other sheet material that i s classified as structural. Such materials must meet the requirements of FHA Technical Circular No. 12, "A Standard for Testing Sheathing Material for Resistance to Racking," and i f they do, no diagonal corner bracing i s required. Detail B illustrates use of materials classified as non-structural sheathing. These require the use of a 1x4 let-in corner bracing because they do not meet the requirements of FHA Technical Circular No. 12.
3.9 Minimum Thickness Plywood Siding and Sheathing When plywood is used for sheathing* or siding, it should be of a minimum thickness

to be cost-effective. Minimum thickness of plywood sheathing is 5/16-inch-thick for studs spaced 16 inches on center and 3/8-inch-thick for studs 24 inches on center. Minimum thickness of plywood siding i s 1/4-inch if placed over sheathing, but if no sheathing i s used, the plywood siding must be 3/8-inch-thick with studs spaced 16 inches on center or 1/2-inch-thick with studs spaced 24 inches on center. Often, sheathing or siding i s used that is thicker than these minimums because the user believes the extra thickness gives added strength. The racking strength of a wall covered with plywood i s governed mostly by the nailing or fastenings between

*See 3.8 concerning elimination of sheathing.

plywood and framing. Increasing the thickness of plywood has little effect on improving racking strength of walls.
3.10 Reduce lap for Wood Shingles and Horizontal Wood Siding Fewer courses of wood siding are required if the amount of lap between adjacent courses i s minimized. Siding and shingle laps of 1 to 1-1/2 inches have been used typically. For many years though i t has been conventional practice to use only 1/2-inch lap with rabbeted siding. Siding and shingle laps probably can be reduced to 1/2-inch if siding i s preprimed and back coated lightly with paint or water repellent, except in high wind areas such as the gulf coast and the southern half of the Atlantic seaboard. Butt joints of siding should occur over studs and butt joints in adjacent courses should be staggered. Large laps do not necessarily prevent

rain or wind driven rain from entering the wall cavity. The wall cavity in frame construction i s in effect, a closed cell making i t difficult for wind or wind driven rain to be blown into the cavity. Unpublished studies have shown that rain water does not wick up the back of siding that has been back coated or treated with a water repellent. The same reasoning applies to wood shingles and shakes. For example, if the coursing o a 16-inch shingle i s 7-3/4 inches f instead of 7-1/2 inches, the lap between every third course would be 1/2-inch instead of 1 inch (see Detail B, Figure 3.8). On walls nine or more feet high, one or more courses can be saved by following thisexample.
3.11 Eliminate Back-up Stud at Exterior Wall Corners Usually, three studs are used for framing

exterior wall corners. The stud serving as a backer for the inside facing material can be eliminated by attaching back-up cleats to the corner stud as illustrated in Figure 3.9. The back-up cleats can be 3/8-inch thick plywood, I-inch thick lumber, or specially-designed metal clips. Neither cleats nor back-up studs are required if framing of one wall i s held back as shown in Detail A of Figure 3.9. In this case, gypsum wallboard i s inserted into the space between the corner studs of the two intersecting walls. The gypsum wallboard is not fastened to cleats. It is recommended that the wallboard sheet resting on the back-up cleats be installed first, then the wallboard sheet on the adjacent wall will lock into place the sheet resting on the back-up cleats.

3.12 Minimize Size and Amount o Furring f Strips on Concrete Block Walls
Furring strips on concrete block walls

should be placed at the maximum spacing allowed for the facing material they support. For example, spacings of 16 inches on center for 3/8-inch-thick gypsum wallboard and 24 inches on center for 1/2-inchthick gypsum wallboard are used. Furring strip lumber should be nominal 1 x 2 rather than 1x3 or 1x4, and I-inchthick furring strips are adequate even when batt-type insulation is used (see Figure 3.10). Insulation can be compressed from thicknesses of 1-1/2 inches to 3/4 inches and still provide significant thermal insulation for walls in most areas of the country, Compressed insulation lends some support to wall facing, and for this reason, i t i s permissible to use 3/8-inch thick gypsum-board and 1/4-inch thick woad panelling on furring strips spaced 24 inches o n center. t Horizontal wood furring strips at the base, mid-height, and top o the wall are f not required and should be eliminated.

