AQUINAS AND THE THREE PROBLEMS OF MUSIC AN EVALUATION OF THE SUMMA THEOLOGIAE SECUNDA SECUNDAE Q.

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A Paper Presented to Dr. Sirilla Franciscan University of Steubenville

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In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Course THE345A Philosophy for Theology

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by John Brodeur December 2010 Box #217

AQUINAS AND THE THREE PROBLEMS OF MUSIC AN EVALUATION OF THE SUMMA THEOLOGIAE SECUNDA SECUNDAE Q. 91, 2 Throughout Western Civilization, the development of musical philosophy has led to the rise and fall of many different musical genres and indeed the rise and fall of various cultures and world-views. The dramatic relationship between music and Christianity is an ongoing drama which is governed by conflicting regulations and freedoms, oftentimes very difficult to practically apply. Over the centuries, there have been numerous characters that have helped shape a proper understanding of what music is and how it ought to be used in relation to the Christian life and more generally the life of virtue. St. Thomas Aquinas, by no means the least of these, is a very influential theorist in the Catholic tradition, not so much because of any exhaustive treatment on the matter of music, but because of his innovative explanations and the unexplored ramifications of his claims. Aquinas helps set in motion the resolution of three great theological obstacles to music present throughout the course of Western life and thought: pagan associations of music in the ancient world, the conflict between spirituality and immersion in sense experience, and a certain tension or competition between musical art and word.1 Summary of ST 2-2, Q. 91, 2: Whether God should be praised with song? As to the question of whether God should be praised with song, Aquinas settles upon the affirmative due to the tradition of St. Ambrose who, according to St. Augustines Confessions, established singing in the Church of Milan. Aquinas then answers that the praise of the voice is necessary in order to arouse mans devotion towards God a claim just

Viladesau, p.28

3 established in the preceding article. Music in the act of praise, Aquinas asserts, is useful for inciting weaker souls to the feeling of devotion by means of delighting the ears. Five objections are then given reply. The first objection concerns the instructive in Col. 3:16: Teaching and admonishing one another in psalms, hymns, and spiritual canticles which is interpreted in the Platonic tradition to mean that the canticles St. Paul is referring to are spiritual but not corporal (i.e., not sung with the lips). Aquinas replies by asserting that even corporal canticles can be spiritual if they arouse spiritual devotion. The second objection raised is on the authority of St. Jerome in his commentary on Ephesians 5:19 where he says: God is to be sung not with the voice but with the heart. Aquinas replies by putting Jeromes commentary in a larger context to show how the Fathers of the Church did not reject singing as such, but rather its abuse: namely, the theatrical style which sought to show off and provoke pleasure rather than incite devotion. The third objection is a decree of St. Gregory the Great which commands that the ministers of the altar not sing. The objection raised calls to mind the universality of praise and the conflict of this restriction upon the hierarchy. Aquinas replies that teaching and preaching is a more excellent way of arousing men to devotion than singing, and that this priority does not eliminate the use of song in its proper place. The fourth objection concerns the traditional restriction of the Church upon musical instruments which belong to the Old Law. Similarly, the objection holds that singing, as referenced in Psalm 32, is an order exclusive to the Old Law. Aquinas replies with Aristotles poetics that musical instruments move the soul to pleasure rather than create a good disposition within it. He further states that in the Old Law, instruments were employed as figures and types of the New Law and because the people were less spiritually developed. Aquinas thus differentiates song from instrumental music in its usefulness to incite devotion. The fifth objection is by far the most excellent objection. After reaffirming that praise of the heart is more important than praise of the lips, it asserts that the technicality of the music hinders the praise of the heart in the case of the singers and that the complexity of the

