LANGLEY RESEARCH

RELATED TO APOLLO MISSION

LANGLEY RESEARCH CENTER JUNE 22-24,1965

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION.

CONFERENCE ON LANGLEY RESEARCH RELATED TO APOLLO MISSION

LANGLEY RESEARCH CENTER JUNE 22-24,1965

]!I

Scientific and Technical lnf ormation Division

1965
Washington, D.C.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS A N D SPACE ADMINISTRATION

CONTENTS
iii

SPACECRAFT TECHNOLOGY Heating and Thermal Protection

1 PROSECT FIRE S A N TO HEATING MEASUREMENTS . T G AI N By Dona L. Cauchon and Richard C. Dingeldein
2.

.........
l 4 G q J

6G

RECENT

EXPERLMENTAL STUDIES ON HEAT TRANSFER TO

APOLLO COMMAND MODULF,

By Robert A. Jones and James L. H u n t

...................

F 3 . AERODYNAMIC HEATING CHARACTERISTICS O APOLLO

LAUNCH CONFIGURATION By Robert L. S t a l l i n g s , Jr., and E a r l A. Price, Jr.

...................

19
29

4.

l?GIGHT AND GROUND TESTS O APOLLO HEAT-SHIELII MATERIAL F By W i l l i a m A. Brooks, Jr., Stephen S. Tompkins, and Robert T. Swann

Command-Module Landing Dynamics

5.

D N MC O DROGUE P R C U E PHASE O A O L RECOVERY YA IS F AAHT F P LO By Sanger M. Burk, Jr.

6.

SUI " < . LANDING IMPACT STUDIES OF APOLLO COMMAND MOWLE. . . . . . . . ..'. - I * By Sandy M. Stubbs
I

. . .L . . .
/', 7

45 53

I/

*cl

Lunar Surface and Landing Dynamics

7. PENETROMEIXR RESEARCH AND DEVEZOFNENT FOR

8.

v ...................... -SURVEYOR SPACECRAFT T U H O ND N MC EXPERIMENT . . . . 4. . .$ . . . OCDW-YA IS

k .
r 4

LUNARSURFACEEVAMATION By Alfred G. Beswick and John Locke McCarty

1-15

61

By Sidney A. Batterson

69

a E-=.

\"
9.
10.

I , L.
LANDING STABILITY FOR LUNAR-LANDING VEHICLES B y W i l l i a m C. Walton, Jr., R o b e r t W. H e r r , and H. Wayne Leonard TFCBNIQUE FOR CONDUCTING FULL-SCALE LANDING-IMPACT TESTS AT SIMULATED LUNAR GRAVITY By U l y s s e J. B l a n c h a r d

' ?ID . kL''-: .

4

[g. . .
....

77

' . . . . . . . ,q~' . . .

87

Spacecraft Simulation
11. DISCUSSION O F REKDEZVOUS TECBNIQUES By G e n e C. Moen
12.

DYNAMIC SIMULATION OF L9M DOCKING WITH D O L L 0 COMMAND MODuIlE I N LUNAR ORBIT By H o w a r d G. H a t c h , Jr., and Jack E. Pennington
FOR

p).. . . . . .......... I......

.

-.

P'

2,
97

'>r

107

13. SIMPLIFIED MANUAL GUIDANCE TECHNIQUE LUNAR ORBIT ESTABLISHMENT

B y G e n e W. S p a r r o w and G. K i m b a l l Miller, Jr.

. . . . . . . . . . . . /. 1y. !. . . . . . e.
. . '. . . . .! . .k . .
1 1

-1

P 1

$-

&A,

119
125

-11

1
I

14.

MANUAL CONTROL O APOLLO HIGH-ALTITUDE ABORT F By A l f r e d J. Meintel, Jr., and K e n n e t h R . G a r r e n

, . m

--

15. PRELIMINARY TESTS WITFI B y D o n a l d E. H e w e s

THE L4NGIXY

LUNAR LANDING RESEARCH FACILITY

LAUNCH- VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY

. I ,

u\
PROGRAM

16. STATUS OF APOLLO-SATURN

DYNMC-MODELS

.....
d

$4,

B y Sumner A. L e a d b e t t e r

4:

['I.

143

17.

COMPARISON OF FULL-SCALE AND MODEL BUFFET RESPONSE OF APOLLO BOILERPLATE SERVlCE MODULE By R o b e r t V. D o g g e t t , Jr.

. .

18. WIND-TUNNEL 7NVESTIGATIONS O F EFFECTS O GROUND F

ON SATURN-APOLLO LAUNCHVEHICLES. By G e o r g e W. Jones, Jr., and Moses G. F a r m e r

- -- .

192,"EFFECT O ASTRONAUT CONTROL ON LAUNCH-VEHICI;E WIND F By R o b e r t K. Sleeper

20.!

SOME

INITIAL RESULTS B y P h i l i p M. Edge,

vi

OPERATIONALTECHNOLOGY
I

iG(i6P /

21.

RESEARCH A P O C TO RFENTRY C M U I A I N BLACKOUT PR A H O M NC TO S By Paul W. Huber

.....

2 2 d FLIGHIl RESULTS OF GENTNI REENTRY WMMUIlICATICNS ExpERlMENT By Lyle C. Schroeder

.
d :

PI
,
' I
e-...

189
205

F 23. FLUID MXCHANICS ASPECTS O THE GESIINI REENTRY CC TO S - AI N EXPERIMEXT

By Ivan E. Beckwith, Dennis M. Bushnell, and Jarrett K. H u f f l n a n 24.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- -J, .
I c j G d f

217

ANTENNAS UNDER A B U T I O N MATERIALS By W i l l i a m F. Croswell

. . . . . . . . .S F . . . . . . . . ..S
I
*-.
2

239

APOLLORELATEDTECHNOLOGY
25. m R R m. A 0 B . By Edmund A. Brummer

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J q r, a . . . . ip] . . . b

267

26.

APPLICATION TO APOLLO OF S M ORBIT DETlTERMINATION O E KFSULTSOFTEELLTNARORBITEIR By Alton P. Mayo EXPLORER sATEL;LITE MEASUREMENTS 0 ' ME!I'EOROID 3 PENETRATION RATES IN STRUCTURAL MATERIALS By Robert L. O'Neal

. . . . . . . . . . . .7. . ti," . . . . .
Q
-P

1 1

275

27.

. .

38
,

F:

.
z7 r -

Q-2
4

4
I \

283

28.

UTILIZATION O APOLLO SPACECRAFT SYSTEMS F R SUPPORT F O OF A MANNED ORBITAL RESEARCH LABORATORY By W i l l i a m C. Hayes, Jr.

-"I

*>!.

293

29.

D N M C AND CONTROL ?33SEARCH APPLICABIX TO YA TS "'VD APOLLO MTENSION SYSTEMS By Peter R. Kurzhals, Claude R. Keckler, and W i l l i a m M. Piland

.................

p. ]
? *
~

303

30.

CAziBON DIOXIDE CONTROL F R MANNED SPACECRAFT O By Rex B. Martin

. . . . . .q . .q . +)
2 .
[,

313
323

31.
32.

WATER AkD W S E MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AT By Vernon G. Collins and Robert W. Johnson

.......... , /' "3 CONTAMINAlvT COUECTION AND IDENTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . 7 By Robert M. Bethea, Iris C. Anderson, and Robert A . Bruce --4 ,
r E
, e - >

333

vii

33.
34.

CONTAMINANTS FROM MANNED SPACECRAFT S m T I O N S By E. Eugene Mason and C h a r l e s H. Wilson

.
.
F. B r i s s e n d e n

.......

~FUlTED REGENERATIVE LIFE SIPPORT SYSTEM F R O \ EXTENDEDMISSIONDURATIONS By Warren D. Hy-pes, Robert A. Bruce, and Franklin W. Booth
M O W

35. WNAR STAY TlME EXTENSION

By Charles I. Tynan, Jr.

F 36. WATER-IMMEEISION TECHNIQUE FOR S m T I O N O INGRESS-EGRESS,pq

MANEWERS UNDER CONDITIONS OF WEIGaTLFSSNESS By Otto F. Trout, Jr.

. . . bL'!. .
.
\

37.

SPACETEZIEBING. By Gary P. B e a s l e y and Roy

. *
\

<\

6?1i. . . '5
I + 1,

391

viii

1 PROJECT FIRE STAGNATION HEATING MEASUREMENTS .

By Dona L. Cauchon and Richard C. Dingeldein

The results of the first flight of Project F i r e (Flight 1) i n d i c a t e t h a t a stagnation t o t a l heating r a t e approaching 1400 watts/cm2 was measured near peak heating. This value was of the order of 400 watts/cm2 higher than that determined by adding t h e radiation above 0 . 2 3 measured onboard t h e F i r e vehicle (corrected f o r calorimeter absorptance) t o a representative calculated convect i v e heating rate. The evidence i s strong t h a t vacuum-ultraviolet radiation w a s e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y responsible f o r t h i s additional flux. It i s shown t h a t t h e measured r a d i a t i v e and t o t a l heating rates can be predicted with good accuracy by using c e r t a i n available a n a l y t i c a l methods..
INTRODUCTION

P r o j e c t F i r e i s a f l i g h t experiment designed t o measure r e e n t r y heating a t hyperbolic v e l o c i t i e s . Two f l i g h t s have been made along t h e Eastern Test Range with r e e n t r y i n the v i c i n i t y of Ascension Island. The first f l i g h t was made on: April 14, 1964, and t h e second, on May 22, 1963. Except f o r a concluding note about preliminary.results fram Flight 2 t h e present paper i s concerned only , with the results of Flight 1 .
O e af t h e primary objectives of Woject F i r e i s t o define the t o t a l n heating environment associated with the reentry of a large-scale Apollo-shaped vehicle a t a v e l o c i t y of 37,000 f e e t p e r second. I n this study t o t a l heating i s defined as t h e heating t o t h e body surface from t h e two p r i n c i p a l modes of t r a n s f e r ; namely, the convective heating and t h e r a d i a t i o n t h a t i s absorbed by t h e surface. This t o t a l heating was determined by using calorimeters on the forebody of t h e vehicle.

I n order t o understand more f u l l y t h e mechanics of heating f o r t h e two separate modes, d i r e c t measurements of t h e gas radiance were a l s o obtained by using onboard radiometers. The difference between t h e t o t a l heating rates and the measured r a d i a t i v e heating rates is a t t r i b u t e d t o convective heating and t o r a d i a t i o n absorbed by t h e calorimeters, but which i s outside t h e measurable wavelength range of t h e radiometers.

The results of Project F i r e o f f e r f o r t h e f i r s t time i n t h i s severe environment t h e opportunity t o compare actual f l i g h t measurements on a large-scale body with t h e o r e t i c a l estimates.
This paper will b r i e f l y t r e a t the reentry-package configuration and t h e F i r e t r a j e c t o r y with p a r t i c u l a r emphasis on the r e e n t r y portion. Then follows a discussion of t h e t o t a l and radiative heating rates deduced from t h e F l i g h t 1

reentyy. Finally, calculations w i l l be presented showing t h e extent t o which t h e F i r e measurements are predictable by c e r t a i n a v a i l a b l e a n a l y t i c a l methods.

SYMBOLS

q,: '*.aw.mih&q*
Q
%e

stagnation heating rat e, watts/ cm2 absorptance of beryUium calorimeters wavelength, microns

h
7

(v)

transmission of hot air i n wavelength range from 0.05 t a 0 2 - , .11 defined as %b,with a b s o r p t i o n / q W , transparent gas

Subscripts :

cow ,
GE
RAD

convective General E l e c t r i c r a d i a t i o n theory radiative

DISCUSS1ON AND RESULTS

Figure 1 shows t h e Project F i r e r e e n t r y package t h a t was accelerated t o an e n t r y velocity of about 38,000 f e e t p e r second using an Atlas booster and an Antares I1 rocket motor. The r e e n t r y package was approximately 2 feet i n diameter and weighed about 185 pounds. Because no single calorimeter could survive t h e e n t i r e reentry, t h e experiment was broken down i n t o t h r e e d i s c r e t e datagathering periods. Three separate beryllium layers (indicated i n black i n f i g . 1) served as t h e calorimeters during these periods. Each layer w a s i n s t r u mented r a d i a l l y and i n depth with thermocouples. Two phenolic-asbestos a b l a t i o n layers, sandwiched between t h e calorimeters, provided t h e heat protection after the preceding calorimeters had melted. These a b l a t i o n l a y e r s w e r e a c t i v e l y ejected a t prescribed t i m e s during t h e r e e n t r y i n order t o conduct, i n a clean environment, the experiments near peak-heating and during t h e terminal heating portion of the reentry. A final a b l a t i o n layer and appropriate i n s u l a t i n g makerial protected t h e main body of t h e r e e n t r y package.
Three t o t a l radiometers were used t o measure t h e gas radiance one a t t h e stagnation region, one viewing a t an o f f s e t location on the front face, and one louking out f r m the afteYbody. The radiometers viewed the r a d i a t i o n thraugh f u s e d - q w t z windows.

It should be noted t h a t t h e reentry-package shape during the second experiment period i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h a t d t h e Apolla command m o d u l e .
2

Although Project F i r e provided extensive heating data over t h e forebody and afterbody, s p e c t r d coverage of the gas radiance, afterbody pressure measurements, and data on radio-comrmmications attenuatiun or "blackout," this paper i s confined t o a discussion of the heating rates i n t h e stagnation region. The F l i g h t l h i s t o r y s t a r t e d with launch from Cape Kennedy, F l o r i d a Following A t l a s staging and shroud separation, t h e spacecraft, which (flg. 2) consisted of t h e v e l o c i t y package with i t s guidance s h e l l , was separated from the A t i a s sustainer md u p i t c h maieu-ver 'wu&s zffeeted to place it ir: the p q e z a t t i t u d e f o r later f i r i n g of t h e Antares I1 rocket motor downrange. After a coast of some 20 minutes, a t an a l t i t u d e of about 1,000,000 feet, t h e spacec r a f t was spun up, t h e velocity-package s h e l l separated, and t h e Antares I1 w s a ignited. The rocket motor burned out a t approximately 7OO,OOO feet and t h e reentry package w s separated from t h e spent motor case a t about 470,000 feet. a The reentry portion of t h e t r a j e c t o r y i s defined as beginning at 400,000 feet, some 7 seconds after separation. The p a r t of t h e f l i g h t of research i n t e r e s t l i e s below 400,OOO f e e t .