4. INTERIOR PARTITIONS A N D

CEILINGS
4.1 General Overall dimensions of partitions and ceilings usually are not modular. Thicknesse s of exterior and interior wall facings and framing vary. If total thicknesses of all walls were modular, interior partition dimensions could be made modular mors easily. Except for load-bearing partitions, little structural engineering design criteria are involved in interior partitions and ceilings To minimize partition and ceiling lumber or plywood, one must concentrate more on eliminating wood or substituting other material for wood. Except for interior decorative wall panelling, little plywood i s used in interior partitions and ceilings. Interior wall framing members should- be nominal 2x2's or 2x3s, and non-load-bearing partitions can use I-inch thick top and bottom plates. Backup blocking for wall-facing material should be eliminated or reduced in size. Use a drawing to locate most of the interior partition studs on modular spacings. If possible, match interior door openings to modular stud spacings. Lintels and headers in load-bearing partitions should be structurally designed to determine minimum allowable sizes.

M a n y styles of folding and bi-fold closet doors are available that can be mounted on the inside of a wall opening with gypsum wallboard jambs (see Details Band C). Gypsum wallboard with metal corner reinforcement may be used for door jambs of the opening (see cross section, Detail D). This eliminates wood trim and j a m b on each side of the door opening. When 4x8-foot sheet material i s fitted around door openings, it i s necessary to cut pieces out of one or more sheets the size of the door. These cut-outs are often thrown away. Use of the full-wall-height oor eliminates this costly practice.

4.3 Eliminate Mid-Height Interior Wall Blocking

op and bottom plates of framed walls as fire stops. As a result, mid-height wall
blocking usually is not required between and should be eliminated. jacent pieces of gypsum wallboard ied horizontally do not require blocking between studs spaces (3/8-inch gypsumboard on 16-inch stud spacing or 1/2-inch gypsumboard on 24-inch stud spacing). The taped joint is strong enough to resist usual occupancy loads placed on the gypsumboard without wood back-up blocking.

4.2 Reduce Amount of Closet Door Framing Full-wall-height closet doors, illustrated in Figure 4.1, may be used to reduce interior wall framing. The door head, cripples, and trim used above conventional 6foot-8-inch-high doors can be eliminated. A surface-mounted, full-wall-height door shown in Detail A i s an example of this.

4.4 Space 2x3 Interior Wall Studs 24 Inches O.C. Use 2x3 rather than 2x4 stud framing for interior partitions. The framing amount can be reduced more if the maximum stud spacing permissible is used. Space 2x3 studs 24 inches on center when using 1/2inch-thick gypsum wallboard facings, or if
3/8-inch thick gypsum wallboard facing i s used, the 2x3 studs must be spaced 16 inches on center. Use engineering calculations to check structural adequacy if these walls are load-bearing.

4.5 Use Nominal 2x2's for Non-Load Bearing Closet Wall Framing Rather than using 2x4 studs spaced 16 inches on center for closet partition wall framing, use 2x3 studs on 24-inch center or preassembled panels with 2x2 framing on 16-inch or 24-inch centers depending on 'facing thickness (see Figure 4.2). Since 2x2 framing i s somewhat resilient when wallboard i s being nailed to it, walls with 2x2 framing may be prefabricated with glued facings. The glued facings provide extra stiffness to the wall as an added bene-

fit.

To install panels, toenail 8d finishing nails into the wall facing, bottom or top panel plates, and floor or ceiling framing. Preboring during panel fabrication can be used to facilitate the toenailing operation. If gypsum wallboard facings are used, mechanical fasteners are not required to intersections between panels and adjacent walls. Then, floating, taped, and spackled joints can be used. Full-wall-height bi-fold or folding closet doors are suggested for this type of system. Hardware for such doors mounts directly to floor and ceiling framing.

