1

llMAKERERE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE & PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION COURSE: SUBJECT AND DEVELOPMENT LECTURER: DR. JOHN KIYAGA NSUBUGA MPAM I, 1997/98 MPA 402: DECENTRALISATION

TOPIC: "NO SINGLE THEORETICAL FRAME WORK CAN SUCCESSFULLY EXPLAIN THE CAUSES AND PERSISTENCE OF UNDERDEVELOPMENT IN THE THIRD WORLD. THE BEST APPROACH IS TO CONSTRUCT A COHERENT HYBRID OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS WHICH TAKES ACCOUNT OF THE SPECIFIC CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE COUNTRY BEING INVESTIGATED." DISCUSS THIS STATEMENT WITH REGARD TO UGANDA.

BY KIWANUKA SSAMULA PETER Reg.No. 97/HD/695 DATE: 15th December, 1997

Introduction. All nations strive after development which they perceive differently with emphasis laid on those elements that they consider central to their

2
circumstances. Inspite of the variations in perceptions, development is

generally accepted to denote a qualitative and quantitative change in the social, economic and political spheres of any society. Lack of this, or

modest transformation towards this end is what constitutes underdevelopment whose causes and persistence in Uganda forms the focus of this paper.

Various competing theories have been advanced by scholars to explain why and how development does or does not take place in societies of the world. These

range from modernisation which looks at development in structural terms of industrialisation, urbanisation, technological transformation, weakening of traditional ties and socio political differentiation. In effect

development is here viewed as replicating the experiences of Western Europe1; to the Marxists who consider the development of capitalism with the attendant alienation of labour appropriation of surplus and class antagonisms as the engine of development. Then the dependency theorists who view development2.

and underdevelopment as two inevitable consequences of the development of capitalism3, as the third world is beset by institutional political and economic rigidities designed to further dependenceand dominance of the

satellite societies to the metropolis through appropriation of surplus and its transfer. Mention should also be made of the neoclassical which view

underdevelopment as a result of poor resource allocation and state over involvement in the economy which can be solved through total liberalisation of the economy to the market forces. these three and recommend This paper will show the inadequacy of of the fourth factor which is

inclusion

circumstance specific.

To lay a firm background for discussion of the intricacies of the above theories and how they explain the causes and persistence of underdevelopment in the Third World in general and Uganda in particular, it is imperative to

3
discuss what is development and underdevelopment. In strictly economic terms

development means the capacity of a national economy to generate and sustain an annual increase in gross national product (GNP)6 The common index used

here is of income per capital which is normally used to measure the wellbeing of the nationals. investment problems. Reacting to the traditional view of development scholar like Joseph Schumpter made a distinction between growth and development with the former viewed as referring to expansion of capital and production while the latter refers to having technical innovation with new production skills and new means of organising production7. Whereas another school which included Paul Streeten, Amartya Sen and Mahbub al Huq were of with the view that people's and increasing peoples incomes should of be which create High income per capita mean high rates of saving and further capacity to deal with other societal

accompanied

increasing

welfare

standards

living,

political freedoms, equal human development for women and men, sustainable development and having a capacity for political participation.8 While Morris David through his "Physical Quality of Index" emphasised life expectancy, infact mortality,and literacy rate, radical dependency scholars who included Andre Gunder Frank saw development as breaking the bond of dependence on metropolitan countries.10

Given the foregoing controversy about development, I agree with Todaro's contention that development is a multifaceted, multidimensional phenomenon11, a conscious, systematic improvement in the social, political and economic spheres of society. in the means and It is a progressive qualitative and quantitative change forces of production toward increased capacity to

effectively and efficiently harness nature for the benefit of the people.

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In contrast underdevelopment refers as Kaberuka says to "a situation in which the majority of a given population live in dire poverty and hence enjoy a low standard of living, they have low productivity per person and there is a high degree of non participation in the generation of the country's economic surplus so that economic growth benefits a small proportion of the population which leads to a high income inequality between the haves and have nots ..... The national economy is dependent for its operation on externally determined factors: internal consuption needs are met mainly by imported consumer goods while internal production depends on externally supplied capital, technology and knowhow13. It is the causes and persistence of this situation that the

third world and Uganda in particular that the subsequent articulation seeks to explain through the theories already referred to: modernisation, marxism and dependency.