The Fire reentry t r a j e c t o r y beginning at 400,000 feet i s shown i n figure 3. Velocity and a l t i t u d e are p l a t t e d against r e e n t r y t i m e from 400,000 feet. The e n t r y angle a t k00,OOO feet was -14.50. The open-bar segments a t t h e bottom of t h e figure i n d i c a t e t h e periods where t h e calorimeters obtained data; each total. heating experiment was considered terminated when t h e f r o n t surface of t h e calorimeter melted. The shorter darkened portions define t h e periods of acceptable transmission c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e o p t i c a l windows. Note t h a t t h e . F i r e v e l o c i t y rernained above t h e i n i t i a l Apollo e n t r y velocity (which i s about 36,000 feet p r second) through t h e second data period and was s u p e r o r b i t a l e throughout almost t h e e n t i r e experiment.
Stagnation heating rates are plotted against reentry time from 400,000 feet i n figure 4. The P r o j e c t F i r e r e s u l t s are shown as heavily bordered bands; t h e spread i n t h e results r e f l e c t s t h e accuracy t o which t h e temperature-time h i s t o r i e s from t h e calorimeters could be reasonably determined. The F i r e heat flux w a s due t o the convective plus t h e absorbed radiative heating a t t h e beryllium 40 calorimeter surface. A value approaching 1 0 watts/cm2 i s indicated near peak heating. Were it possible t o measure all the gas r a d i a t i o n by t h e radiometers, t h e convective and r a d i a t i v e heating r a t e s could e a s i l y be assessed separately by merely subtracting t h e absorbed radiative component from t h e t o t a l heating rate. This i s not t h e case, however. Radiation i s s p e c t r a l l y dependent and the wavelength cutoff d the q u a r t z windows e s s e n t i a l l y d i c t a t e s limits on t h e amount of incident gas r a d i a t i o n a t t h e body surface t h a t i s a c t u a l l y sensed by t h e radiometers. I n order now t o distinguish between t h e v a r i m s modes of heating, a representative convective heating r a t e based on the F i r e t r a j e c t o r y was calculated by using t'ne theory of reference l. I n t h e absence of perturbing phenomena such as coupling effects with radiation, t h i s estimate of t h e convective heating i s reasonable. The difference between t h i s estimate and t h e t o t a l heating r e s u l t s should represent a measure of t h e absorbed r a d i a t i o n over t h e complete spectrum. The discontinuities exhibited i n the calculations r e f l e c t t h e effect of considering changing body shape due t o e j e c t i n g t h e heat shields.

The wavelength influence on t h e r a d i a t i o n data i s indicated i n figure 5. The wavelength s c a l e i s indicated logarithmically fram 0.05 t o lOp. The theory i n d i c a t e s that t h e energy from h o t - a i r r a d i a t i o n i s d i s t r i b u t e d mainly over t h e spectrum from 0.05 t o 2 p and t h a t beyond these bounds it i s negligible. The quartz windows e s s e n t i a l l y l i m i t the radiometers t o t h e range from 0.23 t o 4.w which i s indicated i n t h e figure by t h e dark bar segment. Therefore, t h e radiometers amply cover all t h e gas r a d i a t i o n at t h e higher wavelengths. However, a t t h e low wavelengths, i n t h e region denoted as vacuum u l t r a v i o l e t below 0.2%, s u b s t a n t i a l l y high l e v e l s of r a d i a t i o n can be estimated. This r a d i a t i o n would not be recorded by the radiometers, but would be sensed by t h e calorimeters which absorb almost l i k e a blackbody a t t h e short wavelengths. The term, +acuun u l t r a v i o l e t , has i n general been used t o define t h e r a d i a t i o n below about 0.14. I n t h i s report, t h a t description has been extended t o describe all u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n below 0 . 2 3 . Figure 6 i s a p l o t of t h e stagnation r a d i a t i v e heating rate against r e e n t r y time frm 400,000 f e e t . The r a d i a t i v e heating i s indicated on a l o g scale. The experimental F i r e heating rakes f o r t h e wavelength range from 0.23 t o 4.w are indicated by t h e heavy l i n e s f o r t h e t h r e e data periods. The maximum heating r a t e obtained by F i r e was about 1 0 watts/cm2 i n t h e second data 8 period, p r i o r t o t h e time of expected peak radiation. I n f i g u r e 6 i s a l s o indicated t h e range of values r e s u l t i n g fram calculat i o n s over comparable wavelength ranges made by using some of t h e more prominent , t h e o r i e s (see r e f s . 2 3, and 4) and t h e F i r e r e e n t r y tradectory. I n t h e second and t h i r d data periods, t h e F i r e r e s u l t s tend toward t h e lower bound of theor e t i c a l prediction. The theory surrounding t h e first d a t a period i s considerably more complex and l e s s understood than f o r the other periods. A t t h e beginning of reentry nonequilibrium r a d i a t i o n and radiation-limiting phenomena contribute strongly t o t h e shapes of t h e t h e o r e t i c a l curves. It i s beyond t h e scope of t h i s presentation t o discuss t h e assumptions used t o account f o r such e f f e c t s as truncation and c o l l i s i o n limiting; however, these e f f e c t s have been considered, and at these l o w i n i t i a l values, t h e F i r e r e s u l t s a r e predictable t o within a f e w watts/cm2.

I n an attempt t o assess t h e possible r a d i a t i o n below 0.23, one a d d i t i o n a l theory has been added i n figure 7. The calculated r a d i a t i v e heating f o r t h e F i r e t r a j e c t o r y denoted by this theory includes an estimate of t h e vacuum ultrav i o l e t contribution; this theory covers t h e spectnmr. of hot-air r a d i a t i o n from 0.05 t o l. @ By noting again that t h e heating rate i s p l o t t e d on 8 logarithmic scale, t h e additional r a d i a t i o n in t h e vacuum ultraviolet region can indeed be appreciated. This estimate of r a d i a t i o n i s based on t h e assumption of a transparent gas, that is, there i s no absorption in t h e shock layer. This assupt i o n i s q u i t e v a l i d aver t h e conventional wavelength range covered by t h e radiometers; however, i n t h e u l t r a v i o l e t portion, this is not t h e case. Much of t h e e n e r w indicated by t h i s theory w i l l be absorbed within the gas befare it reaches t h e body. The degree t o which it w i l l be absorbed and what this absorpt i o n of energy does t o t h e various modes of heat transfer are not completely understood at t h i s time.
If t h e measured r a d i a t i o n from F i r e (i. e., that above 0.2%) , corrected f o r t h e absorptivity of t h e beryllium calorimeter, i s added t o t h e calculated Cohen

convective heating (see f i g . k ) , a rather s m a l l mount of energy i s added compared wlth what is Eeeded t o account for the t o t a l heating l e v e l s measured on t h e calorimeters. The evidence i s strong that t h e portion of energy which is not accounted f o r i s due t o the vacuum-ultraviolet radiation, adjusted f o r gas absorption. This additional radiation i s probably transmitted i n p a r t d i r e c t l y t o the body surface. On t h e othe? hand, t h e portion of t h e r a d i a t i o n that i s absorbed i n t h e shock and boundary layers may w e l l reappear a t t h e surface i n t h e form of enhanced convective heating.
What i s really s i g n i f i c a n t , i s not so much t h e mode by which t h e heat i s transmitted t o t h e w a l l , but t h e f a c t t h a t , i n t h e region of peak heating, an a d d i t i o n a l h e a t f l u x of t h e order of 4OO watts/cm2, roughly twice t h e r a d i a t i o n measured onboard i n t h e conventional wavelength range, contributed t o t h e F i r e reentry heating, and that vacuum-ultraviolet r a d i a t i o n appears t o be t h e o r i g i n a l energy source.

Figure 8 indicates t h e f a i r l y good accuracy with which the t o t a l calorime t e r heating rates f o r F l i g h t 1 can be predicted on t h e basis of' using availu able methods. The.calculated heating curve i s t h e s m o f ; (1)Cohen convect i v e heating (ref. l),and (2) GE radiation theory (ref. 2) s p e c t r a l l y adjusted f o r the absorption of t h e beryllium calorimeters and absorption within t h e gas (designated by 7 ) .

'

It can be seen that these methods are not i n complete agreement with t h e Project F i r e r e s u l t s , but c e r t a i n l y appear t o be representative of t h e heat energy available t o t h e body regardless of t h e mode of t r a n s f e r . Methods by which better account can be made of the differences between t h e t h e o r i e s and t h e F i r e results are c e r t a i n l y desirable, and may in som cases already be avail,e able. For instance, it appears that the deviations i n the f i r s t data period m y a w e l l be a t t r i b u t e d t o increased convective heating due t o v o r t i c i t y i n t e r a c t i o n s between t h e shock and boundary layer. The prevailing Reynolds numbers during t h e earay reentry are very low ( l e s s than 30,000), and a l l radiation, including t h e vacuum u l t r a v i o l e t , i s at r e l a t i v e l y low l e v e l s . I n t h e second and t h i r d data periods, there e x i s t s a need f o r continued work, both t h e o r e t i c a l and experimental, i n t h e area of vacuum-ultraviolet radiation, absorption phenomena, and interchange mechanisms between radiative and convective heating t o provide any f i n a l answers about some of t h e differences indicated.
The f l i g h t records of t h e Flight 2 r e e n t r y are being analyzed a t t h e prese n t time; a preliminary assessment of the r a d i a t i o n a;nd t o t a l heating measurements i n d i c a t e s that t h e results (using appropriate v e l o c i t y scaling) appear t o . be consistent with those of F l i g h t 1 CONCLUDING REsrIAHIcs

It i s evident that Project F i r e has indeed provided valuable anchor-point data f o r assessing t h e heating associated with t h i s r e e n t r y environment. The indication that t h e F i r e r e e n t r y can be predicted by c e r t a i n e x i s t i n g methods should provide assurance f o r t h e Apollo FYoject t h a t the reentry heating environment f o r t h e command module can also be estimated w i t h good accuracy.

REFERENCES

1 Cohen, Nathaniel B : Boundary-Layer Similar Solutions and Correlation . . EQuations for Laminar Heat-Transfer Distribution in Equilibrium Ar a t i Velocities up to 41,000 Feet Per Second. NASA TR R-ll8, 1961.
2. Nardone, M. C , ; Breene, R. 0.j Zeldin, S. S.; and Riethof, T. R.: Radlance ecies in High Temperature A i r . Tech. Infonu. Ser. R63SD3 (Contract (694)-222), Missile and Space Div., Gen. Elec. Co., June 1963. (Available from DDC as AD No. 40854. )

3. Kivel, B.; and Bailey, K. : Tables of Radiation From High Temperature A i r . Res. Rept. 21 (Contracts AF 04(643)-18 and AF 49(638)-61), AVCO Res. Lab., Dw. 1957.

4. Meyerott, R. E.; Sokoloff, J.; and Nicholls, R. A . : Absorption Coefficients of A i r . JWCRC-TR-59-296, U . S . A i r Force, Sept. 1959.

PROJECT FIRE FLIGHT SEQUENCE OF EVENTS

Figure 1

Figure 2

FLIGHT 1 REENTRY TRAJECTORY

FLIGHT VELOCITY, 4 F, 0r
~

ITY

ALTITUDE, i40x104 FT

FLIGHT 1 STAGNATION HEATING RATES OBTAINED FROM CALORIMETER MEASUREMENTS

TIME'O AT ALTITUDE=400.000 FT

FIRE DATA
30

30
ALTITUDE

EXPERIMENTS

1 6

24

32

REENTRY TIME, SEC

Figure 3

Figure 4

:TICAL

SPECTRAL RANGE OF RADIATION MEASUREMENTS

I
I
I

BERYLLIUM CALORIMETERS

4I

.05

.I

I WAVELENGTH, p

I IO

Figure 5

Figure 6

FLIGHT 1 RADIATIVE HEATING RESULTS AND THEORETICAL

TIME = 0 A AlTITUDE * 400.000FT T 2,000-

PREDICTIONS

ESTIMATE OF RIGHT 1 .STAGNATION HEATING RATES

TIME * 0 A ALTITUDE = 400,000 FT T CALCULATED TOTAL HEATING
qCoIIV+ ( A = O . Z l D D p +( k = O . O 5 + 0 2 r j 7 'B0(qRAdtE ) 'B.(qRAD)Wr

1,000 :

100;

STAGNATION RADIATIVE HEATING RATE,

.
IO:

W/cmz

STPGNATITION HEATING RATE, W/cd

FIRE RESULTS (23 TO 4Q4

I

1 2

1 6

24 28 32 ELAPSED REENTRY TIME. SEC

20

36

40

1
0

u
,

i
,

/ ,

,'\,
\

1 6 24 32 ELAPSED REENTRl TIME, SEC

40

Figure 7

Figure 8

2.

RECENT EWER=&

STITDIES ON HEN' 'R N m IAS R

TO A P O U O COMMAND MODUIX
By Robert A. Jones and James L. IIunt

This paper presents some recent experimental results on the interference effects of protuberances and reaction-control jets on the heat transfer to the Apollo command module and some results of a basic investigation on the flow field and heat transfer in the separated region on the afterbody. The experiments were made in the Langley Mach 8 variable density tunnel which is a conventional blowdown facility. It w s found that the presence of the shear pads a . . Measurements of increased the heat-transfer rate by factors as large as 2 5 the separated-layer thickness on the afterbody indicate that this thickness varies with Reynolds number and is thicker at the lower Reynolds numbers. The heat transfer in the separated region was found to be a function of the separated-layer thickness. The results from several different types of ground facilities a8 well as some results from flight 1 of Project Fire were compared and it was found that an upper limit of heat transfer to the separated region could be defined.

Although much research has been done on the heat transfer to the Apollo command module, several areas of uncertainty still exist. This paper w i l l describe s a n e recent experimental work related to two such areas. One is the interference effects of protuberances and reaction-control jets; the other is the heat transfer in the separated region on the afterbody. These studies were made in the Langley Mach 8 variable-density tunnel which is a conventional blowdown facility equipped with a model-injection mechanism for transient testing.
SYMBOLS
C

specific heat at constant pressure diameter of face of model total enthalpy local measured heat-transfer coefficient heat-transfer coefficient at stagnation point

Bt
h hS

thermal conductivity of model wall free-stream Mach number

10ca.l measured pressure.

MW
P
pJ

stagnation pressure of reaction-control jet stagnation press e behind normal shock at free-stream Mach number

pt
'w,

free-stream Reynolds nunber based on body diameter surface distance adiabatic wall temperature phase-change temperature total temperature velocity at edge of separated boundary layer based on a reference temperature compressibility factor at stagnation conditions angle of attack; thermal diffusivity separated-layer thickness measured normal to free-stream flow direction viscosity based on reference temperature conditions at edge of separated boundary layer density based on reference temperature condition at edge of separated boundary layer
PRO!INBERANC!ES AND REACTION CONTROLS

Taw

TPc
Tt
U

Zt
U

6
P

Photographs of the 0.026-scde model showing many of the protuberances are shown in figure 1 The effects of these irregularities on the heat transfer are, . difficult to measure by conventional thin-skin calorimeter techniques because of the small size of the models which can be tested in hypersonic facilities. The small models make instrumentation with thermocouples difficult and, in addition, since it is not known beforehand which area will be most affected it is difficult t o determine where thermocouples should be placed.

10

To overcome these difficulties a new experimental technique developed at the Langley Research Center m s used i n the present study. This technique employs a very thin coating of a material which undergoes a visible phase change from an opaque solid to a clear liquid at accurately known temperatures. The model, which is made from a dark-colored low-thermal-conductivity plastic, is sprayed with just enough of this material to fog its surface. This coating, which has the appearance of tiny opaque white crystals, is less than 0 0 1 inch .0 thick. The cool coated model is suddenly exposed to the test stream and the progreseion of the phase-change patterns is recorded by a time-study motionpicture camera. The temperature of the model surface at the location of the phase-change linea is assumed to be the same as the melting temperature of the particular material used. A photograph of the tunnel test section showing the model, camera, and stroboscopic flash light used to illuminate the model is presented in figure 2.