4 chants lend to an incomprehensibility which hinders the praise of all who listen. Aquinas replies that if ever the soul of a singer is distracted, it is because the singers purpose is to elicit pleasure rather than devotion, but if the singer sings for the purpose of devotion, he pays more attention to the words. The listeners, he continues, need not hear what is sung to understand that it is sung for Gods glory; and that, he concludes, is enough to arouse devotion. Critical Evaluation To properly evaluate Aquinas, it is necessary both to understand the tradition of music which preceded him beginning with Plato and the prevailing modern solutions to the problems he confronted especially as expressed by Cardinal Ratzinger. Thus, the following evaluation will be largely chronological and will address different but interrelated problems in their logical succession, beginning with pagan associations in the ancient world. The earliest influential music theory was derived from Greek philosophy which attributed a dual power to music: the power to arouse a Bacchic delirium, releasing previously repressed unconscious forces, and also the power to prevent and stop emotional outbursts, leading people back to a state of tranquility. Music was also attributed with the power to produce new emotions which could persuade the listener to perform certain actions and simultaneously dissuade him from engaging in others; thus, music was closely associated with ethics. Each musical mode was characterized by a certain psychic state: Ionian and Mixed Lydian modes brought relaxation, the Dorian mode brought virility and courage, the Phrygian mode brought tranquility and productivity, and the Mixed Lydian was not to be considered for respectable women. These theories were described most poignantly in Platos Republic and in Aristotles Poetics.2 In the Early Christian Church, a polemic against music appeared in the latter part of the second century, was intensified in the third, and became commonplace in the fourth. The

Eco, 132-133.

5 reason for this pessimism toward music was twofold: first, because of the close association of certain musical forms with superstitious and sensual pagan worship; and second, because it was suspect for moral reasons. Both of these derived from the Greek influence which attributed a definitive corrupting power to certain types of music, and an ethical dimension to music at large.3 Some instruments, like the flute, were closely associated with the orgiastic frenzy of the Dionysian rites. Aristotle went so far as to call it an immoral instrument, and St. Jerome would later say that a good Christian girl ought not to even know what a flute is.4 Female choirs in the context of any ritual were considered the harem of the gods and closely associated with loose morals.5 Thus, the Church Fathers became exceedingly critical of the musical situation of their time which they believed to be essentially idolatrous or licentious. Music of the theater was understood as an extension of the pagan cults and consequently, to attack music was to indirectly uphold the fledgling faith of a people still filled with the remains of their old ways: namely, sexually stimulating marriage parties and singing to gods in their homes.6 In direct opposition to this sensual and irrational pagan cult, the Church Fathers taught that the Christian ideal of worship should aspire to the ideal of spiritual sacrifice, a worship in spirit and truth which takes place interiorly and avoids the externals of anything related to paganism. The close association of paganism with instrumental music in particular lasted well into the medieval period. Aquinas rejection of instrumental music is thus firmly rooted in his culture.7 The Christian ideal of the Church Fathers also avoided the externals of Judaism, especially all kinds of music that were an intrinsic part of its rites8 the only kind of music

Viladesau, 15. Viladesau, 15-16. Viladesau, 16. Cole Eco, 135. Viladesau, 16.

6 which wasnt pagan. It was commonly held that the music prescribed in the Torah for Jewish ritual had been an accommodation by God to the weakness of his covenanted people, much like the permission for divorce in the Law of Moses. This dichotomy of law and gospel is clearly illustrated in the fourth objection in question 91, article 2, where Aquinas explicitly puts all instrumental music under the category of the law. Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger poignantly describes this phenomenon in his book Feast of Faith: there is a one-sidedly spiritual understanding of the relationship between the Old and New Testaments, between law and gospel.9 The interpretation of scripture which references music, most especially in the Psalter, became strikingly allegorical. Instruments were interpreted as representing powers of the soul and the mind. This is why Pseudo Origen writes that when the psalmist exhorts the People of God to Praise him in the sound of the trumpet, he interprets the trumpet to be a type of the contemplative mind.10 This practice of allegorically interpreting musical passages of scripture was practiced as a sort of inter-biblical exegesis especially when they were paired with verses like Amos 5:23: Away from me with the noise of your songs; the playing of your harps I do not wish to hear" or even Isaiah 5:12: they have lyre and harp, timbrel and flute and wine at their feasts; but they do not regard the deeds of the Lord. Thus, the Early Church grew increasingly more antagonistic toward instrumental music. The severity became so intense that the Canons of Basil of the fourth century prescribed that a lector who insisted upon accompanying a chant with a stringed instrument should be excommunicated.11 The dichotomy between law and gospel was further intensified by a similar dichotomy between the flesh and the spirit, which owed its prominence in the Christian

Ratzinger, 106. Viladesau, 16. Viladesau, 17.