MODERNISATION PERSPECTIVE. The main thrust of modernisation theory is looking at development as linear structural replication of trends in the West such as industrialisation, urbanisation, socio political differentiation and specialisation. is put on capital, savings and investments as a driving Emphasis behind

force

delopment which they view in increases in GNP, per capita income, literacy rates, number of Doctors per unit population and development of market relations. In political terms, development is seen in terms of structural differentiation and greater capacity of civil society to exert pressure in the system regarding policy choices. In effect the modernisationists blame

the underdevelopment in the third world to the lack of these elements and the propensity of internal rigidities and call for total transformation of

backward societies to modernity.

To this theory, capital savings and capital investment is the engine of

5
development. In the Third world because of the relatively small size of

economic activities there is little production and less surplus less savings and less investment. These countries depend on donor funds to for

developmental projects as is the case in Uganda.

Unfortunately, borrowed

capital carries interest hence a heavy debt burden on the borrower.

Besides, technological development and innovation are viewed as essential to development. Practically most Third World countries depend on foreign aid More often than not such technology does

and often inappropriate technology.

not match the environmental difficulties of the importing countries who depend on the mother countries for operation and maintenance of those very technologies which render them very expensive at times not used for the purpose for which it was imported hence intensifying underdevelopmenmt. The

case of Steyr tractor trailers imported which rotted at GM company and Namalere Farm and classic examples of this.

Modernisation theory assumes an existence of the modern and traditional sector in the economy with the former having modern efficient means and forces of production; and the latter characterised by inefficient productive forces and surplus labour. The modern sector should provide the dynamism for surplus labour

positive changes in the traditional sector such as employing in industries.

The two-sector approach in the 3rd world however, lacks that In fact most people in the 3rd world, Uganda in

dynamism to drive society.

particular have one leg in the modern sector and another in the traditional sector. This has a problem of inhibiting emergence of pure market relations

and freeing the land for extensive agriculture for further development.

To the modernisationists government should not be a major participant in the economy. Its policies should only be regulatory at macro level - provide

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requisite infrastructure and pursue those fiscal, monetary, employment However,

policies that favour investment and encourage private enterprises.

governments in most 3rd countries have been directly involved in almost all areas of the economy. Their over involvement has overstretched their

capacity for efficient management and has resulted in creation of inefficient monopolies thereby killing competion and innovation viewed as important

elements in the developmental process by the modernisationists. In Uganda between 1972-86 due to lack of incentives for domestic industries, and regressive foreign exchange policies, it was economically prudent to import rather than set up an industry because imported products were cheaper than those locally produced especially when weghed against hyper inflation and political instability that encouraged consumption rather than investment. Implied in government involvement is the failure to free the economy to the forces of the market. In Uganda frustration due to low producer prices and non-payment led to the cutting of coffee trees in many parts of the country and total abandonment of cotton production in Buganda altogether in 1970s.

Equally

important

is There

the

existence be

of

political

freedom

and

structural for

differentiation.

should

specialised

structures

responsible

interest articulation, aggregation and formulation of policy which reflect the needs of a vibrant civil society Barbara Ingham asserted thus " Greater political freedom is regarded favourably as a means of promoting material welfare through increased competion and as offering a more iquitable

distribution if income"14. In most LDCs particularly uganda, there has been a curtailing of peoples freedoms and rule of the gun. In Uganda, since 1966,

the political turmoil witnessed dumpened peoples' hopes for any freedoms and prevented development of politcal structures and culture for democratic

choice. This political suffocation not only killed spirit of investment but also lead to waging of two wars which destroyed the infrustructure, disrupted

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all the economic activities thwarted the process of capital accumulation and development The story has not been any different in other 3rd world

countries especially sub-Saharan Africa.