4.6 Eliminate Studs Used for I and Ceiling Facing BackWhere interior partitio terior walls or other interio i s necessary to provide supporter facing materials. Traditio been accomplished by using additional studs or pieces of dimension lumber. Methods for eliminating wall facing backup studs are illustrated in Figure 4.3. Detail A illustrates the use of wood cleats nailed to the end stud of an interior partition to support wall facing materials. Cleats can be 3/8-inch thick plywood or l-inch thick lumber, but plywood cleats. are preferable because they tend to split less. If l-inch thick lumber i s used, select soft woods such as white pine or spruce for the cleats, for these woods are nailed easily and have little tendency to split. Metal clips designed for gypsum wallboard back-up support or other wall facing material also may be substituted for 2x4 studs used for backup blocking (see Detail B). Gypsum wallboard i s not fastened to the wood cleats. It i s recommended that the wallboard sheet resting against the backup cleats be installed before the wallboard sheet on the adjacent wall. In this way, the second sheet can lock the first sheet into place against the back-up cleats. Figure 4.4 illustrates similar details for ceiling backers using wood or metal backup cleats.

Eliminate2

x 3 and 2 x 4 Bulkhead

Eliminate 2x3 and 2x4 bulkhead framing over kitchen cabinets and bath tubs. x3 or 2x4 bulkhead framing i s itchen cabinets or bath tubs to provide a mounting surface for wall facing. Wall-facing material usually has sufficient strength to act as a filler over kitchen cabinets without requiring 2x3 or 2x4 wood framing behind it. The concept that uses the least amount of material i s shown in Detail A of Figure 4.5 where the space over the kitchen cabinets is open and can be used as a shelf. Detail B shows the cabinet extending to the ceiling and uses no wood framing. Detail C illustrates a method of using cabinetry paneling to close off the space and maintain i t s usability. Detail D shows a method of using a filler panel over the cabinets. This filler panel can be the same material as the wall facings or any other cost-effective product. If this filler material i s very thin or of low strength, glue 1x2 stiffener strips to the back of the filler before it i s installed. 'Bulkheads over bath tubs are sometimes required to cover heating ducts, vent ducts, or plumbing lines. Bulkheads also serve as a mounting surface for sliding door tracks. Detail A in Figure 4.6 shows use of 2x2 bulkhead framing over a bath tub, and Detail B, a let-down panel for mounting a door track that i s framed out of 2x2's.

5. ROOFS
5.1 General Concepts that should help reduce the amount of lumber and plywood used in roofs are noted.
5.1.1 Planned Materials Use

Prepare drawings showing size, grade or quality, and location of lumber and plywood used in roof trusses, roof sheathing, and overhangs. In general, concepts of modular roof framing contained in the two UNICOM Manuals, published by the National Forest Products Association, should be used. Studies conducted by the NAHB Research Foundation, Inc., indicate that scrap and waste can be reduced by about twothirds if a plywood sheathing layout i s planned and a cutting schedule i s developed. In addition to scrap savings, preplanning the schedule will minimize cutting errors and plywood misuse and reduce the necessity of delivering surplus plywood to the site. Provide supervisory follow-up to assure adherence to the planned method. Particular attention should be given to the length of roof slope from the peak to the overhang. if this length i s a multiple of 48 inches (major module) or 24 inches (minor module), there will be no waste in the width (4-foot) direction of the sheathing. Similarly, if the roof length i s a multiple of major or minor modules, there will be no waste in the length (8-foot) direction of the sheathing. Observations and structural research have shown that sheathing butt joints need not be staggered for roofs, walls, and floors. This is particularly helpful in saving sheathing material for roofs with hips or valleys. i f possible, place roof openings for chimneys between modular truss spacings allowing the roof sheathing layout to be on