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7 community largely from a Platonic reading of St. Paul.12 Earthly music as associated with the flesh was juxtaposed with real music which was celestial, spiritual, and inaudible.13 Thus, for the early Church Fathers, the essence of music was separable from sound,14 the essence being part of the realm of true forms. This essence of music, something more like proportion, was not perceived by the lower senses but only by the heart and the intellect without the distracting sensual quality of audible sound.15 The theory of an inaudible essence of music was also greatly influenced by Boethius work (a developed theory of both Plato and Aristotle) concerning the music of the spheres in which he extensively discussed musical proportions holding the fabric of the universe together. St. Albert the Great, Aquinas teacher, was the first to break with this tradition, but even he retained the traditional ethical theory of music: that music does exert an influence over man for good or for evil.16 Such a distinction between the essence of music and its fleshy components beg the question as to whether the beautiful sounds might simply be a distraction or escape a way of taming the religious imperative into a mere aesthetic object.17 Here, it is both interesting and instructive18 to read how St. Augustine agonized over music in the Church. His is the prime example of the Platonic struggle between spirit and flesh. Although the sound of chanting at Milan was partially responsible for opening his heart to conversion,19 the spiritualizing theology of his time ascribed the senses to the Old Testament, the

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Viladesau, 15 Viladesau, 17. Viladesau, 18. Viladesau, 17. Guettler, 8 Viladesau, 14. Viladesau, 18. Guettler, 8.

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8 old man, and the old world.20 How could the sound of music lead him to a conversion of heart? Had they somehow aided his recognition of the essence of music? With all these uncertainties, he concluded that a song can excite a feeling of devotion and a longing for God by the unknown secret correspondence of music with our spiritual affects, but he presumes that to dwell in that feeling, without attention to the words, is a distraction from the purpose of prayer.21 Thus, Augustine is still only considering music as a medium of the word and not as an end in itself. Instrumental music is not only suspect, but left entirely unconsidered. When Aquinas finally enters into this great historical struggle, St. Alberts influence is made particularly manifest. There are many nuances in Aquinas writing, and in small yet significant gestures, he begins challenging the old Platonic dichotomy. For one, Aquinas implies that there is nothing inherently incompatible in the Christian liturgy with instruments, but that it is rather a problem of association.22 In this, Aquinas makes room for the realization that connotations and associations which are applied to music do not necessarily remain constant,23 and indeed history itself bears witness to this truth: As Christianity adapted to new cultures and established itself as the universal religion of Western Europe, the older scruples arising from the association of music with pagan Roman and Greek worship became less relevant.24 Monsignor Schuler explains how this took place: as paganism declined, generations grew up which had never experienced pagan rites and for which the associations of these instruments with sinful festivities did not exist.25 Further evidence that associations can change is demonstrated in

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Ratzinger, 110. Viladesau, 22-23. Guettler, p.11. Guettler, 11. Viladesau, 20. Guettler, 11-12.

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9 Roman chant itself, whose melodies began as adaptations of Mediterranean folk songs.26 By the time of Augustine, their secular connotations were so completely replaced by sacred association that they were responsible for moving his heart to conversion. During the Renaissance, secular songs of the Middle-Age troubadours sounded like hymns, and even later madrigals sounded like motets.27 The only difference can be found in the texts. In addition to broadening this horizon and eventually making it possible for the Church to embrace instruments in its liturgical practices, Aquinas also gives a seal of approval to a kind of music in which the word is completely subordinated to musical composition. In his reply to objection 5, he completely abandons the conclusion of Augustine that the listener must always be attentive to the words of a chant lest he sinfully lapse into a mere enjoyment of it. 28 Instead, he allows for the very real possibility that the listener can be moved to greater devotion even in complete ignorance of what is being sung if they are thus inspired by a holy intention and sincere prayer on the part of the singer. Thus, it becomes possible to sing in a language which may be unfamiliar to the congregation, or to sing in elaborate polyphonic textures in which the words may become less easy to follow. In effect, Aquinas opens the door to the consideration of music (the existence of melody, harmony, and rhythm independent from text) as its own kind of language, a comprehensible language of the heart. However, Aquinas does not simply make allowances for all music done with a right intention. In his Summa Theologiae, he extends the discussion on music to a chapter devoted to temperance (II-II, Q. 141, 4) where he stresses moderation and restraint even more urgently than Aristotle. This is because Aquinas does not see music as an end in itself, but rather as a means toward the ultimate goal of contemplation.29 Fr. Basil Cole discusses how

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Guettler, 11-12. Guettler, 12. Viladesau, 24. Clogan, 9.