Moreso, backward cultural attitudes and outlook of the societies is said to be responsible for the underdevelopment of the 3rd world. The communal

relations and the economy of affection are viewed as fetters to emergence of market relations and development due to the burden they impose on members when weighed against relations in the West. Equally anti-development is the failure to properly manage time as a resource and unchanging traditional beliefs toward cultural functions.

Suffice

it to note that modernisation theory blames underdelopment on

internal rigidities which must be addressed to realise development such as failure to mobilise capital, investment,development of human capital,

technology co inertia, lack of political freedom and poor government policies plus archaic social attitudes - total modernisation (westernisation).

However, by describing the transition from underdevelopment to development as following a series of steps as put forward by Rostow modernisation theory becomes Eurocentric and unrealistic. The development of Japan, China ansd It

Asian tigers does not indicate a chronological sequency of htese steps.

also ignores factors such resource endowment, size, government policies and objectives (need to catch up), availability of external capital and

technology and international trade environment15 that influence the country's development. Moreso, my contention is cultural values are a result of the totality of the development process: as society develops, it drops those attitudes that are not compatible with the times and adopts those which ryme with contemporary trends, thinking that uprooting them will lead to

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modernity/development is not convincing because the may, " bend to the currents of modernisation but not being replaced by them"16. The egaliterian

attitudes resulted as a progmatic approach to a multiplicity of problems the people had to overcome. African societies could be summarised in John

Mbiti's philosopy "I am because we are, and because we are therefore I am"17.

Mere change of outlook and attitudes to conform those of the developed world without the requisite technology to transform nature and improving management discipline in the 3rd world cannot lead to development. There is need also

to realise that some 3rd world societies attach importance to group happiness than individual happiness advocated by western culture.

Finally, the modernisationist ignore the negative role of the international system and existing trade relations which put the underdeveloped world at a disadvantage. This is deliberate to ensure that the developed world remain For all the emphasis on cleaning up

developed and periphery underdeveloped.

the domestic obstacles to development, modernisation fails to address the fact that 3rd world economies operate in an imbalanced world economic system in which they are conditioned to play a peripheral role, whereas they are powerless to change the status quo.

MARXIST PERSPECTIVE From the Marxists point of view capitalism is necessary to transform precapitalist societies and bring about development. Underdevelopment in 3rd

world is due to their productive forces being not developed sufficiently to allow emergency of capitalistic mode of production18. In the most 3rd world

people still use a hoe as a basic tool for subsistance production hence underdevelopment. Capital is said to produce underdevelopment if its

expansion maintains pre capitalist modes of production in the periphery. It

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is further urgued by Kay that underdevelopment is due to existance of

dependent merchant capital (on industrial K) in peripheral econmists in which it has no roots to revolutionalise productive forces hence its exploitative nature. He asserts that merchant capital acted in such away as "to both

stimulate and replace the development of the forces of production and to both open and block the way for full development of capitalism"19.

Development of a class structure from a given mode ofproduction is considered essential by the Marxists. The evolution of such classes and attendant

problem of alienation and appropriation of the surplus is considered positive in so far as it encourages investment and struggle for class survival. In

most third world classes were a result of colonialism and were are not reflective of an autonomous enconomy but developed within the framework of colonial economies. Even today they are trunketed and held responsible for

underdevelopment. Following this natural trend, classes had emerged in precolonial Uganda with aristocracies taking on a privileged position and

appropriating the surplus.

In Buganda the Kabaka and his chiefs controlled

the land, in Ankole the Bahima were privileged classes as opposed to Baine, and the Jago, Rwot and Ladit were increasingly taking on a privileged

position in northern Uganda. These feudal relations were to form a basis for capitalist relations and development. Hence, class exploitation and

antagonism were gradually emerging until disruption by colonialism, hence underdevelopment.

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However the trend is fast changing as local capitalists are fast emerging

co-existing with the workers and sprawling peasantry who are unorganised to press for their class interests, though.