The isothermal-coated model is placed in the model injection mechanism located directly beneath the test section; the t m e l is then started and brought to the desired test condition; the camera and light are then turned on; and the model is rapidly injected into the test airstream. The useful test time is usually from 1/2 to 1 seconds. After completion of the test, the model is 0 removed, the coating is washed off with a special thinner, and then the model is cooled and repainted for the next test. The value of the heat-transfer coefficient is found by relating the time elapsed, from model exposure until a particular phase-change pattern occurs, to the solution of the transient heatconduction equation. One form of this solution is plotted in figure 3. The values of the model thermal properties k and a a r e known as well as the value of the temperature ratio Tpc2mj thus for the time corresponding to any particular phase-change pattern, the heat-transfer coefficient can be read from this plot. A more complete description of this technique and a discussion of the accuracy obtainable with it i s given in reference 1 . Prints of three individual frames of the motion-picture film taken during one test to determine heating rates i the vicinity of the shear pads on the n face are given in figure 4. The lines separating the light and dark portion are lines at which the phase change is taking place and consequently are lines of known constant heat-transfer coefficient. Figure 5 is a map of the heattransfer distribution on the face of the model showing the effects of the shear pads and tension ties. The maximum heating rates near the windward pads were 1 1 times the stagnation-point value. Measurements made in the same region on .7 a smooth model indicate that the interference effect of the shear pads was to increase the heating rate by factors as large as 2.5. Figure 6 shows photographs of the phase-change patterns near one of the reaction-control jets and a map of the heat-transfer distribution obtained from . such patterns is given in figure 7 This reaction-control jet is located in what is normally the separated afterbody region. In figure 6 the thrust of the jet is outward so as to roll the top of the model away from the observer. The jet is a small contoured supersonic nozzle exhausting cool dry air. The design of this nozzle and the pressure at which it was operated were such as to match the exhaust expansion boundary of the reaction-control motors on the actual command module. The maximum heat-transfer coefficient measured in the inter.5 ference region of the jet was 0 1 of the stagnation-point value which

ll

corresponds to an increase of about l . times the heating rate in the same area l with the jet off. This increase in heating rate is rather lmgej however, during entry the control jets are fired in short bursts and during a portion of the trajectory which does not coincide with peak heating. Therefore, this increase in heating due to the control jet does not greatly affect the heatshield design. Perhaps of more concern is the effect of the control jets on the af'terbody pressure distribution and the resulting changes in net force caused by the jets. The regions of increased pressure should correspond roughly to the regions of increased heating; therefore the present technique may be of m e in pressure-distribution studies. The results discussed here as to the effects of protuberances and reaction controls on heat trmsfer are typical of the more complete results presented in reference 2 .
SEPARATED AFTEIiBoDY HEAT ! R N F R T A SE

Most of the data obtained in the separated region on the afterbody were obtained by using sting- or strut-mounted models which, of course, disturb the afterbody flow field and make interpretation of data difficult. In aaition, no adequate theories or correlations for heat transfer in separated afterbody regions exist at the present time. Therefore a study of the flow field, pressure distribution, and heat transfer in the separated afterbody region was made. Measurements of the separated-layer thickness at zero angle of attack are shown in figure 8 for two different model-aupport configurations. The technique used to make these measurements is illustrated in figure 9. A cylinder of approximately 1/16-inch diameter was coated with a temperature-sensitive material and placed in a hole in the afterbody surface so that it projected normal to the surface. When the model was exposed to the test airstream, the impingement of the separated shear layer on the coated cylinder resulted in a clearly defined phase-change pattern which indicated the position of the shear layer. O l one cylinder was used for each test, but by varying the location of this ny cylinder in subsequent tests, the streamlines of the shear layer shown in figure 8 were determined. The effect of the cylinder itself on the separated-layer thickness was thought to be negligible inasmuch as it had an insignificant effect on the measured afterbody pressure. There are two interesting results indicated by the patterns of figure 8 : ( ) the separated-layer thickness varies with Reynolds number, the thicker 1 layer occurring at the lowest Reynolds number, and ( ) the separated-layer 2 thickness varies with the sting or strut used to support the model. In all, four different strut configurations were studied. Two of these are shown in . figure 8 The other two struts used consisted of a sting projecting straight back parallel to the center line of the model and one similar to the strut on the left in figure 8 except that it was twice as thick. The strut shown on the left of figure 8 appeared to have the least interference effect on the separated afterbody flow for zero angle of attack.

12

Measurements of the separated-layer thickness at an angle of attack of 35O are shown in figure 1 . The separated-layer thiclmess is much larger than that 0 for an angle of attack of Oo and a general trend for thicker separated layers at the lower Reynolds numbers is evident. The reversal of this trend at the two highest Reynolds numbers is not understood.
1 Figure 1 shows measured pressure distributions in the separated afterbody region for a = Oo and . ' 5 3 These measurements were made with miniaturized thermocouple-ty-pe gages which were located inside the model and connected to the orifices with 112-inch lengths of tubing. These gages responded very rapidly and less than 1 second was required for a measurement; thus, the model remained near room temperature. For both angles of attack the level of pressure varies with Reynolds number; the higher pressures occur at the lower Reynolds numbers. This trend is similar to the variation in separated-layer thickness where the thicker layers occurred at the lower Reynolds number. C a l culations of the afterbody pressure made by assuming that the flow expands isentropically from stagnation conditions around to the measured separation angle were in close agreement with the measured pressure levels for an angle of attack of Oo.

Several attempts were made to correlate the heat transfer to the separated afterbody by using the measured separated-layer thickness and pressures discussed earlier. One possible correlation is shown in figure 12 for an angle of attack of Oo. In this figure the Stanton number based on local flow conditions external to the separated boundary layer is plotted as a function of the ratio of surface distance from the rear of the afterbody to the separated-layer thickness measured normal to the free-stream flow direction. The measured heattransfer coefficients were taken from reference 3 which describes a heat-transfer study for the afterbody of this same configuration which was a l s o made in the same facility under similar test conditions. The different symbols denote Reynolds numbers in the same manner as for figure 1 . Although the correlation 1 of figure 12 i s for a limited range of conditions, it does indicate that the heat-transfer rate in the separated afterbody region is sensitive to the separated-layer thickness which, in turn, is a function of Reynolds number as well as of the sting or strut configuration used in the test. In view of the fact that the afterbody separated flow field is affected by the model support,. extrapolation of ground-facility results to flight conditions is difficult. However, by comparing data obtained in several different facilities under different test conditions, an upper limit for heat transfer to this region can be defined. Figure 1 3 shows data from several facilities as w e l l as data from flight 1 of ProJect Fire. These data are presented in terms of a local Stanton number based on conditions at the edge of the separated boundary layer as a function of local Reynolds number based on the same conditions and surface distance from the forward stagnation point. For most of these data, the local conditions were determined by expanding the flow isentropically fram stagnation conditions to the measured afterbody pressure. In cases where the afterbody pressures were not available, correlations were used to determine the pressure. The set of data points for the Project Fire high-altitude case were handled somewhat differently. At these flight conditions the flow around the body is in chemical nonequilibrium; thus, in order to get the local Stanton

numbers, the composition was assumed to be frozen at the stagnation equilibrium conditions and expanded isentropically to the measured afterbody pressure. It can be seen in figure 13 that a line representing the upper limit of these different data can be drawn. Such a line would correspond to approximately 5 percent of the calculated convective heat-transfer rate for the stagnation point at an angle of attack of 0 and could be used as an upper limit for ' heat-shield design. A comparison of the afterbody pressure data obtained during flight 1 of Project Fire with the afterbody pressures of the present study is given in fig4 ure 1 . For the low Reynolds rimer flight data, the band shown represents the scatter in the telemetered data. There were no pressure data obtained in flight for the Reynolds number range between the points shown since the high dynamic pressure drove the gages off scale. This comparison indicates that much the same variation of afterbody pressure with Reynolds number occurred even though the test conditions were very different. CONCLUDING REMARKS In concluding, it is necessary to point out that although the new experimental techniques described herein have obtained test results which are helpful in determining the Apollo heat-shield design, these data were obtained under conditions far different from those that will be encountered during the'Apollo reentry. Therefore, data from flights such as Fire, Mercury, Gemini, and the early earth-orbital Apollo flights must be carefully analyzed and used for confirmation of' the design.

REFERENCES
1 Jones, Robert A ; and Hunt, James L.: An Improved Technique for Obtaining . . Quantitative Aerodynamic Heat-Transfer Data With Surface Coating Materials. Paper No. 63-13., Am. Inst. Aeron. Astronaut., Jan. 1965.
2 Jones, Robert A,; and Hunt, James L s Effects of Cavities, Protuberances, . . and Reaction-Control Jets on Heat Transfer to the Apollo Command Module. NASA TM X-1063, 1965.

3. Jones, Robert A , : Experimental Investigation of the Overall Pressure Distribution, Flow Field, and Afterbody Heat-Transfer Distribution of an Apollo Reentry Configuration at a Mach Number of 8 NASA TM X-813, 1963. . (Supersedes NASA TM X-699.)

Figure 1

L-2458-1

Figure 2

L-2458-2

Figure 3

Figure 4

L-2458-4

Figure 5

Figure 6

L-2458-6

SEPARATED LE $$ HEAT-TRA
R

THICKNESS

OL JET

Figure 1

Figure 8

16

TECHNIQUE FOR MEASURING SEPARATED-LAYER THICKNESS n

SEWRATED-LAYER THICKNESS a = 35"

Figure 9

Figure 10

AFTERBOW PRESSURE DISTRIBUTIONS

HEAT-TRANSFER DISTRIBUTION ON AFTERBODY

U' . 0

16%

.mor

,o15b /
a=O"
' m .
d

a.350

"

STANTON NUMBER.

.5X106

&

10-3-

% % !
I 4 X106

L , , I I I I , I , I I I I I I
.I

.2 .3

.4

.5

.6

. 0 7

.I

.2

.3

.4

.5

.6

.7

s/d

s/d

Figure 11

Figure 12

.05

STANTON NUMBER,

.021 I
PPt

COMPARISON OF PROJECT FIRE AFTERBODY PRESSURE MTA WITH WINDTUNNEL M T A

O
0
0 .

.01

M*
,0051
0

mu,m
300 2,640 28.642

"t.

TtPR
1,000 6,450 19,420

I
104

LRC VARDENS. PROJECTLlRE 1 PROJECT FIRE 1

8 8.4 39.8

2x104

5x104

105b , d 2x105

5x105

16 0

2x106

Figure 13

Figure 14

18

3 . AERODYNAMIC HEATING CHARACIXRISTICS O F

APOLLO LAUNCH CONFIGURATION

B Robert L. S t a l l i n g s , Jr., and E a r l A. Price, Jr. y

Heat-transfer measurements have been obtained i n wind-tunnel tests of O.dt5-scale models of t h e Apollo launch configuration. The tests were cond cted a t Mach numbers from 2.98 t o 4.44 and Reynolds numbers per f o o t from 2 x l a t o 6 x 106. The measurements were i n good agreement with e x i s t i n g t h e o r i e s based on l o c a l measured pressures i n regions not a f f e c t e d by surface protuberances. I n regions a f f e c t e d by t h e s e protuberances, l a r g e heating r a t e s were obtained; t h e maximum values were generally confined t o t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e protuberance installation.

dood c o r r e l a t i o n of t h e experimental heating data w a s obtained through t h e t e s t range of l o c a l Reynolds numbers f o r t h e region of t h e command and s e r v i c e m o d u l e s not a f f e c t e d by t h e surface protuberances. These data w e r e compared with f l i g h t heating r a t e s obtained during t h e launch phase of t h e Apollo m i s s i o n A-101. Although fair agreement was obtained between f l i g h t and w i n d tunnel results, it i s believed that the agreement could have been improved had d e t a i l e d pressure data f o r t h e f l i g h t configuration been available.
INTRODUCTION

The aerodynamic heating encountered by spacecraft during launch is much less severe than t h e heating associated with reentry; however, f o r t h o s e launch vehicles reaching hypersonic f l i g h t speeds within t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere, thermal protection f o r t h e spacecraft and o t h e r components of t h e launch conf i g u r a t i o n i s generally required. Due t o the w e i g h t penalty of t h e heatp r o t e c t i o n material, it i s highly desirable t o be a b l e t o p r e d i c t t h e aerodytlamic heating over t h e launch configuration i n order t o employ t h e heat prot e c t i o n only where necessary. It w a s p r i n c i p a l l y f o r t h i s reason t h a t aerodynamic heating t e s t s were conducted i n t h e Langley Unitary Plan wind tunnel on a series of O.OLc5-scale models of t h e Apollo launch configuration. The tests were conducted through a range of Mach numbers from 2.98 t o 4.44 and a range of free-stream Reynolds numbers per foot from 2 x 1 06 t o 6 x lo6. Correlations of t h e experimental data are presented. The data are also compared with t h e o r e t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s based on l o c a l measured pressures. Results fran t h e windtunnel tests are compared i n t h i s presentation with f l i g h t d a t a obtained during t h e Apollo mission A-101, which incorporated t h e BP-13 spacecraft and t h e %turn I launch vehicle (SA-6).

SYMBOLS
d h service-module diameter coefficient of heat t r a n s f e r number .free-stream Mach 5 5 s

Moo
NSt, 2

Stanton number based on l o c a l conditions service-module radius, o r command-module radius free-stream Reynolds number based on service-module diameter

r
Rd R2

local Reynolds number based on surface length free-stream Reynolds number per f o o t surface length ( s e e f i g . 4 )

%o
S

Tw/Taw

r a t i o of wall temperature t o a d i a b a t i c w a l l temperature A P R T S AND TEST CONDITIONS PA AU

The tests were conducted i n t h e high Mach number test section of t h e Langley Unitary Plan wind tunnel. A comparison of t h e wind-tunnel range of t e s t Reynolds numbers with t h e launch t r a j e c t o r y values of t h e Apollo m i s sion A-101 (BP-13) i s given i n f i g u r e 1. The free-stream Reynolds number based on t h e service-module diameter i s p l o t t e d as a function of Mach number. The curve represents t h e launch t r a j e c t o r y , and t h e crosshatched regions i n d i c a t e & , t h e Reynolds number range f o r t h e wind-tunnel t e s t s . A t I = 2.98, t h e m a x i m u m Reynolds numbers f o r t h e tunnel t e s t s are approximately 1/3 t h e f u l l - s c a l e flight Reynolds numbers. With increasing Mach number, which corresponds t o an increase i n a l t i t u d e and a reduction i n t h e f l i g h t Reynolds numbers, c l o s e r simulation i s obtained. A t t h e highest Mach number, M, = 4.44, t h e t r a j e c t o r y Reynolds numbers f a l l within t h e tunnel range. Although not shown i n t h e f i g ure, t h e maximum heat f l u x for t h e e x i t t r a j e c t o r y was expected t o occur within t h e Mach number range of t h e tunnel investigation.
Figure 2 shows t h e b a s i c configuration t e s t e d . It w a s constructed af thins k i n s t a i n l e s s s t e e l and consisted of t h e following components: escape tower, command module, service module, lunar-excursion-module flare, and a small port i o n of t h e Saturn IVB stage. The o v e r a l l length of t h e model w a s 48.7 inches and t h e maximum diameter w a s 11.7 inches. The model w a s instrumented with 187 thermocouples located t o provide complete l o n g i t u d i n a l and circumferential heat d i s t r i b u t i o n s . "he thermocouple l o c a t i o n s are indicated i n t h e figure by t h e small c i r c l e s . Pressure instrumentation consisted of approximately

20

50 pressure o r i f i c e s located only along a single ray on t h e command and s e r v i c e modules. Due t o t h e symmetry of t h e basic configuration, t h e results from t h e pressure measurements could be applied a t any circumferential s t a t i o n . However, when surface protuberances a r e added t o t h e b a s i c configuration, t h e s e measurements would only apply along the instrumented ray.
The second c o n f i g u r a t i o n t e s t e d , which i s shown i n figure 3, consisted of t h e components shown f o r the basic configuration plus t h e reaction control motors, umbilical f a i r i n g , and scimiter antenna.