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10 As music lovers grow in the ability to distinguish beautiful music, they are able to turn the aesthetic experience of music into a preparation for contemplation of other things that may answer certain important questions regarding the meaning of life. Likewise, the virtue of music appreciation will lead them to know when to get refreshment from music and when someone feels he is becoming too attached to this pleasure and so must moderate its use in the overall life of virtue.30 For Aquinas, contemplation can mean many things. It can mean thinking about and loving God, or from a natural perspective, it can mean a simple gaze upon the truth.31 Happiness consists largely through the contemplative act, most especially when infused by the Holy Spirit, but even by ones efforts alone when it does not interfere with a persons responsibilities. Thus, it can be said that to the extent that music brings one to the taste and joys of contemplative activity and life, it leads one to the purpose of the virtuous life. 32 In this context, it is nonetheless easy to sympathize with the emphasis on vocal music: how much is gained in contemplating beautiful music if it is allied with poetry containing extra-musical truth either from faith or reason!33 At the time of Aquinas, however, medieval song was essentially religious and only secondarily aesthetic in character. It was not primarily intended to be art, but served the practical end of pedagogy,34 giving natural priority to the text. Despite this priority, its divine task naturally fostered an artistic character.35 Because God is both the True and the Beautiful, it is easy to understand how the Christian expression of divine revelation is most effectively

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Cole ST, II-II, q. 180, a. 3 ad 1. Cole Cole Ratzinger, 111. Eco, 255.

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11 communicated in an aesthetic way. Indeed, this phenomenon is nowhere more profoundly observed than in the liturgy, where its character as prayer impels it in the direction of art.36 If Aquinas treatment of music is taken in a strict theoretical sense, it might seem very utilitarian and unconcerned with the artistic.37 However, it must be observed that Aquinas writings are not marked by a disdain for aesthetic experience but by an honest acknowledgment of it.38 For Aquinas, music appears to be the art most connected with the aesthetic and pleasure.39 In music, the aesthetic itself is pleasurable; it stimulates not only the pleasure of the ear but the delight of the mind,40 and this realization comes close to the unknown secret correspondence which Augustine refers to, especially in context of the ethical power music contains. Music thus has the power to influence both the mind and the heart the intellect and the will. Kevin Wall, O.P. brilliantly describes how morality, thought, and art all especially represented in sacred vocal music converge upon the same terminal goal which is at once the Good, the True, and the Beautiful. He makes a bold assertion that virtue and contemplation (corresponding with the Good and the True respectively), are furthered and fostered by properly understood aesthetic activity. In aesthetic experience, he claims, man can achieve a sense of rest which outdoes both virtue and contemplation, and from which both draw strength: What contemplation on the way to self-possession shares of its quality is insight but that insight contains the knowledge that the distance yet to be covered is infinite. This leaves it restless. Morality is similarly restless since it is not brought to rest in the possession of

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Overath, 79. Eco, 131. Eco, 135 Eco, 130. Cole

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12 the ultimate good. Aesthetic experience alone has the sense of rest of that possession, the sense of satisfaction and being at an end.41 This satisfaction, properly understood by faith and enjoyed with temperance both consoles man in his religious tasks and spurs him on all the more toward Beauty itself, mirrored by the contemplation of faith. The aesthetic thus strengthens the natural power of concentration on spiritual things.42 This type of pleasure derived from harmony of sound, a pleasure which is simultaneously sensible and intellectual, is not only not sinful (as Augustine feared it could be), but one of the prerogatives which make humans superior to the rest of creation.43 Humans are spiritual creatures, but not merely spirits trapped in the body; they are a composite of body and soul as Aquinas himself testifies. The significance of Christs own body bears witness to this. Thus, the difficulty which Platonic thought placed upon the theory of music can be definitively resolved in an incarnational anthropology. God himself took on flesh, and when matter and spirit were joined in the God-Man, all matter was sanctified. It thereupon became helpful for man that matter be used to give God greater honor and glory.44 In the truest sense of the word, spiritualization is not simply an opposition to the senses, but a drawing near to the Lord who is the Spirit (2 Corinthians 3:17). The body is included in this action.45 In retrospect, Ratzinger admits that the Church Fathers were obliged to make concessions to Platonic spiritualization beyond what is ultimately appropriate from the viewpoint of

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Wall, 4-5. Cole Eco, 134. Guettler, 10. Ratzinger, 108.