module and preventing waste or an additional roof truss or roof framing. Prepare a roof materials schedule from drawings of the roof framing. The schedule should list the exact quantity, description, and grade required for each item. Particular emphasis should be placed on eliminating overhang lumber or plywood or using lowest cost lumber and plywood substitutes for soffits or fascia. Some ideas for reducing amount of overhang materials can be found in this Manual.
5.1.2 Engineering Design Size of roof truss framing and thickness of plywood roof sheathing are determined by struc tural engineering design calculations. This Manual presents engineering data on minimum required thickness of plywood roof sheathing. Structural designs for roof trusses are not provided in this Manual because the design depends upon the type of truss connectors used as truss joints. Connectors a t truss joints are proprietary fasteners and designs of trusses using them must be supplied by fastener manufacturers. House designers, however, should be sure that the truss design specified has been structurally designed for the minimum required roof loads for the area. Often, a lower grade of lumber or smaller size chord members are possible by careful structural analysis of a specific roof design. Truss web members often can be 2x3s rather than 2x4s. Stress-graded 2x2s have been used on some occasions.

5.2 Eliminate Wood Blocking Between Trusses Used for Plywood Sheathing Edge Blocking Plywood roof sheathing edges that run perpendicular to the roof framing must be supported by wood blocking or fastened together with metal fasteners. Figure 5.1 illustrates the use of metal fasteners that are

acceptable substitutes for edge blocking. Replace wood blocking used for edge supports with metal fasteners, or use plywood roof sheathing with tongue and groove edges. No edge support i s necessary when plywood i s 1/8-inch thicker than the minimum thickness required for the given span and plywood grade.

5.3 Eliminate Wood Still Plates on Top of Masonry Block Walls Wood sill plates often are used as bearing and nailer plate on top of masonry block walls. If a roof truss or a rafter bears on webs or on grout- or pea-gravel concrete-filled

cores of masonry block, a sill plate is not required for bearing and may be eliminated as shown in Detail A of Figure 5.2. A truss or rafter can be anchored directly to the masonry wall in this case rather than to a wood sill plate. Detail B of Figure 5.2 illustrates the same concept when used in conjunction with cast-in-place bond beams 'or cast-in-place concrete walls. Anchorage directly to walls usually i s more effective than anchorage through a wood sill plate. Appendix 5.1 can be used to determine the anchorage in pounds o uplift f resistance required per anchor for various widths (depths) of houses.

5.4 Minimum Thickness Plywood Roof

Sheathing Select the minimum permissible thickness of plywood roof sheathing that will effectively span roof framing members. Unsupported plywood edges that are perpendicular to the roof framing should be connected with metal fasteners designed for this purpose. When metal fasteners are used, the following minimum thickness of plywood i s permissible for roofs covered with asphalt shingles, wood shingles, shakes, and builtup roofing:

Use two metal fasteners for 48 inches

or greater spans. When plywood i s fastened to framing in a deflected condition, it tends to retain such deformation after nailing. Therefore, it i s important that workmen do not stack materials or kneel on the plywood between supports while it is being fastened to the roofframing.

Plywood roof sheathing continuous over two or more spans; grain of face plys perpendicular to supports (1), (2)
Plywood Panel ldentification Index 12/0 16/0 20/0 24/0 30/12 32/16 36/16 42/20 48/24

Plywood Thickness (inch) 5/16 5/16 5/16 3/8 5/8 1 /2 3/4 5/8 3/4

Maximum (4) Span (3) (inches) (2) 12 16 20 24 30 32 36 42 48

Notes: (1) Applies to Standard, Structural I and I I and C-C grades only conforming to U.S. Commerce Dept. PS 1-66 (2) Use 6d common smooth, ring-shank or spiral-thread nails for 1/2-inch thick or less, and 8d common or 8d ring-shank or spiral-thread for ptywood I-inch thick or less (3) These spans shall not be exceeded for any load conditions (4) Provide adequate blocking, tongue and groove edges, or other suitable edge support such as metal fasteners.