The heat-transfer c o e f f i c i e n t s were determined from t r a n s i e n t temperature measurements using t h e thermocouple i n s t a l l a t i o n i n t h e m o d e l skin as a calorimeter. The t r a n s i e n t skin temperatures r e s u l t e d from a sudden increase i n t h e tunnel stagnation temperature obtained by bypassing t h e tunnel cooler system. A complete d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e Langley Unitary Plan wind tunnel i s given i n reference 1 .

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Heat-transfer measurements obtained on t h e command and s e r v i c e modules of t h e b a s i c configuration are shown i n figure 4. The l o c a l heat-transfer coeffic i e n t i s p l o t t e d as a function of t h e dimensionless surface length s/r, where s i s t h e surface length from t h e forward stagnation point on t h e commsnd m o d u l e and r i s t h e radius of t h e command module a t t h e base, o r t h e service-module radius. !&e r e s u l t s are shown f o r Mach nunibers of 2.98 and 4.44 and f o r Reynolds numbers p e r f o o t of 2 x lo6, 4 x lo6, and 6 x lo6. Also shown i n t h e figure f o r comparison with t h e experimental data are t h e o r e t i c a l turbulent d i s t r i b u t i o n s determined by t h e reference-temperature method of reference 2 and l o c a l measured pressures. The instrumentation l o c a t i o n s on t h e cammand and gertrice modules for which data are presented are indicated by t h e small circles i n t h e sketch.
The heating rates obtained on the command module a t a Mach number of 2.98 and t h e lowest Reynolds number increase with increasing values of s/r up t o 1 6 This increase -is associated with t h e decrease i n t h e extent of t h e .. s/r s h e l t e r i n g e f f e c t produced by t h e escape tower. This s h e l t e r i n g e f f e c t i s much more apparent on t h e pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n t h i s region, as i s indicated by t h e good agreement between theory based on measured pressures and t h e experimental heat-transfer data. The decrease i n heating i n t h e base region of t h e command module i s due t o t h e propagation of a pressure drop back through the subsonic portion of t h e boundary layer; t h i s pressure drop occurs a t t h e juncture of t h e command and service modules. The measured heating r a t e s obtained on t h e service module a r e less than theory for s/r < 3; howeyer, t h e measurements obtained a t t h e t h r e e aft stations a r e i n good agreement with theory. The low heating rates on t h e forward section of t h e service module a r e believed t o be p a r t i a l l y due t o e i t h e r one o r both of t h e following two factors: (1)t h e separation region t h a t occurs a t t h e juncture of t h e command and service modules and ( 2 ) conduction l o s s e s t o an i n t e r n a l support assembly located under t h e s k i n f o r attaching t h e reaction control motors. The same trends i n heating f o r t h e

command and service modules were obtained f o r t h e two Mach numbers over t h e Reynolds number range. I n general, t h e v a r i a t i o n s of t h e magnitude of 'the heating r a t e s with Reynolds number and.Mach number a r e i n good agreement with theory. These v a r i a t i o n s consisted of t h e expected increase i n heating with increasing Reynolds number and decrease i n heating with increasing Mach number. The e f f e c t on t h e heating d i s t r i b u t i o n of adding surface protuberances t o t h e b a s i c configuration i s shown i n f i g u r e 5. The open symbols and curves i n t h i s f i g u r e represent data f o r t h e b a s i c configuration, which were given i n f i g u r e 4. The s o l i d symbols represent data obtained on t h e complete configurat i o n . The thermocouple locations and t e s t conditions a r e t h e same f o r both conf i g u r a t i o n s . The l a r g e s t e f f e c t s along t h e instrumented ray f o r which d a t a are presented were produced by t h e scimiter antenna and reaction control motors. The scimiter antenna was located adjacent t o t h e ray of instrumentation, and t h e longitudinal center l i n e of t h e reaction control motor w a s located along t h e instrumentation ray. The maximum e f f e c t of these protuberances i s confined t o t h e region of t h e i r i n s t a l l a t i o n ; t h e protuberances generally cause an increase i n heating. The increase i n heating adjacent t o t h e s c i m i t e r antenna compared with the increase i n heating upstream of t h e reaction control motors i s r e l a t i v e l y modest. The maximum increase i n heating adjacent t o t h e s c i m i t e r antenna w a s approximately 40 percent, whereas t h e maximum increase ahead of t h e reaction control motors w a s approximately 600 percent. N attempts were made o t o estimate t h e o r e t i c a l l y these interference heating r a t e s because of t h e lack of pressure instrumentation located i n t h e same positions as the thermocouples. The m a x i m u m heating r a t e s upstream of t h e reaction control motors are approximately t h e same as maximum values obtained on a f l a t - p l a t e surface upstream of a r i g h t c i r c u l a r cylinder i n previous t e s t s conducted i n t h e Langley Unitary Plan wind tunnel. The heating r a t e s i n t h e wake of t h e reaction control motors are s l i g h t l y l e s s than those of t h e basic configuration.
The coefficient of heat t r a n s f e r i s valuable f o r discussing t h e r e l a t i v e magnitudes of' heating on a given model through a range of t e s t Conditions; however, it i s of l i t t l e use as such when t h e r e s u l t s f o r a small-scale model i n a wind-tunnel environment a r e t o be applied t o a f u l l - s c a l e configuration i n i t s f l i g h t environment. This i s due t o t h e f a c t that t h e v a r i a t i o n of h with Reynolds number i s s e n s i t i v e t o t h e method of varying &. For example, i f f o r a flat plate i s increased by increasing t h e m o d e l scale, t h e value of h w i l l decrease; whereas, if %, i s increased by increasing pressure, t h e value of h w i l l increase. A more s u i t a b l e parameter f o r t h i s application i s t h e l o c a l dimensionless Stanton number, which f o r a f l a t p l a t e consistently decreases w i t h increasing Reynolds number a t a constant Mach number and w a l l temperature. Furthermore, f o r turbulent pipe flow t h e v a r i a t i o n of NStY2 with

Reynolds number can be minimized by multiplying t h e Stanton number by t h e l o c a l Reynolds number r a i s e d t o a power of 0.2. The parameter on t h e command and pressure d a t a were shown i n figure 6, t h e l o c a l Reynolds
22

NSt,ZRzo*2

w a s evaluated from t h e heating rates measured

service modules of t h e b a s i c configuration f o r which d e t a i l e d available. The values obtained on t h e command module a r e where t h e c o r r e l a t i o n parameter i s p l o t t e d as a function of number f o r each t e s t Mach number. The experimental d a t a a r e

indicated by t h e open c i r c l e s . These experimental data w e r e adjusted t o adiab a t i c conditions, using t h e reference-temperature method of reference 2, f o r comparison with flight data as w i l l be discussed subsequently. Also shown i n t h e f i g u r e a r e a d i a b a t i c t h e o r e t i c a l values determined by t h e referencetemperature method and indicated by the s o l i d curve. The t h e o r e t i c a l distributions f a l l within t h e data s c a t t e r through t h e t e s t range of Mach numbers. Although t h e r e i s a slight increase i n t h e theory with increasing Reynolds number, t h i s e f f e c t i s small and consists of approximately a 10-percent increase 3 s rr res!!+ nf eE ir?crease in Rep-olda I?W!ber by Ell order of ?m&nit12de=

An attempt w a s made t o compare these wind-tunnel c o r r e l a t i o n s with f l i g h t results using heat fluxes obtained on the command module of t h e BP-13 space(See f i g . 7.) The windc r a f t during t h e flight of t h e Apollo mission A-101. tunnel data shown by t h e open c i r c u l a r symbols and t h e t h e o r e t i c a l values are f o r t h e command module of t h e b a s i c configuration and were presented i n f i g ure 6. The s o l i d symbols represent values obtained on t h e command module of t h e f l i g h t vehicle a t t h r e e different locations. Pressure d a t a f o r t h e f l i g h t tests were not available a t t h e wind-tunnel M c numbers; therefore, pressure d a t a ah obtained f o r t h e b a s i c configuration i n t h e wind-tunnel t e s t s were used as l o c a l conditions i n evaluating t h e values of t h e f l i g h t c o r r e l a t i o n parameter NSt,2Rz0-2. The f l i g h t r e s u l t s were obtained a t much lower values of Tw/Taw than t h e wind-tunnel results. I n order t o make a v a l i d comparison between t h e two sets of data, t h e f l i g h t results and wind-tunnel r e s u l t s were adjusted t o a d i a b a t i c conditions by t h e reference-temperature method. Based on t h e assumpt i o n s required t o evaluate t h e f l i g h t c o r r e l a t i o n parameter, t h e agreement between t h e wind-tunnel and f l i g h t r e s u l t s i s fair.
Similar comparisons f o r t h e service module a r e shown i n f i g u r e s 8 and 9. The values of t h e f l i g h t c o r r e l a t i o n parameter presented i n f i g u r e 9 are based on pressure measurements obtained on t h e service module of t h e b a s i c configurat i o n during the wind-tunnel tests. Both t h e wind-tunnel and f l i g h t results were adjusted t o a d i a b a t i c conditions f o r reasons discussed previously. Again, based on t h e assumptions required t o evaluate t h e f l i g h t data, t h e agreement between experiment and theory i s fair.

CONCLUDING FGMARKS
Heat-transfer measurements obtained i n wind-tunnel t e s t s of 0.045-scale models of t h e Apollo launch configuration were found t o be i n good agreement with e x i s t i n g t h e o r i e s i n regions not a f f e c t e d by surface protuberances. I n regions affected by t h e s e protuberances, l a r g e heating rates were obtained; t h e maximum values were generally confined t o t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e protuberance installation.

Good c o r r e l a t i o n of t h e experimental heating data was obtained f o r t h e test range of l o c a l Reynolds numbers f o r the region of t h e cammand and service modu l e s not affected by t h e surface protuberances. These data were compared with f l i g h t heating r a t e s obtained during the launch phase of t h e Apollo mission A-101. Although fair agreement w a s obtained between f l i g h t and wind-tunnel

results, it i s believed t h a t t h e agreement could have been improved had d e t a i l e d pressure data f o r t h e f l i g h t configuration been available.

REFERENCES

I. .-ion.:

Manual f o r Users of t h e Unitary Plan W--?d Tunnel F a c i l ties of t h e National Advisory Committee f o r Aeronautics. NACA, 1956.

2. Sommer, Simon C.; a d Short, Barbara J.: Free-Flight Measurements of Turbulent-'Boundary-Layer Skin F r i c t i o n i n t h e Presence of Severe Aerodynamic Heating a t Mach Numbers From 2.8 t o 7.0. NACA TN 3391, 1955.

24

OF

Figure 1

Figure 2

L- 2475-2

25

HEATING DISTRIBUTIONS ON BASIC CONFIGURATION

RTURBULENl THEORY

COMPARISON OF HEATING DISTRIBUTIONS ON BASIC AND COMPLETE CONFIGURATIONS

Rm

TURBULENT THEORY

slr

sir

Figure 4

Figure 5

CORRELATION OF WIND-TUNNEL DATA ON COMMAND MODULE

ADJUSTED FOR COOLING

CORRELATION OF WIND-TUNNEL AND FLIGHT DATA ON COMMAND MODULE

ADJUSTLO FOR COOLING

- TURBULENT THEORY
+
FLIGHT I M l S S l O N A-101)

WINDNNNEL

.ta
Mm-3.71

Nstj?;

:E[
.02

Om
~

sa.. "
Figure 7

Figure 6

26

CORRELATION OF WIND-TUNNEL M T A ON SERVICE MODULE

AOJIISTFII FOP T M L I N T .

BASIC CONFIGURATION NRBULENT THEORY

Figure 8

CORRELATION OF WIND-TUNNEL AND FLIGHT WTA ON SERVICE MODULE

ADJUSTED FOR COOLING
WIND TUNNEL -NRBULENT THEORYA-101) FLIGHT IMlSSlON
0

--a
Ns,,&
,

,
5

IO6

5
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Figure 9

0
4.
FLIGHT AND GROUND TESTS O F
"

MOLL0 HEAT-SHIELD MATERIAL

By W i l l i a m A. Brooks, Jr., Stephen S. Tompkins, and Robert T. Swann

- SUMMARY

--

A r e e n t r y f l i g h t t e s t and ground t e s t s have been made by t h e Langley Research Center t o evaluate t h e Apollo heat-shield material. These tests have revealed a d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t of pressure a t l e v e l s above atmospheric pressure. The e f f e c t of pressure i s a rapid and i r r e g u l a r char erosion. A mathematical char removal model involving pressure i s postulated, which y i e l d s a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s compatible with t h e f l i g h t data and ground-test r e s u l t s . Althuugh t h e a c t u a l mechanism producing rapid erosion i s not presently detailed, it i s believed t o be coupled with t h e extreme porosity of t h e material. Calculations i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e postulated pressure e f f e c t i s not a consideration f o r t h e p r e s e n t l y defined Apollo reentry t r a j e c t o r i e s . It appears t h a t oxidation w i l l be t h e predominant char removal mechanism and t h e present Apollo heat-shield design i s t h e r e f o r e conservative.
INTRODUCTION

The R-4 experiment of t h e Langley Research Center Scout Reentry Heating Project w a s launched on August 18, 1964, with t h e primary objective of obtaining a r e e n t r y f l i g h t evaluation of t h e Apollo heat-shield material. Many t e s t s of t h i s material have been performed i n ground f a c i l i t i e s a t t h e Langley Research Center t o support t h e f l i g h t t e s t . The purpose of t h i s paper i s t o describe b r i e f l y t h e f l i g h t and ground t e s t s and t o discuss t h e results.
SYMBOLS
A Q

empirical con sta n t acceleration due t o e a r t h ' s gravity stream enthalpy

rhvp
P pt, 2

rate of production of gases i n j e c t e d i n t o boundary l a y e r

pressure t o t a l pressure behind shock

29

t o t a l heat i n p t heating r a t e net heating r a t e t o surface dynamic pressure s u k a c e temperattime voltage thickness l o s s r a t e of char material entry angle w i t h respect t o l o c a l horizon aerodynamic shear

9
t

in

TS

VO
XC

Y
7

Subscript:

max

maximum
DESCRIPTION O R-4 PAYLOAD AND INSTRUMENTA!I'ION F

The R-4 payload, including a spherical rocket, w a s mounted on a standard four-stage Scout launch vehicle. A photograph of t h e payload i s shown as f i g ure 1 A t the t o p i s t h e payload nose cap which was t h e primary experiment and . consisted of 1.23 inches of t h e Apollo heat-shield material bonded t o 5/8 inch of s t a i n l e s s - s t e e l backup structure. There were 26 thermocouples and 1 2 ablat i o n sensors i n t h e ablation material at various locations. The next component i s t h e afterbody which was a 0.064-inch-thick magnesium-alloy s h e l l covered with approximately 0.5 inch of Teflon. A portion of t h e spherical rocket motor which served as t h e f i f t h stage can be seen behind t h e afterbody section. A t t h e bottom i s t h e adapter u n i t , which w a s attached t o t h e Scout fourth stage, and other interstage equipment. The payload, without t h e i n t e r s t a g e equipment, was about 3 f e e t long. The payload base diameter was 18 inches and t h e forward diameter w a s 1 inches. 1 Figure 2 shows some of t h e construction and instrumentation d e t a i l s of t h e nose cap. I n t h e sectioned v i e w , t h e various components of t h e nose cap are indicated. The c e n t r a l portion of t h e nose cap w a s t h e t e s t area and consists of t h e Apollo heat-shield material. This i s Avcoat 5026-39 gunned i n t o a honeycomb which had been bonded t o t h e s t e e l substructure. Because of t h e d i f f i c u l t y of forming t h e honeycomb around t h e r e l a t i v e l y sharp corner and because of t h e more severe environmental conditions, a molded version of t h e same material without honeycomb w a s f a b r i c a t e d i n t o a ring which surrounds t h e c e n t r a l portion.