The Marxists see separation of labour from other means of production as positive. However, the accumulation crisis of western capital in 1930s

forced merchant capital to abandon its trading role and entered the sphere of production mainly based on substitution. has not taken place. In most 3rd world this separation

The majority of the people own small pieces of land This discourages high

which they directly till for subsistence production.

agricultural production and starve the emerging industries of exploitable labour both of which discourage capital accumulation and development. For

instance in northern Uganda land is owned communally and it is seen as valueless: while in Buganda where land tenure system is in force, owners of

large tracts can not only use it for big farms but also use it as security for bank loans. Land reforms to encourage large scale agricultural production as basis for capitalistic development benefits of which will transform the entire society and avert underdevelopment is necessary.

The Marxists further view government policies as not fundamental elements in transformation of society. This is because the ruling class reacts to and

represents the interests of the dominant class, whether developmental or not hence the need for development of capitalistic class to assert its interests to the ruling class. to interests of During colonial Uganda, the ruling elite was responding exploiters. Policies made were in favour of

colonial

colonial exploiters whose companies monopolised trade throughout the colonies which were then changed to favour non indeginious participation in trade and industry as a means of suffocating the emergence of indigenous bourgeoisie. Post independence governments were led by people whose position did not stem

11
from classical ownership of the means of production - they were rather agents of or allies of foreign bourgeoisie. crisis left behind by the colonisers. They could not therefore resolve the Their efforts exercebate the internal

conflict leading to military take-overs inspired from outside to maintain imperialist grip on neo coloniol state
20

Presently government policies

reflect the interest of international capital (IMF/World bank). Governments impose a multiplicity of taxes without offering equitable services,they are extravagance, corrupt with money stashed in foreign banks - David Oyite Inspite of the a

Ojok, Marcos, Mobutu embezzled millions for personal gain.

debilitating effect it has on national resources, the Marxists view this accumulation as positive if only it can be invested domestically.

Neo - Marxists agree with dependency scholars that any emerging capitalist class that depend on foreign capital can only lead to underdevelopment. They

argue that the capitalist class in the 3rd world is in the first place not fully developed. The available capital is controlled by international

companies e.g. Spear Motors controlled by Mercedes Benz in Germany, Shell, Coca Cola controlled by mother companies. Because such capital lack internal

coherence, their activities are not in dynamic relationship with the entire economy and hence cannot determine the trajectory of national development. The solution lies in establishing this coherence or follow "the strategy of commanding heights". fruit. In Uganda a combination of both solutions have bore

Walter Rodney, Samir Amin, Leys and Shivji writing in 1960s and 1970s, argued that underdevelopment was because the control of the African states is not exercised by an independent, assertive domestic class of capitalists but by comprados or bureaucratic bourgeoisie which uses its control of the state to achieve its own ends24. Their conclusion was that state policies in

12
developing countries are dictates of international capitalism.

Other

scholars

who

included

Steve

Langdon

Nicloa,

Swanison

&

Kplinsky

contributing to what came to constitute the Kenyan debate focused on the role of international corporations. Their major argument was that foreign This is very true when For

capital is mediated by international corporations. assessment example

is made of their influence of policy in the 3rd world. interests for Shell in Ogoni province of

petroleums

Nigeria

influenced government policy in the region against local development concerns culminating in the 1996 hanging of environmental activist and writer Saro Wiwa. Ken

In Uganda high tax-paying multi-nationals such as BAT, Shell etc

have great influence on policy formulation and while French companies have been accused of political meddling in Congo - Zaire conflict. Note that the

surplus they extract is invested elsewhere contributing underdevelopmentto 3rd world.

DEPENDENCY PERSPECTIVE Reacting to submissions to modernisation and Marxism, dependency scholars whose main voice was Inder Gunder Frank outright argued that underdevelopment in the 3rd world is due to the past and continuing economic and other relation between the metropole and periphery, the unequal exploitative integration into the international economic system 25. The conclusion of this theory is that development in the metropole necessarily leads to underdevelopment in the 3rd world - because 3rd world countries are beset by institutional, political and economic rigidities which led to dependency and to dominance relationships nurtured in a number of ways.