5.5 Closed Soffit and Gable Overhangs By eliminating eave and gable-end overhangs, substantial material savings can be realized. The typical eave overhang - Or cornice - utilizes the rafter or truss projection as nailing surfaces for fascia boards and 2x4 framing members which serve as nailing surfaces and support for soffits. A frieze board is usually installed at the wall-soffit intersection along with molding to cover the f rieze-soffit intersection. If there were no eave overhang, 2x4 framing, plywood or board soffits, frieze boards, and molding would be eliminated (see Detail A, Figure 5.3). Where the gable end and eave both have some amount of overhang, a box return i s required. This box would be eliminated if no overhang were used (see Detail B). The gable-end overhang i s made with 2x4 lookout blocks, a fascia board, soffit, frieze board, and bed molding. I f the overhang were removed, all but the fascia board would be eliminated. 5.6 Open Soffit and Gable Overhangs The wide-box eave overhang usually requires 2x4 framing members to serve as nailing surfaces and support for the soffit. Framing is nailed to the rafter or truss ends and to either the exterior wall studs or 2x4 blocking a t the wall. Generally, plywood or board soffits are nailed to the 2x4 framing. By using the open soffit, 2x4 framing members, fascia board, soffit, frieze board,

6. TRIM
6.1 General To minimize the amount of wood t r i m used in residential construction, i t is neces sary to use fewer pieces, smaller sizes eliminate unnecessary material, and substitute other materials. In addition, a complete cutting schedule should be prepared f o r the house. 6.1.1 Use Fewer Pieces When ceiling or base intersections have joints covered with moldings, use one piece rather than two or more pieces over a joint, Local millwork shops often can machine a molding from clear lumber that takes the place of several pieces of conventional trim, For example, a door jamb molded from an edge-grained 2x6 can be routed t o receive wall facings, have an integral door stop, serve as a jamb stud, and eliminate the door casing (see Detail A, Figure 6.1). T his molding also can be used for window jambs, door and window heads, and sills. 6.1.2 Use Smaller Sizes Attractive trim does not need to be large to cover joints. Door stops can be used, for

example rather than door casing to trim over the joint between the door jamb and wall lacing (see Detail B.) Door casing, on the other hand, may be used for wall baseboards
6.1.3 Eliminate Unnecessary Trim
In many situations, trim i s used traditionally or to decorate and serves no useful function. Window jambs and casings can be eliminated by using gypsum wallboard trim return with metal corner beads (see Detail
C).

6.1.4 Substitute lower-Cost Materials

Plastic baseboard and metal door jambs are examples of joint covers that may serve as cost-effective substitutes for wood trim. These materials are used widely as wood trim substitutes in commercial buildings and have been designed specifically to su bstitute for wood trim (see Details D, E, and F).

6.1.5 Use a Trim Schedule Prepare a trim schedule for each house that lists the exact quantity and description far each trim item. Deliver only the quantity required for each house.

7. MANAGEMENT
7.1 General The basic purpose of this Manual i s to illustrate methods to use less lumber and plywood in house construction without sacrificing safety, quality, livability, or performance. Sound management practices can help take advantage of the ideas shown in this Manual. It i s beyond the scope of this Manual and not the intent of this section to discuss how to manage a building business. There are, however, several management principles that will help get the most out of the concepts presented in this Manual. Effective communication i s most important among managers, supervisors, and workmen. Copies of this Manual should be made available to all employees who are concerned with use of lumber and plywood. Some of them are eager to learn more about cost-saving ideas and the Manual may stimulate them and others to suggest additional ideas for efficient materials use. The Manual suggests savings ideas that can be tried and how such concepts reduce the amount of lumber and plywood. Efforts to train employees, develop sound utilization of materials, and initiate purchasing practices commensurate with the ideas in the Manual will result in more efficient use of lumber and plywood.