30

The f r o n t view shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e instrumentation over t h e nose cap. The open symbols represent thermocouples which were located a t various depths through t h e thickness and arranged i n c i r c l e s of t h r e e d i f f e r e n t radii. The thermocouples i n t h e outer c i r c l e w e r e located so t h a t they would provide readings a t 0.1-inch i n t e r v a l s s t a r t i n g from t h e e x t e r n a l surface. Two of these thermocouples were a t the bondline between t h e a b l a t o r and t h e substructure. The thermocouples i n t h e middle c i r c l e were located a t O.05-inch i n t e r v a l s t o a depth of 0.6. inch. The four thermocouples i n t h e inner c i r c l e were located st 3.1-1nch 1ilti2i-v-i5lS. In d d i t i z l n t o pro>-mLrii i i - i o m z t i o n G i i the depth-kiisz temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n s , t h i s arrangement of thermocouples a l s o provides information on t h e temperature gradients along contours a t various depths.
y The p a t t e r n of t h e a b l a t i o n sensors i s s i m i l a r l y shown by t h e s o l i d s m bols. A t t h e center, t h e r e were four make w i r e a b l a t i o n sensors located a t 0.1-inch i n t e r v a l s from the f r o n t surface. I n t h e inner c i r c l e of a b l a t i o n sensors, t h e r e were four spring w i r e sensors located a t 0.1-inch i n t e r v a l s w i t h t h e foremost sensor being 0.14 inch f r o m t h e surface. I n t h e outer c i r c l e of a b l a t i o n sensors t h e r e were f o u r l i g h t pipe sensors located a t approximately 0.1-inch i n t e r v a l s from t h e f r o n t surface. A t y p i c a l thermocouple assembly i s shown i n f i g u r e 3. A plug was formed of t h e a b l a t i o n material and grooved up t h e s i d e s f o r t h e thermocouple w i r e . The p a i r of chromel-alumel thermocouple wires was separated a t t h e base of t h e plug. A t t h i s point, the i n s u l a t i o n was stripped from t h e wires which were then threaded through quartz tubing. The tubing w a s terminated a t t h e end of t h e plug. The bare wires were l a i d i n a groove across t h e end of t h e plug and welded t o form t h e hot junction. This design w a s s e l e c t e d t o provide a minimum disturbance i n t h e temperature f i e l d and t o minimize t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of elect r i c a l shorting by t h e char. The plug assembly was then i n s e r t e d i n t o a b l i n d hole i n t h e back of t h e heat shield.

Figures 4, 5, and 6 show schematics of t h e a b l a t i o n sensors. These sens o r s were developed by t h e Langley Research Center. A secondary obJective of t h e f l i g h t experiment was t o provide f l i g h t d a t a e s s e n t i a l t o t h e continued development of these types of sensors. The sensing element of t h e m a k e wire sensor shown i n figure 4 i s a p a i r of open-circuited 10-mil wires which a r e peened a t the end and embedded i n the a b l a t i o n material. When t h e a b l a t i o n material chars t o t h e peened ends of the wire, t h e high e l e c t r i c a l conductivity of t h e char causes t h e c i r c u i t t o be completed and thus an indication of the event i s provided. The c i r c u i t i s comp l e t e d i n t h e char l a y e r a t some point between the point a t which t h e char begins t o form and t h e external surface of t h e char. Four of these sensors were mounted i n a single plug a t t h e center of t h e nose cap. The spring wire ablation sensor i s shoim i n f i g u r e 5 . A 20-mil molybdenum tube is attached t o a snap-action switch. A tungsten w i r e i s attached t o t h e l e a f spring of t h e switch, passed through t h e tube, and knotted a t t h e end of t h e tube i n such a manner t h a t the switch i s held open. A s t h e a b l a t i n g surf a c e approaches t h e end of t h e sensor, the temperatures become high enough t o cause t h e molybdenum tube t o s o f t e n and, i n turn, t o r e l e a s e t h e wire and

permit t h e s w i t c h t o close. Thus a n indication of t h e event i s provided. Because t h e temperat.ure g r d i e n t s are steep near t h e surface of t h e ablator, t h e end of the sensor i s generally a t t h e surface when t h e wire i s released and thus senses the surface location.
The light pipe a b l a t i o n sensor shown i n f i g u r e 6 u t i l i z e s an o p t i c a l f i b e r with a high m e l t i n g temperature t o transmit l i g h t t o a photo diode whose resistance i s a function of t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e l i g h t . By using a f i l t e r between t h e l i g h t pipe and t h e diode, it i s possible t o g e t a sharp response i n diode current a t temperatures corresponding t o those expected a t t h e a b l a t o r surface. Thus t h i s type of sensor can be employed t o sense t h e location of t h e surface.
REENTRY ENVIRONMENT
A nominal reentry t r a j e c t o r y w a s selected t o provide reentry heating t h a t would s a t i s f a c t o r i l y simulate t h e heating which would be experienced by an Apollo vehicle i n a 20g emergency reentry. The a c t u a l reentry t r a j e c t o r y very closely matched t h e nominal t r a j e c t o r y and i s shown i n t h e a l t i t u d e - v e l o c i t y plane i n figure 7. A t f i f t h - s t a g e burnout, t h e a l t i t u d e was about 395,000 f e e t and t h e velocity was 27,800 f p s .

The l a b e l s on t h e curve i d e n t i f y c e r t a i n f l i g h t events and t h e time of occurrence measured from launch. Note t h a t real-time telemetry w a s blacked out f o r 61 seconds as shown by t h e heavy portion of t h e curve. This i s a major portion of the heating period which i s shown by t h e hatched portion of t h e curve. During blackout, a tape recorder s t o r e d t h e d a t a f o r playback a t t h e end of blackout. Although t h e body motions during reentry generally were not large, they were somewhat g r e a t e r than anticipated. During t h e time period between maximum heating and maximum pressure, the spin r a t e increased from t h e i n i t i a l 3 cps t o 5 cps and then slowly decreased t o 3 cps. U n t i l t h e time of m a x i m heating, t h e angle of attack w a s l e s s than loo. I n t h e time period between m a x i m heating and maximum pressure, angle-of-attack o s c i l l a t i o n s increased t o a maxiIt has been mum value of about l 5 O , and then decreased t o a l e v e l of about . ' 0 1 determined t h a t t h e increased body motions d i d not produce s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n the heating environment t h a t t h e nose cap w a s expected t o experience. Figure 8 shows calculated h i s t o r i e s of t h e stagnation-point heating r a t e , t h e t o t a l pressure, and t h e maximum aerodynamic shear stress f o r zero angle of a t t a c k . The maximum t o t a l heating rate was 775 Btu/ft2-sec and occurred a t 476 seconds. The heating pulse w a s approximately 120 seconds i n duration. "he maxirmun pressure w a s 6500 l b / f t 2 , o r 3.1 atmospheres, and occurred a t 487 seconds. The point on t h e nose cap a t which t h e aerodynamic shear w a s t h e g r e a t e s t w a s on t h e molded o u t e r r i n g . The h i s t o r y of t h a t shear i n d i c a t e s a m a x i m u m value of 27 l b / f t 2 a t 482 seconds f o r laminar flow. It should be pointed out t h a t over t h e instrumented portion of t h e nose cap t h e shear w a s less t h a n 10 lb/ft2.

Table I shows a comparison of t h e reentry environment f o r t h e R-4 experiment and t h a t expected f o r Apollo. The Apollo reentry considered i s a recently planned 20g emergency reentry which involves a skipout resulting i n two heat pulses. The numbers shown i n t h e t a b l e are f o r the f i r s t heating pulse. However, as can be seen a t t h e bottom of the t a b l e , t h e e f f e c t of t h e second pulse i s t o add about 16 percent t o t h e heat input of t h e f i r s t pulse and t o increase t h e heating t i m e by a f a c t o r of 2$. It can be seen t h a t t h e values f o r t h e

R-4 reentry matched those f o r t h e Apollo 20g reentry very well, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h e f i r s t heating pulse. However, because of fundamental differences between b a l l i s t i c and l i f t i n g reentry, t h e R-4 environment w a s more severe with regard t o pressure and shear. The maximum pressure experienced by t h e a b l a t o r i n t h e R-4 reentry w a s t h r e e times t h a t expected f o r t h e Apollo reentry. The maximum shear f o r t h e R-4 reentry w a s s l i g h t l y more than three times t h a t f o r Apollo.
heating rate: t o t a l heat input, and heating t i m e f o r t h e

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Typical Temperature Histories The temperature readings f o r 6 of the 24 thermocouples t h a t were used a r e shown i n f i g u r e 9 as a function of time from launch. The sketch shows t h e r a d i a l p o s i t i o n s of these thermocouples; t h e darkened a r e a represents t h e molded nose-cap ring. A l thermocuples were of chromel-alumel with a usable range of about SO00 F. Thermocouple data were commutated a t a rate of 5 readings per second.
Data are shown f o r f o u r depthwise locations measured from t h e o r i g i n a l front-surface location. The thermocouple shown a t a depth of 1.25 inches was a t t h e i n t e r f a c e between the ablator and t h e steel substructure. The last point shown f o r each depth is the l a s t smooth on-scale reading.

The square symbols show readings at a depth of 0.2 inch, taken a t t h r e e radial locations. These and similar r e s u l t s a t a depth of 0.1 inch i n d i c a t e a uniform penetration of temperature over t h e nose-cap surface during t h e e a r l y heating before m a x i m heating which corresponds t o t h e point where t h e reading f o r t h e thermocouple a t 0.3 inch goes off-scale.

Generally speaking, f o r depths up t o about 0.35 inch, t h e temperature t r a c e s show a gradual response as indicated by thermocouples at depths of 0.2 and 0.3 inch shown i n f i g u r e 9. A t t h e g r e a t e r depths, t h e thermocouple response w a s very rapid and, because o f t h e sampling rate, t h e maximum on-scale readings were only a few hundred degrees. Note t h a t t h e temperature of 850 F i s i d e n t i f i e d as t h e pyrolysis temperature. Actually, pyrolysis of t h e ablation material t a k e s place over a range of temperatures s t a r t i n g a t l e s s than 500 F. Typical r e s u l t s from thermal degradation s t u d i e s a r e shown i n f i g u r e 10. The mass l o s s due t o thermal degradation i s shown as a function of temperature

33

f o r an i n e r t and an oxidizing atmosphere. The temperature rise rate and t h e g a y pressure were as shown. I n helium, t h e material experiences some degradation a t t h e lower temperatures but the g r e a t e s t rate of degradation occurs a t about 850 F. This temperature can be c a l l e d a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c pyrolysis temperature because half of t h e t o t a l mass loss experienced has occurred at t h i s point. The t o t a l mass loss was 53 percent. The 47 percent remaining as residue i s equal t o about 14 1b/ft3. Residues from arc-jet tests have been measured a t The difference i n density probably results from condensation 20 t o 2 Ib/ft3. 1 of pyrolysis gases i n t h e char during t h e a r c - j e t tests. The t e s t i n oxygen w a s conducted primarily t o show t h e e f f e c t of oxidation, Degradation becomes pronounced at a lower temperature and only about h a l f as much residue results. As a matter of fact, t h e residue i s primarily t h e s i l i c a reinforcement. Therefore, it is concludedthat nearly half t h e residue t h a t results when t h i s material i s ablated w i l l not be oxidized.

It is obvious from figure 9 t h a t t h e shallow thermocouples i n d i c a t e char temperatures. It i s also obvious that, by using t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c pyrolysis temperature and temperature data such as shown, a time h i s t o r y of t h e penetrat i o n of the pyrolysis zone can be constructed.
A rapid temperature response i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e char and t h e receding surface a r e approaching t h e thermocoyple junction. Thus t h e themocouples may be used as approximate surface sensors. This has been done by using t h e last smooth on-scale temperature reading at each depth. It is believed t h a t t h e accuracy of t h i s method of d e t e c t i n g surface l o c a t i o n i s g r e a t e r for t h e l a r g e r depths.

F l i g h t Surface Recession History

J Figure l . shows a h i s t o r y of surface recession as determined by thermocouples and a b l a t i o n sensors. The k n m l o c a t i o n of each sensing element i s p l o t t e d against t h e t i m e at which it functions except f o r t h e thermocouples, f o r which the t i m e of the last v a l i d on-scale reading w a s used.

Data a r e shown by t h e open symbols f o r 23 of t h e 24 thermocouples used. O e thermocouple exhibited a n erratic response i n d i c a t i n g malfunction and no n symbol i s shown. The a b l a t i o n sensor responses are shown by t h e s o l i d symbols. Three of t h e l i g h t pipe sensors produced data that do not agree with t h e gene r a l t r e n d shown i n t h i s figure. Therefore, it i s concluded t h a t they also malfunctioned and those data are not shown.
The data c l e a r l y define t h e trend of t h e surface recession. Better d e f i n i t i o n w a s obtained f o r the upper portion of t h e curve as a result of d i s t r i b u t i o n of the sensors. Generally speaking, the recession h i s t o r y can be divided i n t o t h r e e regions: a region before maximum heating f o r which the recession rate is on t h e order of 0.01 in./sec, a t r a n s i t i o n region w h i c h produces a knee i n t h e curve, and a region a f t e r maximum heating where t h e recession i s on the order of 0 1 in./sec. .