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13 Christianity, but as members of the Mystical Body of Christ and through the indwelling of the
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Holy Spirit, man now renders glory to God with the Word Made Flesh47 who for all eternity remains incarnate; Christ does not divest himself of the flesh, but forevermore gives himself to humanity as the God-Man. Analogously, music is connected to the liturgy as matter to spirit, and music, as the matter, must be sanctified by the Word becoming Flesh. It must be spiritualized in order to become a canticum novum48 a song of the New Testament, the new man, and the new world. To simply deny the senses in order to achieve this is to renounce mans bodily nature, a renunciation of the fullness of creation. Proper spiritualization involves transforming the music through a process of death and resurrection in which it is taken up into the Spirit. This is why the Church has been consistently critical of ethnic music. It simply cannot be allowed untransformed into the sanctuary.49 Instead of moving minds and hearts to things above, its character impedes true devotion by its close association with the things of this world. Despite all its potential for good, music, when linked with a major philosophy of life which is antithetical to a life of virtue, is ultimately destructive.50 When its message is antithetical, its melody, harmony, and rhythm share in the negative influence by association, and over time, the negative influence of such music can undermine felt and reasoned convictions51 in much the same way as good music can reinforce them. This music of negative influence bears striking resemblance to the

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Ratzinger, 108. Guettler, 10. Guettler, 10. Feats of Faith, 118. Cole Cole

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14 pagan music of old insofar as it endeavors to elicit an ecstasy of the senses without seeking to elevate them into the spirit.52 Instead of purifying the senses, it acts as a drug or anesthetic,53 making the listeners numb to the life that is Good, the message of Truth, and the proportion of what is truly Beautiful. Thus, liturgical music must be humble54 and docile to what is most Good, True, and Beautiful and to the prescriptions necessary to purify it. It must die to its own artistic value and rise as a true means of edification. Without this purification, how can it hope to elevate the senses into the spirit? How can the faithful comprehend its purpose of devotion? Creation must become the instrument of the spirit, and the spirit must become organized sound in material creation.55 Even Cardinal Ratzinger acknowledges the greater difficulty of achieving this with an instrument, for where an instrument is concerned, there is a greater possibility of alienation from the spirit than in the case of the voice.56 However, in either case, vocal or instrumental, it is acknowledged that music in itself is neither sacred nor secular until is made so either by association or transformation.57 There are no particular chords or rhythm patterns which are essentially sacred. It is made such by association with a specific occasion or purpose, with a sacred text, with that which is set apart, with what is truly art, and with a particular tradition.58

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Ratzinger, 118. Ratzinger, 119. Ratzinger, 120. Ratzinger, 119. Ratzinger, 121. Schuler, 7-12. Guettler, 12.

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15 Above all, the most important characteristic of sacred music for Aquinas is its intention, in the Latin sense meaning a movement toward God.59 Elsewhere, he says that sometimes this intention, by which the soul is carried toward God, is so intense that the mind forgets everything else.60 Thus, Aquinas allows for a broader meaning of mind, which, as has already been mentioned, allows sacred music to function apart from the meditation on what is explicitly, verbally communicated.61 This sense of musics ability to function apart from comprehensible language was foreshadowed by Augustine who spoke of jubilation: a sound of joy without words: What is it to sing in jubilation [Ps. 32:3]? To be unable to understand, to express in words, what is sung in the heart. ...The jubilus is something which signifies that the heart labors with what it cannot utter. the heart rejoices without words, and the great expanse of joy has not the limits of syllables. (In Ps. XXXII, ii, S. I, 8).62 We cannot say, and yet cannot be silent either. What are we to do, employing neither speech nor silence? We ought to rejoice! Jubilatio. Shout out your heart's delight in wordless jubilation.63 Thus, what most fully transforms music is this wordless joy: a deep, heartfelt expression of faith which shapes the melody, guides the rhythm, and enriches the harmony in ways that no secular standard could dictate.

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Viladesau, 22-23. ST, II-II, q. 83. a. 13, c. Viladesau, 27. Viladesau, 23 Guettler, 9.