Emerging European capitalist countries traversed the entire width and breadth of the earth to establish spheres of influence to solve capitalist problems on securing cheap sources raw materials, markets for produced industrial goods and new areas for re-investment of surplus capital. The economic structures, the laws, relations and physical infrastructure laid down by colonialists was for the purpose of extracting surplus from the satellite economies to the metropolis. Most countries were encouraged to produce raw materials for emerging European industries, e.g. coffee, cotton. These product had no relationship whatsoever with the objective requirements of

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such economies or being primary consumables by indigenous populations.

In Uganda taxes were imposed, labour intensive production of such foods as millet was discouraged in preference, the less nutritious but easily produced cassava encouraged, northern Uganda made into a labour reserve to work in the "productive" south to serve the interests of metropolitan capital. The colonial

infrastructure put in place also served the same purpose, roads were constructed only in the productive south, the railway line extended from copper-rich Kilembe to Mombasa and was later extended to Soroti where Dairy exploitation was possible. A few hospital constructed were meant for repair of damaged labour - all meant to ensure effective extraction of surplus. For the time it lasted, colonialism drained substantial amounts of

resources to the benefit of the metropole and prepared a firm foundation for continued capitalist exploitation through neo-colonial relations, responsible for the perpetual 3rd world underdevelopment of 3rd world.

Like the neo-Marxists, dependency analysts attribute Third World underdevelopment to the existence and policies of the industrial capitalist countries of the Northern Hemisphere and their extensions in the forms of small but powerful elite or comprador groups in less developed countries Hence underdevelopment is externally induced through local groups in the developing countries who enjoy high incomes, social status and political power whose principal interest in perpetuation of international capitalism for which they are rewarded by international power groups such as multinationals and financial institutions such as I.M.F. and World Bank. In Uganda, strengths of the World Bank - IMF recommendations notwithstanding, this accentuation of dependence is represented by the movement government. Coming from the bush in 1986, the fire brand NRM leader rejected SAPs and through their populist policies started barter system, distributed essential commodities, set the exchange rate etc. However, in 1987 through a combination of lack of alternative sources of funding for government programme, compulsion from multilateral financial organisations and learning 22, they embraced SAP and are ardent advocates of World Bank IMF policies. They surrendered the ground to the interests of Western capitalism which the dependency theorists blame for continued underdevelopment and perpetual poverty of the entire 3rd world.

It is further argued that to ensure that the 3rd world is well ensconced in this dependency bondage, capitalism (colonialism) ensured that indegenious technology was destroyed. By the time of the opium wars, Chinas gunmaking technology was ahead of that of Britain, Indias cloth industry surprised that of may European countries

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and most parts of Africa craftsmen had advanced to a level of satisfying available demand with iron implements and China products.

The neo-dependency theorists contend that underdevelopment is due to inappropriate technical advice given by ethnocentric international experts and advisers from multinational donor agencies. This advice is always elitist, superficial and circumstantially inappropriate to transform society. Besides, it is said leading intellectuals, some civic leaders, high level government bureaucrats, economists and civil servants are "trained in developed country institutions where they are unwittingly sewed an unhealthy dose of alien concepts and elegant but inapplicable theoretical models 23". This render them unable to advance locally thought out policies which can transform society. No wonder such policy makers can only seen the solution to poverty in constructing toilets and a provision of clothes to the Karamojong.

The neo classical (modernisationists) scholars blame 3rd world on the underdevelopment on the 3rd world itsel, due to poor resource allocation incorrect pricing and too much intervention by overly active Third World governments29: attendant corruption, inefficiency and lack of economic incentives in the 3rd world. They see a solution in liberalisation of the economy, free markets, dismantling of public ownership, abandoning statist planning and remove government in economic activities. Although it is time that in most of the third world government has proved to be a bad business man due to the inefficiency and corruption, neo-classical advocate ignore the importance of government intervention those areas where private capital may not readily be invested eg. heavy manufacturing, energy sector etc. whereas these area are essential in jumpstarting the economy towards development.