34

I n the f i r s t region, t h e receding surface i s believed t o be located abwe t h e points derived from t h e thermocoxples possibly by as much as 0.1 inch. Although t h e difference between t h e data from the make w i r e and spring w i r e a b l a t i o n sensors indicates a char thickness of about 0.06 inch, t h e r e i s evidence t h a t t h e char i s thicker. The previously discussed h i s t o r y of pyrolysis penetration determined from t h e temperature data i s a l s o shown. This l i n e thus represents t h e pyrolysis region between char and the v i r g i n materials. Note t h a t t h e make wire sensors are functioning a t points much c l o s e r t o t h e indicated surface. Recently conducted arc-jet tests i n d i c a t e that make wire sensors, similar t o those used i n t h e present flight test, do not function u n t i l t h e temperature exceeds 2000 F. The char i s not e l e c t r i c a l l y conductive enough t o complete t h e e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t u n t i l t h i s temperature i s reached.. Therefore it i s concluded t h a t t h e f l i g h t sensors did not make i n t h e pyrolysis region. The differences between t h e data from the spring w i r e sensors and t h e i n t e r f a c e curve i n d i c a t e t h a t during e a r l y heating t h e char may have been 0.10 t o 0.15 inch thick. As heating increases, t h e indication i s t h a t t h e char l a y e r got thinner.

The knee of t h e curve, which f a l l s between 474 and 482 seconds, corresponds t o r a p i d l y changing environmental conditions. The heating rate and enthalpy generally decreased by 30 t o 35 percent. The shear increased by about 20 percent. However, t h e pressure increased nearly 100 percent and i s by far t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t environmental change. One i s thus l e d t o believe t h a t pressure i s an important consideration f o r the rapid recession of t h i s material. The thermocouple data indicated t h a t t h e erosion became g r e a t e r toward t h e edge of the nose cap during t h e phase a f t e r maximum heating. The thermocouples a t t h e g r e a t e r depths are adjacent thermocouples located i n t h e outer c i r c l e of instrumentation.
The readings of t h e bondline thermocouples, indicated by t h e last two c i r c l e s , also i n d i c a t e a difference i n erosion. However, more important, these readings i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s t e e l substructure w a s exposed as early as about 486 seconds and t h a t very l i k e l y most of t h e ablation material w a s consumed by about 490 seconds. It i s therefore concluded t h a t t h e payload survived t h e heating only because of t h e t h i c k steel substructure which could absorb t h e remaining heat without failing.
1 The s o l i d and dashed curves shown i n f i g u r e 1 result from a n a l y s i s and a r e discussed i n another section.

Prediction Procedures f o r R-4 Experiments Usually, i n order t o get a complete p i c t u r e of what happened i n a f l i g h t test, it i s necessary t o augment f l i g h t d a t a w i t h a t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s of performance. Several d i f f e r e n t procedures have been employed t o analyze t h e R-4 reentry. These methods a r e outlined as follows:

35

Method A: Mechanistic Char removal by oxidation Method B: Empirical Assumed no char F i c t i t i o u s surface temperature Method C: Mechanistic Char removal by oxidation Assumed carbon-nitrogen reaction Method D: Empirical Based on c o r r e l a t i o n s ( ~ = f ( i n ) and s

~(TS))

Generally speaking, two types of analyses were made. One type employs empirical r e l a t i o n s which combine t h e e f f e c t s of several a b l a t i o n processes. The other type, which can be c a l l e d a mechanistic procedure, attempts t o account individu a l l y f o r each process. Method A i s a mechanistic procedure which considered diffusion-limited oxidation as t h e only char removal mechanism. This method could not produce s u f f i c i e n t surface recession t o agree with t h e f l i g h t d a t a . Method B could be c l a s s i f i e d as empirical, mainly because a f i c t i t i o u s surface temperature w a s assumed. A surface temperature was selected which would produce t h e correct surface recession i n ground tests a t constant heating rate. The e f f e c t of t h i s method was t o t r e a t t h e charring a b l a t o r as a hightemperature sublimer which forms no char. The surface temperature of a charring a b l a t o r responds t o v a r i a t i o n s i n heating r a t e . Therefore, s u b s t a n t i a l surface-temperature v a r i a t i o n could be expected i n t h e R-4 reentry. Although t h i s method resulted i n g r e a t e r surface recession than d i d method A, it f a i l e d t o produce enough erosion t o account f o r t h e a b l a t o r f l i g h t performance. Method C accounted f o r t h e individual char processes. I n order t o accomp l i s h an energy balance when applied t o ground tests, which poorly simulated t h e R-4 reentry, it w a s necessary t o assume a char removal mechanism. The mechanism chosen w a s a reaction between t h e carbon i n t h e char and t h e nitrogen i n t h e stream. However, it w a s admitted t h a t t h e required char removal mechanism could be mechanical r a t h e r than chemical. This method predicted t h a t t h e a b l a t o r would be consumed a t a time s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r than t h a t shown by the flight instrumentation. Method D i s an empirical method. From ground t e s t s of t h e a b l a t o r made i n low-pressure environments, a c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e surface temperature and t h e net heating t o t h e surface was obtained. Then a c o r r e l a t i o n was obtained between t h e rate of production of t h e gases i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e boundary l a y e r and t h e surface temperature. An energy balance a t t h e surface w a s then u t i l i z e d

36

t o c a l c u l a t e t h e char removal r a t e by assuming t h e same removal mechanisms a s i n method C. Speeifieation of t h e rate of production of pyrolysis gases avoids t h e necessity of solving t h e i n t e r n a l conduction problem. When applied t o t h e R-4 reentry, t h i s method predicted t h a t the a b l a t o r would be consumed a few seconds before t h e t i m e indicated by t h e f l i g h t instrumentation.
A g r e a t d e a l of difference e x i s t s between t h e r e s u l t s obtained by t h e several methods. Some of these methods predicted t h e recession histoqy end point q u i t e w e l l . Other methods matched a portion of the recession h i s t o r y . However, i n no instance was t h e end point predicted while matching t h e remainder of t h e recession h i s t o r y curve. The implication i s that t h e correct char removal mechanism w a s not accounted f o r .

Ground T e s t Results Arc-jet tests m a d e a t Langley Research Center reveal t h a t , i n c e r t a i n highpressure circumstances, t h e Apollo heat-shield material experienced a rapid and i r r e g u l a r erosion. Figure 1 2 shows t h e nature of t h i s erosion. Sectioned specimens of t h e Apollo heat-shield material t e s t e d a t t h e indicated heating rate and enthalpy are shown. A t t h e t o p l e f t i s a n untested specimen showing t h e i n i t i a l configuration. Note t h a t , a s i n t h e f l i g h t nose cap, a molded r i n g i s used around t h e c e n t r a l portion which consists of t h e a b l a t o r i n honeycomb.
A t t h e t o p r i g h t i s a specimen which was subjected t o 1 atmosphere of pressure f o r 10 seconds. The recession was uniform and less than 0.1 inch. A char thickness of 0.1 inch w a s obtained. This r e s u l t can be accounted f o r by oxidat i o n theory. A t t h e bottom i s a specimen t h a t was exposed t o 1.8 atmospheres of pres-

sure f o r only 2.4 seconds because of excessive surface erosion. The recession a t t h e c e n t e r w a s s l i g h t l y more than 0.3 inch, o r eight t i m e s as g r e a t as t h a t experienced a t 1 atmosphere. Note a l s o t h a t t h e surface i s very irregular and that t h e char thickness i s very s m a l l , a f a c t e a s i l y confirmed by examination
of t h e t e s t e d specimen. This was a l s o confirmed by motion p i c t u r e s which show t h a t t h e specimen surface d i d not g e t hot enough t o be luminous as it would i f t h e char had been thick. The Langley Research Center has been conducting high-pressure t e s t s with t h e objectives of correlating t h e material erosion with pressure and determining t h e physical mechanism which causes erosion. Neither of these objectives has as y e t been achieved. However, from available t e s t r e s u l t s , it has been concluded t h a t , although aerodynamic shear has some e f f e c t , t h e e f f e c t of pressure i s t h e overriding consideration. Furthermore, t h e r e i s evidence t h a t a t high pressure t h e r e i s some s o r t of "blow back" of gases t h a t cause changes i n t h e v i r g i n m a t e r i a l a t a considera b l e d i s t a n c e below t h e surface. It appears t h a t e x t e r n a l pressure promotes subsurface flow of t h e pyrolysis products i n t h e v i r g i n material. Measurements made on t h e ablation material indicate extreme porosity which could o f f e r an explanation f o r t h i s phenomenon.

37

Analytical Evaluation of R-4 Ablator Performance The charring a b l a t o r analysis routine used by t h e Langley Research Center accounts individually f o r t h e various processes which occur. Therefore, if t h e e f f e c t of pressure i s t o be included, a s u i t a b l e mathematical model must be obtained. Limited success has been achieved i n deducing t h e required model from ground tests but such a model can be derived from t h e f l i g h t - t e s t data. Briefly, t h e recession data indicated by t h e f l i g h t instrumentation a r e accepted a s correct and without regard f o r t h e a c t u a l physical process involved; a mathematical expression involving pressure i s deduced t o account f o r t h e char removal. This i s done by matching t h e end point on t h e recession h i s t o r y curve while producing a good f i t t o t h e remainder of t h e curve.

Figure ll shows t h e results t h a t a r e obtained. Also shown i s a general expression which i n d i c a t e s t h e way i n which pressure i s involved i n char removal. The first term r e s u l t s from a consideration of diffusion-limited char oxidation. The second term i s an empirical term derived as previously stated, with A being a constant.
U n t i l the pressure exceeds 1 atmosphere, t h e erosion can be accounted f o r by t h e char-oxidation theory as shown by t h e dashed curve. These oxidation r e s u l t s a r e obtained by assuming t h a t about half of t h e char i s s i l i c e o u s matter which w i l l not oxidize. This assumption i s v e r i f i e d by thermogravimetric t e s t s previously discussed. When the pressure exceeds 1 atmosphere, t h e oxidation mechanism w i l l not produce enough erosion t o match t h e f l i g h t h i s t o r y and t h e pressure e f f e c t i s required. The s o l i d curve shows t h e combined r e s u l t s of oxidation and pressure. The difference between t h e two curves shows t h e strong pressure e f f e c t . The calculations a r e made f o r t h e stagnation point f o r which t h e r e i s an i n d i c a t i o n from t h e f l i g h t data that t h e recession w a s l e s s than a t t h e edges of t h e nose cap.
The char thicknesses and t h e surface temperatures derived from these calculations are shown in f i g u r e 13. The i n i t i a l char thickness buildup r e s u l t s from oxidation. The pressure e f f e c t causes t h e rounding over of t h e curve and t h e resulting decrease i n char thickness. The m a x i m calculated char thickness agrees with t h a t previously deduced from thermocouple and spring-wire-sensor data. Furthermore, t h e very t h i n chars a t t h e end of t h e f l i g h t agree with high-pressure ground-test r e s u l t s . The m a x i m surface temperature i s calcul a t e d t o be 5500 F and occurs a t about t h e time f o r maximum heating. A s t h e char l a y e r becomes thin, t h e surface temperature decreased t o a l e v e l consistent with observations made i n high-pressure ground tests.

It i s generally conceded t h a t proof of an a n a l y t i c a l technique f o r pred i c t i n g ablator performance requires accuracy i n simultaneously predicting surface recession and temperature i n depth. Therefore, i f t h e postulated model f o r surface recession i s reasonable, t h e calculated temperature h i s t o r i e s t h a t result should a l s o be correct. I n f i g u r e 14 calculated and measured temperat u r e s a t several depths are shown as functions of t i m e . A d i f f e r e n t symbol i s

used f o r each depth with t h e degree of shading denoting t h e radial l o c a t i o n shown by t h e sketch. Studies have indicated t h a t most of t h e difference between t h e measured and calculated curves can be a t t r i b u t e d t o u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n material properties. It i s of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t t o note t h a t , a t t h e g r e a t e r depths, t h e calculated r e s u l t s produce the very rapid temperature r i s e t h a t w a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e f l i g h t thermocouples.

A f i n a l phase of t h e analysis was t o determine t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e postul a t e d pressure mechanism of char removal would have on t h e performance of t h e Apollo heat shield. A t about t h e time the f l i g h t t e s t was made, t h e Apollo 20g emergency reentry t h a t w a s planned did not involve skipout and t h e m a x i m u m pressure w a s about 1 . 3 atmospheres. For t h i s reentry, using t h e char removal mechanism deduced from t h e R-4 f l i g h t data, calculations showed t h a t t h e pressure e f f e c t would add about 10 percent t o t h e surface recession.

The emergency reentry planned now involves a skipout from 140,000 t o 373,000 f e e t with a maximum pressure of about 1 atmosphere. This pressure i s not high enough t o cause char removal by i t s e l f . Therefore, with t h e present char removal model, t h e only a c t i v e char removal mechanism would be oxidation. The recessions calculated f o r t h e stagnation point, which i s t h e point of m a x i m u m convective heating, f o r t h e Apollo overshoot and undershoot t r a j e c t o r i e s are shown i n f i g u r e 15. The depths, measured i n inches from t h e i n i t i a l f r o n t surface location, are p l o t t e d as functions of t i m e from t h e beginning of heating. The s o l i d l i n e s represent overshoot and t h e dashed l i n e s represent undershoot. The bottom p a i r of curves shows t h e calculated surface recession. It can be seen that nearly twice as much recession r e s u l t s i n t h e overshoot case. The top pair of curves shows t h e t o t a l depth of material t h a t i s t h e r mally degraded f o r each t r a j e c t o r y . The t o t a l degradation i s g r e a t e r f o r t h e overshoot case, which governs t h e heat-shield design. The curves representing t h e h i s t o r y of t o t a l degradation a l s o correspond approximately t o t h e penetrat i o n h i s t o r y f o r 6000 F, t h e bondline design temperature. The plateaus i n t h e centers of t h e curves correspond t o t h e skipout. To t h e l e f t of t h e plateaus are t h e recession and degradation t h a t r e s u l t i n t h e first heating pulse and t o t h e right, those which r e s u l t during the second pulse. Based on these calculations about 40 percent of t h e i n i t i a l 2.59 inches of a b l a t o r w i l l be used during reentry.
CONCLUDING R M R S E AK

The t e s t s on t h e Apollo heat-shield material have revealed a d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t of pressure a t l e v e l s above atmospheric pressure. Although t h e a c t u a l mechanism producing rapid erosion cannot presently be detailed, it i s believed t o be coupled with t h e extreme porosity of t h e material. The R-4 flight-test r e s u l t s q u a l i t a t i v e l y confirm t h e effect detected i n ground tests.

39

The f l i g h t - t e s t a b l a t o r instrumentation w a s somewhat inadequate at t h e g r e a t e r nose-cap depths. Because of t h e rapid recession of t h e a b l a t i o n mater i a l , t h e thermocouple sampling r a t e proved t o be t o o slow f o r t h e deeper thermocouples. The postulated pressure e f f e c t i s not a consideration f o r t h e presently defined Apollo reentry t r a j e c t o r i e s . For t h e most part, it appears t h a t oxidat i o n w i l l be t h e predominant char removal mechanism and t h a t , as a r e s u l t , t h e present heat-shield design i s conservative.