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16 Josef Pieper, a Thomistic philosopher, explains that such basic expressions, by their very nature, exist before and beyond speech64: consider the sincerity of a babys cry or the inflection of the voice when it is sorrowful. Thus Pieper describes music first and foremost as as non-verbal articulation of weal and woe; wordless expression of man's intrinsic dynamism of self-realization, a process understood as man's will in all its aspects, as love.65 To completely ignore this articulation, this language sui generis66, is to remain inconsiderate of musics ability to communicate apart from comprehensible text; an ability which Aquinas affirms and ratifies in the reply to his fifth objection. Non-verbal music represents the movement of praise which transcends understanding, knowing, and doing an ascent which draws man away from what is opposed to God...leads us and others to a sense of reverenceand awakens the inner man.67 Harmonies sung well by those who authentically praise create an atmosphere of piety which moves the bystanders to an interior disposition of love and adoration.68 Cardinal Ratzinger beautifully captures Aquinas enthusiasm toward this environment of devotion: Here, delight in the Lord is felt to be meaningful and beautiful in itself; joy in shared praise of him, the awareness, through celebratory music-making, that God is worthy of worshipthis is self-evident, it needs no theories. By quoting from the psalms, Thomas is in fact saying Yes to that joy which expresses itself and in doing so unites those who participate (and this includes particularly those who listen); this expressed joy manifests itself as the presence of the glory which is God: in responding to this glory, it actually shares in it.69

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Guettler, 9. Guettler, 9. Overath, 80. Ratzinger, 116. Eco, 132. Ratzinger, 114.

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17 Aquinas thus recognizes the indescribable value of music: the power of melody and harmony to soothe the souls of believers, and the musics own capacity to create a mental disposition appropriate for receiving and contemplating the words which accompany it.70 Nevertheless, since the liturgy of the incarnate Word is specifically Word-oriented,71 this power which music has as a language of the heart must never allow psalms and canticles to be sung in such a way that the words are not properly attended to. Spoken words take on entirely different meanings according to the tone of voice used to say them, and likewise music amplifies the text which carries it,72 but music is not a language of absolute communication.73 The text, when present, specifies the music and engages the listener in a more focused contemplative activity, especially sacred compositions which involve matters of faith. As for all the technical skill required to coordinate a full expression of text, the only honest reply would be to admit that it can, and often does distract the singer from the praise of the heart.74 However, as Aquinas himself asserts, this need not be the case. The singer must persevere through long and challenging practices; he must take time to contemplate the texts on his own; he must strive to be as proficient with the music as he can, so that during the liturgy, he may effectively pray what he has already technically mastered. Unlike other arts, music requires living human beings who act as artistically trained interpreters. Thus, no purely external performance, even though it be technically flawless, can ever be worthy of the liturgy. It must have intention the most critical component of all music:
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Clogan, 39. Ratzinger, 120. Guettler, 7. Guettler, 11 Viladesau, 22.

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18 Liturgical music presupposes praying singers and singing persons who pray. In the ministry of liturgical music, therefore, Musica sacra which has arisen out of the faith and the spirit of the liturgy actually becomes a supra-temporal language which speaks, prays, interprets and proclaims all the more vigorously, the more its interpreters not merely mouth it, but also bear it in their hearts. In short, the effectiveness of Musica sacra also depends upon the degree to which its interpreters are fitted for recreating it in the real sense of that term, and for making it into a living language.75 Conclusion In his brief yet provocative consideration as to whether God should be praised with song, Aquinas rightfully concludes that He should. Although there remains much Platonic influence in Aquinas approach to music, he makes a number of assertions which break the mold of Platonic spiritualization and make room for further insight and development. His most prominent contributions are 1) that association is the cause of restrictive norms, 2) that corporal canticles can be spiritual, 3) that sacred music can be efficacious without textual comprehension. These insights constitute a groundbreaking theology of music which, through a proper understanding of the human person and his relation to an incarnate God, allow for a more selfevident use of music, particularly within the liturgical context

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Overath, 79-80.

19 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cole, Basil. Music and Spirituality: To the Tune of St. Thomas Aquinas. Ignatius Insight. http://www.ignatiusinsight.com/features2008/bcole_musicspirit_oct08.asp (accessed November 16, 2010). Clogan, Paul Maurice, ed. Medievalia et Humanistica: Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Culture. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1997. Eco, Umberto. The Aesthetics of Thomas Aquinas. Translated by Hugh Bredin. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988. Guettler, Amy E. Music as Prayer, in Sacred Music 122 (Fall 1995):6-12. Overath, Johannes. The Meaning of Musica Sacra and its Nobility, in Crvx Et Cithara. Germany: Robert A. Skeris, 1983. Ratzinger, Joseph. The Feast of Faith. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1986. Schuler. The Sacred and the Secular in Music, in Sacred Music 112 (Summer 1985): 7-12. Viladesau, Richard. Theology and the Arts: Encountering God through Music, Art, and Rhetoric. Mahwah: Paulist Press, 2000. Wall, Kevin. A Classical Philosophy of Art: the Nature of Art in the Light of Classical Principles. District of Columbia: University Press, 1982.