7.2 Training Employees Many building practices used in framing a house are traditional. Those responsible for constructing a house are not expected to be highly educated technicians, but they can be trained to use the engineering results contained herein. Workers and subcontractors should be encouraged to plan the use of all materials in such a way that scrap and waste will be reduced. Such planning can save up to 10

percent on items such as prefinished siding and trim lumber. Studies* have shown that the dollar value of plywood roof sheathing scrap may approach or exceed the total labor cost for installing the plywood roof sheathing. If at all possible, workmen should be provided with drawings that show an efficient layout of lumber and plywood materials. Lumber and plywood framing scrap and waste may range from 3 to 7 percent. Employees have been trained to reduce this amount by as much as 50 percent by using modular dimensioning, in-line joists, plywood layout, and other concepts contained in thisManual. Laborers instructed in the proper use of tools, jigs, fixtures, and measuring equipment can do much to help reduce scrap and waste. In addition, salvage programs can be initiated that encourage use or reuse of cut-offs and cut-outs, braces, concrete forms, and so forth. Two containers set at the job site, one for usable scrap and one for unusable scrap, focuses attention on leftover materials, helps keep the site clean, and makes working easier by avoiding clutter and accidents. Employees should be instructed to select the grade or quality of lumber or plywood specified for the job and not to use a more costly grade or quality than i s required or needed. Designers and specifiers should be trained to designate only the cost-effective size, grade, or quality of lumber and plywood products required for the intended performance in the structure. *Plywood Roof Sheathing Cost Study, American Plywood Association, Tacoma, Washington 98401. 1965 The UNlCOM Method of House Construction, Volumes 1 and 2 National , Forest Products Association, Washington, D.C. 20036. 1963 and 1964

7.3 Materials Utilization Employee training plays in establishing effective mater concepts used by industr deciding how materials follows: 7.3.1 Use the least amoun tion plywood necessary to p satisfactorily. Check to see if the amount, size, or grade of lumber or plywood is selected on the basis of tradition or because it is the standard building practice in the area, If these enter into the selection of lumber or plywood, be certain they are based on sound technical reasons. 7.3.2 Technical manuals and specifications prepared by lumber and plywood trade associations and government agencies deal with the efficient uses and revisions of products, grades, and size. Sometimes lack of knowledge regarding latest lumber or plywood use becomes a factor in inefficient use of materials. Changes that affect efficient lumber and plywood use occur with sufficient frequency to justify assigning some one person the responsibility for obtaining and studying current information. 7.3.3 If the proper grade, size, or quality of lumber or plywood i s unavailable in the quantity needed, the usual tendency i s to use a larger size or better quality material. Designers, specifiers, and job superintendents can check wood and plywood use periodically to see whether these materials can be used more efficiently. 7.3.4 Lumber and plywood are grade marked according to standard rules and specifications to help users select the right grade for the quality or performance expected in the end use. A misunderstanding of quality can lead easily to use of larger sizes or higher quality than necessary for a structurally sound residence. Whenever periodic checks are made concerning ma-

lear undere purpose or performance that e quality or grade specified. y or all of the above four suggesmay apply to any given situation. For example, double 2x12 headers used over all openings of a house would at first appear to be adding quality or extra strength to the structure. A close evaluation will show this may not be true, and that smaller sizes, lesser quantities, and a lower quality or grade actually would be suitable. The above suggestions would have helped to evaluate the proper use of materials in the example cited. 7.4 Purchasing Practices Thousands of inventory items are required to build houses because of the many items, sizes, colors, grades, types, etc. It would be virtually impossible to expect a purchasing department to be expert in specifications and uses of all materials while performing all of the inventory control and other purchasing operations. If anything, the purchasing agent needs help from others to guide him in making the right lumber and plywood grade or quality selection. Top management can provide assistance by coordinating architectural and engineering specifications relating to wood products with the purchasing agent. Coordination between the job superintendent and the purchasing agent should consider the following items: 7.4.1 Are the correct quantities of lumber and plywood deliveries made to the proper location and at the best time for field use? Use a check-off sheet to compare quantities delivered with quantities ordered. 7.4.2 Are material deliveries to the field made in a manner to avoid pilferage and waste thatresults from improper stacking? 7.4.3 Is the material quality up to the standard the grade mark represents?

APPENDIXES

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