40

TABLE I

CF
Y E
ITEM
R-4 EX PER IMENT

POLL0 S
APOLLO

(209)

R - 4 NOSE-CAP CONSTRUCTION AND I ~ S T R U M ~ N T A T I ~

LAXOAT 5026-39M
SECTION A - A

AJ FRONT VIEW

Figure 1

L-2459-1

Figure 2

THERMOCOUPLE SENSOR DETAILS

MAKE WIRE ABLATION SENSOR

HOT JUNCTION OF NO. 36 GAGE C/A TC

BARE WIRE I N

TC U A D W I R E 1

SECTION A-A

Figure 3

Figure 4

SPRING WIRE ABLATION SENSOR

-CHAR

LIGHT PIPE ABLATION SENSOR

VIRGIN -MATERIAL

w
Figure 5

CONDITIONING CIRCUITRY

Figure 6

42

REENTRY TRAJECTORY OF R-4 F'AYLOAD

ALT. FT 400rxd
1. SEC

HEATING, PRESSURE, AND SHEAR F R R - 4 REENTRY O

5TH STAGE BO. BEGIN HEATING-'

B4O0

Pl.2. 4. L ~ ~ S T BTIJ/FT~-CF~ Z erxlO3 erxl@---

BEGIN BLACKOUT

200t

429
6-

4-

2-

I
0

\552-END

PLAYBACK
lo VELOcl'ic. FPS

x,

25

3:3 00

0-

Figure 7

Figure 8

TYPICAL FLIGHT ABLATOR TEMPERATURES

THERMAL DEGRADATION OF AVCOAT 5026-39-HC-G PRESSURE IO m n ~ g EMRRANRE RATE .3P FAIN , RISE

'YM

7M

sm

I.lM

1.m

1m .

17 .m

1m .

EMPERATURE, OF

Figure 9

Figure 10

43

SURFACE RECESSION HISTORY

R
ASWMED RATE

OF CHAR REMOVAL

Figure 11

Figure 12

L-2459-9

COMPRR 1 SON OF CALCULATED AND MEASURED T E M ~ E R R ~ U R E S

CALCV

ATURE

Figure 13

Figure 14

CALCULATIONS FOR APOLLO HEAT- SHIELD STAGNATION POINT

INITIN. THICKNESS
i

2 59 I N

Figure 15

44

5.

DYNAMXCS OF DROGUE PARACHUTE PHASE

APO'LITX)

RECOVERY

By Sanger M. Burk, Jr.

SUMMARY An investigation has been conducted i n t h e Langley spin tunnel a t low subsonic speeds with small-scale dynamic models t o study t h e dynamic s t a b i l i t y of the Apollo command module i n t h e f i n a l phases of recovery. The primary emphasis i n t h e investigation was placed on t h e phase of recovery i n which a drogue parachute i s used f o r deceleration and s t a b i l i t y , because it was found that serious dynamic s t a b i l i t y problems could e x i s t i n t h i s condition. "he r e s u l t s indicated t h a t with t h e deployed drogues attached t o t h e spacecraft i n t h e design 1-point arrangement, t h e spacecraft might experience excessive o s c i l l a t i o n s and r a t e s of rotation. These o s c i l l a t i o n s and r a t e s of r o t a t i o n can be reduced t o i n s i g n i f i cant l e v e l s by t h e use of a b p o i n t b r i d l e attachment system f o r t h e drogues.
INTRODUCTION A s p a r t of a continuing i n t e r e s t i n studying t h e dynamic s t a b i l i t y of vehic l e s i n v e r t i c a l descent and a t t h e request of t h e Manned Spacecraft Center, an investigation u t i l i z i n g dynamically scaled models has been conducted a t low subsonic speeds i n t h e Langley spin tunnel t o determine t h e dynamic behavior of t h e Apollo coxumand module. The tests were conducted by launching t h e models i n f r e e f l i g h t i n t h e v e r t i c a l l y r i s i n g airstream of t h e spin tunnel. I n t h e p a s t , s i m i l a r work has been done on Mercury and Gemini spacecraft (refs. 1 and 2) and reasonably good c o r r e l a t i o n w a s obtainedbetween t h e r e s u l t s of t h e model t e s t s and t h e full-scale-vehicle f l i g h t s i n s p i t e of t h e differences i n Mach number and Reynolds number. For example, with the drogue parachute systems f i n a l l y selected, the models t e s t e d exhibited s a t i s f a c t o r y s t a b i l i t y and the f u l l - s c a l e spacecraft also have behaved s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . With t h e o r i g i n a l system designed f o r Mercury, t h e model t e s t e d exhibited excessive o s c i l l a t i o n s when t h e drogue w a s attached t o a s i n g l e point on t h e top of t h e spacecraft. Drop tests of f i l l - s c a l e boilerplate vehicles confirmed this finding, and t h e attachment f i n a l l y used on t h e spacecraft was a 3-point b r i d l e system which w a s recommended as a result of t h e model t e s t s .

DISCUSSION Description of System

In order t o show t h e phases of t h e Apollo recovery t h a t a r e discussed, t h e

sequence of events f o r t h e Apollo recovery i s shown i n f i g u r e 1 The f i r s t . sketch on t h e left-hand side of t h e figufe shows t h e spacecraft g l i d i n g down

45

sketch, t h e with t h e reaction, controls providing s t a b i l i z a t i o n . I n t h e apex cover is j e t t i s o n e d and t h e drogue parachutes are being deployed. This event occurs a t ap a l t i t u d e of about 25,000 f e e t . I n t h e t h i r d sketch the spacecraft is being decelerated and s t a b i l i z e d by t h e drogue parachutes, and i n t h e f o u r t h sketch t h e drogue parachutes are j e t t i s o n e d and the p i l o t chutes are being deployed t o p u l l out t h e main parachutes. This event occurs a t an a l t i tude of about 12,000 f e e t which i s reached about 30 seconds after t h e deplo of the drogues. The f i n a l sketch shows t h e spacecraft descending with t h e ma parachutes f u l l y deployed. This paper deals almost e n t i r e l y with t h e spacecraft with t h e drogue parachute - t h a t is, with t h e deployment of t h e drogue and t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e spacecraft a f t e r t h e drogue has been deployed.
the drogue deployed, t h e design drogue parachute system i s shown i n f i g u r e 2.

kxt

**
'*:

Since emphasis i s placed on t h e results of t h e tests of t h e spacecraft with The drogue parachutes are two ribbon parachutes 13.7 f e e t i n diameter permanently reefed t o a diameter of 8.5 f e e t . The system i s designed so t h a t e i t h e r of t h e two drogues can r e t a r d and s t a b i l i z e the spacecraft s a t i s f a c t o r i l y ; one of t h e drogues, therefore, i s a c t u a l l y a backup system. It i s believed, however, t h a t both drogues should be deployed a t t h e same time from t h e standpoint of r e l i a b i l i t y and a l s o t o take advantage of t h e added drag and s t a b i l i z i n g force i f both did deploy. The two parachutes are attached t o t h e spacecraft a t a s i n g l e point i n an o f f s e t location just above t h e main parachute deck. The center of gravity i s o f f s e t from t h e symmetrical axis on t h e opposite s i d e from t h e attachment point. This combination of o f f s e t c e n t e r of g r a v i t y and o f f s e t attachment point r e s u l t s i n a 25' tilt of t h e spacecraft.

S t a b i l i t y of Spacecraft Alone Before t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e design spacecraft-drogue combination i s examined, however, it i s d e s i r a b l e t o go back one s t e p i n t h e recovery sequence and examine the s t a b i l i t y of t h e spacecraft alone. As pointed out previously, before t h e deployment of t h e drogues, t h e spacecraft i s supposed t o be s t a b i l i z e d by means of a reaction c o n t r o l system. If, however, t h e r e a c t i o n c o n t r o l system should f a i l o r run out of fuel, then t h e b a s i c s t a b i l i t y of t h e spacec r a f t becomes a cause f o r concern, p a r t i c u l a r l y since t h e motions of t h e spacec r a f t d o n e can provide t h e i n i t i a l e x c i t a t i o n f o r subsequent motions of spacecraft-drogue combination.
The t e s t r e s u l t s indicated t h a t t h e spacecraft d o n e , with blunt end f o r ward, was dynanically unstable. The i n s t a b i l i t y took t h e form of l a r g e o s c i l l a tions, tumbling, and spinning.

Deployment of Drogues I n order t o determine t h e effectiveness of t h e drogue parachute i n terminating these motions, deployment tests of t h e drogue parachute were made. The deployment t e s t s were conducted by launching t h e spacecraft i n t o t h e v e r t i c a l airstream of t h e spin tunnel with a tumbling o r spinning motion and with t h e drogue parachute folded against t h e s i d e of t h e spacecraft. The effectiveness

46

of t h e parachute i n stopping these i n i t i a l motions as it deployed w s observed a visually and a l s o recorded by a motion-picture camera. The two drogue-parachute attachment configurations used i n t h e deployment t e s t s are shown i n figure 3. On t h e l e f t side of the f i g u r e t h e 1-point attachment configuration (present design configuration) i s shown. On the right side i s shown an attachment configuration which used four bridle l i n e s attached a t four equally spaced points indicated by the dots around t h e top of the a i r lock. It sholiid 3e noted t h s t these t e a t s xcre mce w i t h olll;. a s h @ e * q p 3 dlich represents the condition i n which only one of t h e two drogues deployed successfully. The r e s u l t s of t h e deployment t e s t s o f these two configurations indicated that f o r t h e 1-point attachment configuration, t h e large-amplitude o s c i l l a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g f r m tumbling the spacecraft i n t h e tunnel were very poorly damped. These o s c i l l a t i o n s were very similar t o t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s encountered on a f l i g h t of a f u l l - s c a l e b o i l e r p l a t e vehicle at White Sands Proving Ground, N w Mexico, e when the drogue parachute w s deployed. Because of these l a r g e o s c i l l a t i o n s of a t h e f u l l - s c a l e vehicle, one of the risers t o t h e main parachutes was severed. For t h e modified 4-point attachment configuration, t h e wind-tunnel results indicated t h a t t h e deployment of a drogue damped the o s c i l l a t i o n s rather quickly. "he difference i n t h e effectiveness of the two drogue attachment configurations i s p a r t l y due t o the d i r e c t e f f e c t of t h e attachment i n damping the i n i t i a l large-amplitude motions; but t h i s difference i s a l s o a r e f l e c t i o n of differences i n t h e s t a b i l i t y of the spacecraft w i t h t h e drogues deployed. S t a b i l i t y With Drogues Deployed
Desi= single-point attachment configuration.- The s t a b i l i t y of t h e spacec r a f t with t h e deployed drogues with t h e I-point attachment was very e r r a t i c . In a f e w tests t h e spacecraft developed only mild o s c i l l a t i o n s and rates of rotation, but i n most t e s t s the o s c i l l a t i o n s would b u i l d up t o l a r g e amplitudes (as high as k3OO) and t h e r o t a t i o n of the spacecraft about i t s symmetrical axis b u i l t up t o high r a t e s ( a s g r e a t as 1.1revolutions per second, f u l l s c a l e ) .

The maximum amplitudes of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s and the maximum r a t e s of r o t a t i o n reached seemed t o be about t h e same with only one drogue deployed o r with both drogues deployed. This result might be taken t o indicate t h a t t h e behavior of t h e spacecraft was no worse with only one drogue deployed than it was with both drogues. This i s not q u i t e t h e case, however. With both drogues deployed t h e rate a t which the motions build up t o objectionably l a r g e amplitudes o r rates of r o t a t i o n i s lower than it i s f o r a single drogue. Since it I s intended t h a t t h e spacecraft operate f o r only about 30 seconds with t h e drogues, p r i o r t o deployment of t h e main parachutes, the time f o r t h e motions t o build up is important. The tvo-drogue deployment consequently i s considered t o be b e t t e r . The fact t h a t t h e motions b u i l t up more slowly w i t h both drogues deployed was not t h e result of the greater s t a b i l i t y of a clustered parachute arrangement but w s t h e result of t h e slower descent of t h e spacecraft with both drogues a t h a t is, t h e airspeed w a s lower so t h a t the aerodynamic forces exciting t h e unstable motions were much smaller.

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Figure 4, which i s used as an aid i n discussing the source of the spacec r a f t r o t a t i o n problem, shows t h e 1-point drogue attachment configuration. The r o t a t i o n r e s u l t s from the aerodynamic asymmetries caused by t h e tilt of t h e spacecraft and t h e o f f s e t center of gravity. As t h e spacecraft s i d e s l i p s i n t o o r out of the plane of t h e figure, it develops an aerodynamic r o l l i n g moment about t h e X-axis which i n i t i a t e s t h e r o t a t i o n . This aerodynamic r o l l i n g moment, which corresponds t o t h e dihedral e f f e c t of an airplane ( t h a t is, a r o l l i n g moment due t o s i d e s l i p ) , has been shown t o e x i s t by wind-tunnel t e s t s of models of t h e Apollo spacecraft.
If the spacecraft i s i n a l e v e l a t t i t u d e with t h e center of g r a v i t y on the symmetrical axis, it would not have t h i s tendency t o r o t a t e . I n f a c t , tests have been made w i t h the Apollo model i n which the center of g r a v i t y w a s moved t o t h e symmetrical a x i s and t h e parachute was attached a t t h e center of the top of the spacecraft, and it showed l i t t l e tendency t o r o t a t e .

This r o t a t i o n i s an insidious c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . Rotation does not always occur. It needs something t o t r i g g e r it, such as s i d e s l i p caused by wind sheer, or aerodynamic asymmetries t h a t might occur as a r e s u l t of uneven a b l a t i o n of the heat shield. Rotation may not be encountered i n any one p a r t i c u l a r drop t e s t , o r i n any s p e c i f i c number of drop t e s t s , but i s always a danger in t h e next t e s t .

No s t a t i s t i c a l data were taken on the t i m e generally required f o r the o s c i l l a t i o n s o r rate of r o t a t i o n t o build up t o dangerous values. In most tests, however, t h e rate of increase w a s low so that dangerous values would not be reached during the approximately 30-second period of t i m e t h a t t h e spacecraft might be expected t o operate with t h e drogues deployed. On the other hand, i n a f e w t e s t s , t h e r a t e of increase w s very rapid and excessive values were a reached within a period corresponding t o 30 seconds f u l l - s c a l e time. The achievement of excessive r a t e s of r o t a t i o n and amplitudes of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s evidently depended upon t h e e x c i t i n g disturbances encountered; no i n t e n t i o n a l disturbances, o t h e r than normal tunnel airstream turbulence, were given during the tests except i n t h e deployment t e s t s where t h e drogues were deployed under very severe condition6 of tumbling o r spinning.
Modified configurations.- In addition t o the t e s t s of t h e design drogueparachute attachment system, several other attachment systems were t e s t e d which were intended t o provide improved s t a b i l i t y . Some of t h e attachment systems investigated are shown i n figure 5. The object of t h e modifications w a s t o hold the spacecraft more l e v e l t o prevent r o t a t i o n and t o hold it a t several widely spaced points t o provide better r e s i s t a n c e t o o s c i l l a t i o n s . The sketches from l e f t t o r i g h t show a configuration w i t h a 4-point, a 3-point, and a 2-point bridle attachment, and a 1-point attachment. For t h e 1 - p o h t attachment, a single l i n e is attached t o an outrigger i n such a manner t h a t the spacecraft w i l l tend t o hang i n a level position when i n free fall. These four basic modif i e d configurations were used i n t h e tests. Actually, 59 d i f f e r e n t v a r i a t i o n s of these general configurations were tested.