OVERVIEW: In retrospection, it is evident that no single theoretical framework can sufficiently explain the causes and persistence of underdevelopment in the 3rd world, let alone provide a single feasible solution to the problem. However, each of them points to a very important element that when viewed together with other elements from other theories taking into the peculiar circumstances of each member of this sprawling 3rd world, can offer the best explanation for the problem and attempt to give explanation as the subsequent overview indicate.

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The modernisationists and their the neo-classical advocates blame underdevelopment to the internal structural rigidities in the social, economic and political spheres whose total transformation to western replicas as solution for underdevelopment. This alone however cannot lead to development if the unbalanced economic relationship between the third world and the developed world is not addressed. The colonial structures, neo-colonial relations comprado elite, dependency on foreign funding and expertise, inappropriate technology are all fetters to 3rd world development but the suggestion by the dependency analysis for a complete break with the capitalistic world is unrealistic. It ignores the fact that peripheral societies are part of the international economy and also silent about capitalist relations that can emerge within the peripheral economies themselves. Since it is

acceptable and empirically evidenced that capitalism can transform society, underdevelopment cannot be wished away if the 3rd world does not produce a capitalist class and evolve the productive forces that can revolutionise the means and the social relations of production as Marxist recommends. A combination of these with

industrialisation where dependency, marxism, and modernisation seem to agree can provide an answer but only when major structural/institutional changes within the underdeveloped world is taken into account. My hybrid would therefore entail the above and consideration of the following:

Underdevelopment in most 3rd world countries is due to low natural resource endowment. Europe developed a strong industrial base because of their endowment in iron and coal which lacked in the 3rd world. Most African countries lack iron and only few are endowed with oil which has led to the transformation of arid Middle East countries. Consideration should also be given to political instability that has rocked most 3rd world, lack of a developmental elite like the one in the Asian tigers, lack of accountable leadership and inattention to invest in human capital for development. Bizarre situations are found such as the one in Malawi where the long reigning former authoritarian of Malawi established Kamuzu Banda Academy with emphasis put on teaching Greek and Latin which have no relevance to the development of Malawi. Underdevelopment can therefore be averted if states can consciously invest in human capital.

CONCLUSION Conclusively therefore, the modernisation, Marxist and dependency theories by their emphasis on certain elements provide an important insight into the causes and persistence of the underdevelopment in the 3rd world. As none of them is independently sufficient in its articulation, the causes and persistence of the problem can be

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found in a consideration of the salient elements of each in addition to the peculiar circumstances of the 3rd world nations. The explanatory hybrid should therefore contain the three theoretical frameworks and the

"peculiar circumstances" factor - which looks at natural endowment, imposed structural problems, leadership and national priorities - to explain the intricacies of underdevelopment and provide away out. The solution much as the problem can only be multidimentional.

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NOTES 1. BARBARA INGHAM : THE MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT: INTERACTIONS BETWEEN "NEW" AND "OLD" IDEAS. WORLD DEVELOPMENT VOL.21 NO.11 BRITAIN, 1993 Pg.1807 KARAL MARX :CAPITAL VOLUME 1 (Moscow, 1959, p.170 cited in E. LACAU "FEUDALISM & CAPITALISM IN LATIN AMERICA" NEW LEFT REVIEW NO.67(1971 P.16 GUNDER FRANK,ANDRE: "THE DEVELOPMENT OF UNDERDEVELOPMENT", MONTHLY REVIEW VOL.18, NO.4 (Sept.1966) TODARO, P. MICHAEL: "THEOREIS OF DEVELOPMENT: A COMPARATIVE ANAYSIS" in his ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 6th EDITION, ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY, 1997 P.82 IBID IBID : : Pg.88 Pg.70

2.

3. 4.

5. 6. 7.

8.

SCHUMPER JOSEPH: THE THEORY OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT; AND INQUIRY INTO PROFITS, CAPITAL, CREDIT, INTEREST & BUSINESS CYCLE, OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, N.Y. 1961. STREETEN PAUL: FIRST THINGS FIRST: MEETING BASIC HUMAN NEEDS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, NEW YORK: PUBLISHED FOR THE WORLD BANK, OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, 1981. MORRIS DAVID: Cited in Barbara Ingham: Opcit p.1819 Opcit p.107

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

ANDRE GUNDER FRANK:

KABERUKA WILL: THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF UGANDA, 1890-1979, VANTAGE PRESS NEW YORK, 1990 P.25 BARBARA INGHAM: Opcit p.1809

TODARO P. MICHAEL: Opcit WILBER & JAMESON in Barbara Ingham :Opcit 1808 MBITI JOHN: ARICAN RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY London, Heinmam, 1969 Opcit p.18

KABERUICA WILL: KARL MARX: KAY:

CAPITAL VOL.1 (MOSCOW, 1959) P.170 in KABERUKA Will, Opcit 22

SEE LIONE CLIFFE:RURAL POLITICAL ECONOMY OF AFRICA IN PETER LW GUTKING & WALLERSTAIN (eds) THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF CONTEMPORARY AFRICA, LONDON, SAGE PUBLISHING 1976 P.113

18
20. 21. NAGUMBANE: See KABERUKA P. 24 LEYS & SHIUJI: See GORAN HYDEN; RETHINKING THEORIES : AN AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE. AFRICA INSIGHT, 26 (1) 1996 P.26 ANDRE GUNDER FRANK: Opcit 102

22. 23.

KIYAGA-NSUBUGA: FROM "COMMUNITSTS" TO NEO-LIBERALS: THE TRANSOFORMATION OF OF THE NATIONAL RESISTENCE MOVEMENT (NRM) RESISTENCE MOVEMENT (NRM) ECONOMIC POLICY 1986-1989, P.27.

REGIME'S

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. AKE, CLAUDE: A Political Economy of Africa, London Longman, 1981. BARBARA, INGHAM: World Development Peport Vo.l 21 No. 11, Britain, 1993 P. 1807 GORAN HYDEN: ND Shortcuts to progress African Management Perspective (Nairobi, Heinemann, 1983) KABERUKA,WILL: The Plitical Economy of Uganda 1890-1979, Vantage Press, N.Y. 1990. KIYAGA NSUBUGA: "From `Communists' to New-Lierals : The transformation of NRM Regime's Policy 1986-1989 Seminar paper DSP No.5 1997/98. KARL MARX: Capital Vo.1 (Moscow, 1959) LEYS, COLLIN: The Rise & Fall of Development Theory, Indiana Press 1996. MAMDANI, MAHMOOD:POLITICS OF CLASS FORMATION IN UGANDA, Monthly Review Pess, 1976. MARTINUSSEN, JOHN: Society , State & Markets A Guide to Comppeting Theories of Development. London, New Jersey , Zed Books 1997. SANDBROOK, RICHARD: The Politics of Africa's Economic Stagnation, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1989. TODARO P. MICHAEL: Economic Development 6the Edition, ADDISON & WESLEY, 1997.

6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11.

MAKERERE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE & PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION COURSE: SUBJECT MPAM I, 1997/98 MPA 402: DECENTRALISATION

19
AND DEVELOPMENT LECTURER: DR. JOHN KIYAGA NSUBUGA

TOPIC: "NO SINGLE THEORETICAL FRAME WORK CAN SUCCESSFULLY EXPLAIN THE CAUSES AND PERSISTENCE OF UNDERDEVELOPMENT IN THE THIRD WORLD. THE BEST APPROACH IS TO CONSTRUCT A COHERENT HYBRID OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS WHICH TAKES ACCOUNT THE SPECIFIC CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE INVESTIGATED." DISCUSS REGARD TO UGANDA.

THIS

OF COUNTRY BEING STATEMENT WITH

BY KIWANUKA SSAMULA PETER Reg:NO. 97/HD/695 DATE: 15th December, 1997