All these configurations afforded some improvement in s t a b i l i t y over t h e o r i g i n a l 1-point attachment configuration. The 3- and 4-point attachment configurations, however, were consider@;ly better than the 1 o r 2-point attachment -

.-

48

configurations and, in fact, were the only attachment configurations considered to give satisfactory stability. With the 3- and 4-point bridle attachment configaatims it was possible to reduce the maximum amplitudes of the oscillations and the maximum rates of rotation encountered to insignificant levels that is, k5 amplitude for the oscillations and 0.09 revolution per second for the rates of rotation.

Human Factors Considerations

The discussion so far has been primarily about the stability of the spacecraft with the drogues deployed. The stability of the spacecraft i n this condition is of concern for two reasons: first, excessive oscillation or rotation of the spacecraft may cause unsatisfactory deployment of the main parachutes as was mentioned previously concerning a full-scale test of a boilerplate vehicle, and, second, the human factors considerations, such as motion siclmess, and the possibility of having excessive g l o a d s on the crew.

Some data in connection with human factors aspects are presented in fig. ure 6 These data show the rate of spacecraft rotation about the symmetrical axis and the frequency and amplitude of the oscillations. The characteristics are given for the 1-point drogue attachment configuration and for one of the better modified 4-point attachment configurations. The values given are maximum values obtained in the tests and are scaled up to full scale. The data indicate that the rate of rotation of the spacecraft for the 1-point attachment configuration is much greater than that of the 4-point attachment configuration. The data also show that the frequency of the oscillations is of the order of 1 cycle per second for either of the configurations but that the amplitude of the oscillations is much larger for the design attachment configuration.
This information indicates that perhaps human factors aspects of the problem should be a cause for concern, particularly the possibility of having excessive accelerations on the crew due to the rotation. In figure 7 are shown the accelerations at the heads and feet of the crew which would result from the maximum rates of rotation shown in figme 6. The sketch on the left in figure 7 shows accelerations for the design 1-point attachment and the sketch on the right shows the accelerations for the 4-point bridle attachment configuration. Relatively modest accelerations are indicated for the 4-point attachment configuration because of the low rate of rotation, but for the 1-point attachment configuration the figure shows accelerations at the head which would ordinarily be of grave concern. The reason that the seriousness of these high accelerations at the head cannot be determined at present is the unusual situation in which the accelerations are in one direction at the head and the other direction at the feet. However, this certainly seems to be a problem which would bear investigation.
CONCLUDING REMAHKS

The Apollo command module alone is dynamically unstable and can go through some rather violent gyrations if the reaction controls should fail. These

49

large-amplitude motions of t h e spacecraft alone can provide t h e e x c i t a t i o n for subsequent i n s t a b i l i t i e s of t h e spacecraft with t h e drogues deployed. With the deployed drogues attached t o t h e spacecraft i n t h e design 1-point arrangement, t h e spacecraft may experience excessive o s c i l l a t i o n s and rates of rotation. These o s c i l l a t i o n s and rates of r o t a t i o n can be reduced t o insignifi c a n t l e v e l s by a 4-point b r i d l e attachment system f o r t h e drogues, which keeps t h e spacecraft l e v e l and thereby v i r t u a l l y eliminates any tendency f o r it t o rotate.

1 Bowman, James S., Jr.: Dynamic Model T e s t s at Low Subsonic Speeds of Proj. e c t Mercury Capsule Configurations With and Without Drogue Parachutes. NASA '1M X-459, 1 6 . 91
2. Lee, Henry A.;

Costigan, Peter J.; and Bowman, James S., Jr.: .Dynamic-Model Lnvestigation of a 1/20-Scale Gemini Spacecraft i n t h e Langley Spin Tunnel. NASA !I'N D-2191, 1964.

RECOVERY TECHNIOUE F R APOLLO O

DESIGN DROGUE PARACHUTE SYSTEM

ALTITUDE c 25,000?T' TIME = 0

& , \v , ,

l/ \

ALTITUDE iJ 12,000 FT TIMEJX) SEC

31
Figure 2

Figure 1

DROGUE-HRACHUTE ATTACHMENTS USED IN DEPLOYMENT TESTS

I -POINT ATTACHMENT

DIAGRAM F R DISCUSSION OF SPACECRAFT ROTATION TESTS O

4-POINT ATTACHMENT

Figure 3

Figure 4

MODIFIED DROGUE ATTACHMENT CONFIGURATIONS CHARACTERISTICS OF TWO CONFIGURATIONS ALL VALUES ARE FULL SCALE
I- POINT ATTACHMENT

4-WINT ATTACHMENT

RATE OF ROTATION, RPS FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATIONS, CPS

I I I3

009
0 78

AMPLITUDE OF OSCILLATIONS, DEG 2300

t5 0

Figure 5

Figure 6

MAXIMUM ACCELERATION IN g UNITS ON CREW DUE TO SPACECRAFT ROTATION

I-PCiNT ATTACHMENT 4-POINT ATTACHMENT

Figure 7

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6.

LANDING IMPACT STUDIES OF APOLLO COMMAND MOD

By Sandy M. Stubbs

UI.lUl, &a -i

Landing t e s t s have been conducted with l/k-scale dynamic models of t h e Apollo command module t o compare passive landing systems with a c t i v e systems t h a t incorporate shock-attenuation devices t o cushion t h e impact. The a c t i v e system of t h i s investigation extends the heat s h i e l d and uses v e r t i c a l l y oriented hydraulic s t r u t s and horizontally mounted s t r a i n s t r a p s f o r impact attenuation. The passive system does not extend t h e heat s h i e l d and f o r landings on hard surfaces t h e structure m u s t deform t o absorb t h e impact shock. Tests were made a t parachute letdown conditions on a hard surface and on calm water. Maximum normal accelerations presented f o r landings on t h e hard surface with t h e passive-system model were about h g and with t h e active-system model were from 8g t o l7g. Maximum normal accelerations presented f o r calm-water landings with t h e passive system were approximately 3Og, whereas those with t h e a c t i v e system were about 18g. The s t a b i l i t y f o r t h e a c t i v e system w s b e t t e r a than t h a t f o r t h e passive system. Water-pressure data indicate t h a t when t h e vehicle f i r s t contacts t h e water, both a c t i v e and passive systems have approximately t h e same water pressures over the small i n i t i a l wetted areas (1.5 square f e e t ) . These pressures are approximately 1-50 p s i f o r t h e conditions specified. Water pressures l a t e r i n t h e impact, at the time of maximum acceleration, r e s u l t e d i n pressures from 30 t o 50 psi for t h e passive system compared with pressures less than 20 p s i f o r t h e active system. It w a s concluded t h a t both landing systems can be used f o r manned spacecraft landings on water and t h a t t h e a c t i v e landing system a l s o can be used f o r hard-surface landings. The a c t i v e system could a l s o be used f o r advanced Apollo missions, i n which removal of t h e crew-couch attenuating system may be required so t h a t more than t h r e e astronauts could be c a r r i e d f o r e a r t h landings.
INTRODUCTION

Manned spacecraft, when landed by parachute, generally require some method of a l l e v i a t i n g t h e landing-impact loads. Consequently, t h e evaluation and development of e f f i c i e n t landing systems t h a t are lightweight, r e l i a b l e , and adaptable t o various landing environments are of continuing i n t e r e s t .

It is desirable t h a t spacecraft landing systems have t h e ca a b i l i t y - o f landing on firm s o i l as well a s water. Passive landing systems systems, such as those of Apollo, t h a t do not extend t h e landing gear), when landed on firm s o i l , have generally r e s u l t e d i n impact accelerations t h a t exceed human accele r a t i o n tolerance l e v e l s , so t h a t t h i s type of landing system i s best s u i t e d t o a water landing. If t h e requirement of a hard-surface landing c a p a b i l i t y i s t o be met, it may be desirable t h a t an active landina system incorporating shockattenuation devices be used.

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DESCRIPTION OF MODELS

ding t e s t s have been conducted with l/k-scale dynamic models of t h e module'koacompare a c t i v e and passive landing systems i n both hard-surface and water 'landings. The a c t l v e landing system investigated ( f i g . 1) extends the heat s h i e l d and uses four hydraulic struts oriented near v e r t i c a l and s i x horizontally mounted s t r a i n s t r a p s f o r impact attenuation. The s t r a i n straps absorb energy through p l a s t i c yielding i n tension. (The X, Y, and Z axes i n t h i s f i g u r e represent r o l l , p i t c h , and yaw axes, respectively )

The active landing system w a s designed t o absorb t h e energy r e s u l t i n g from parachute-letdown v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t i e s of 30 f e e t per second and horizontal veloci t i e s up t o 50 f e e t per second. This landing system w a s developed at Langley as an outgrowth of an e a r l i e r proposal t h a t consisted of six v e r t i c a l l y oriented oleo struts and eight horizontally mounted, honeycomb-filled shock struts. The system shown in f i g u r e 1 i s approximately 40 percent l i g h t e r than t h a t o r i g i n a l l y proposed. The passive landing system investigated i s shown i n f i g u r e 2. The heat s h i e l d i s not extendible, and f o r landings on s o i l t h e b a s i c s t r u c t u r e m u s t deform t o absorb t h e impact shock. The Apollo command module c u r r e n t l y u t i l i z e s t h i s type of landing system but, i n addition, has a s p e c i a l crew-couch support which a l l e v i a t e s some of t h e impact f o r t h e crew. This f i g u r e shows a cross s e c t i o n of the impact face of t h e Apollo spacecraft. The crew compartment f l o o r i s made of aluminum honeycomb w i t h aluminum facing sheets and t h e heat s h i e l d i s made of s t e e l honeycomb and facing sheets and covered with an ablation material. The two p a r t s are separated by a l a y e r of i n s u l a t i n g material. The 1/4-scale model employed a scaled s t i f f n e s s bottom made of fiber-glass laminates with a Styrofoam core t o simulate t h e combined s t r u c t u r e of both t h e crew compartment f l o o r and t h e heat s h i e l d .
TEST APPARATUS

Figure 3 i s a sketch of t h e pendulum launch apparatus used t o obtain t h e desired landing conditions. The desired landing a t t i t u d e s were obtained by adjustment of a support-release mechanism mounted on t h e platform. The required h o r i z o n t a l velocity was obtained by t h e pendulum swing and t h e model was released at dead center with t h e necessary v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y obtained by t h e f r e e f a l l . Figure 4 i s a photograph of t h e test f a c i l i t y used f o r t h e hard-surface landings. The s i z e relationship can be r e a l i z e d by t h e 1-foot-square background g r i d . The a c t i v e landing system model i s attached t o t h e launch carriage and t h e pendulum. The carriage i s shown i n t h e pulled back position. The landing surface shown consisted of a hard-packed roadbed material.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Landing Acceleration and S t a b i l i t y Apollo landing accelerations f o r both a c t i v e and passive landing systems f o r landings on the hard roadbed surface a r e presented i n figure 5 . Maximum normal acceleration at t h e vehicle center of g r a v i t y is p l o t t e d against landing , attitude f o r a v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y V, of 23 f e e t p e r second and a horizontal v e l o c i t y 'vh of 30 f e e t per second (full s c a l e ) . Horizontal v e l o c i t i e s from 0 t o 50 feet per second were used i n the tests but data a r e presented only f o r t h e ' v e l o c i t y of 30 f e e t per second. The r o l l a t t i t u d e of t h e spacecraft is 0 o r , as shown i n the sketch, with t h e astronaut moving f e e t f i r s t . Roll, as used i n t h i s discussion, is t h e same as yaw i n airplane terminology. The sketch i n t h i s f i g u r e shows t h e model i n a p o s i t i v e landing ( p i t c h ) a t t i t u d e . The c i r c u l a r data points are f o r t h e passive landing system and t h e squares a r e f o r the a c t i v e landing system. The f i l l e d - i n data points i n d i c a t e turnover. With t h e passive landing system, t h e model turned over f o r t h e range of landing a t t i t u d e s invest i g a t e d , and maximum normal impact accelerations were about b g . With t h e a c t i v e landing system, t h e model remained upright f o r landing attitudes from -20 t o Oo, and the maximum accelerations were from 8g t o l7g.
The accelerations f o r t h e Apollo model landings on calm water a r e shown i n f i g u r e 6. Maximum normal accelerations are p l o t t e d against landing a t t i t u d e f o r a v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y of 23 f e e t per second and a h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y of 30 f e e t per second. The r o l l attitude is . ' 0 The maximum normal accelerations f o r t h e passive system occurred at ' l a d i n g a t t i t u d e and were 3Og. The maximum normal 0 accelerations f o r t h e a c t i v e system were kg t o gg. With the passive landing system, model turnover occurred f o r a large range of landing a t t i t u d e s , and t h e model remained right s i d e up after impact f o r only two t e s t conditions. The Apollo command module has stable f l o a t a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e i t h e r inverted o r right s i d e up and when turnover occurs t h e vehicle remains i n t h e inverted posit i o n . The model having t h e active landing system with oleo struts d i d not turn over f o r the range of landing a t t i t u d e s investigated.

Figure 7 shows results of water landings with a v e r t i c a l velocity of 30 feet per second and a horizontal v e l o c i t y of 30 feet p e r second. These t e s t s were made a t r o l l attitude of 10 or, as shown i n t h e sketch, with t h e astronaut 8' moving head f i r s t . The sketch shows the model i n a negative p i t c h a t t i t u d e . The maximum normal accelerations f o r t h e passive system ranged from 5g a t a p i t c h a t t i t u d e of -41' t o 23g at a p i t c h a t t i t u d e of -. 1 6 ' The designed 'kang" angle f o r t h e passive landing system indicated on the sketch is -26*, as shown by t h e arrow. Because of a combination of parachute swing and wave slope, t h e r e is a p o s s i b i l i t y of impact a t an a t t i t u d e o f l7O on e i t h e r side of t h e hang angle. If t h e spacecraft h i t at t h e worst of these conditions, t h e maximum normal accele r a t i o n would be higher, as shown by the extrapolation. The designed hang angle Angles of about 20' from t h i s a t t i t u d e 1. 0 f o r t h e a c t i v e landing system i s -' were investigated. Maximum normal accelerations were from log a t an a t t i t u d e 1. 0 of loo t o 18g a t t h e designed landing a t t i t u d e of -' All drops of both pass i v e and a c t i v e systems were stable for a horizontal v e l o c i t y of 30 f e e t p e r second, a t t h e 180 r o l l condition.

55

Impact Water Pressures Because heat-shield s t r u c t u r a l problems were a n t i c i p a t e d f o r water landings, a water pressure investigation of t h e l / h s c a l e passive-system model was conducted. The data from t h i s model were subsequently used i n t h e s t r u c t u r a l changes i n the spacecraft heat s h i e l d . Figure 8 i s a sketch showing t h e locat i o n of pressure transducers on t h e heat s h i e l d of t h e passive-system model. The small s o l i d symbols indicate positions of t h e pressure transducers and t h e dashed c i r c l e s a r e a r b i t r a r y panels t h a t include t h r e e transducers and have an area of 1.5 square f e e t ( f u l l s c a l e ) . Similar panel areas were investigated on t h e active-lading-system model. The t y p i c a l pressure data presented i n f i g u r e 9 were obtained on t h e area i d e n t i f i e d as panel B i n f i g u r e 8. Figure 9 presents t h e maximum integrated panel pressure f o r panel B as a function of landing a t t i t u d e f o r a v e r t i c a l and a horizontal velocity of 30 f e e t 8' p e r second. The r o l l a t t i t u d e i s 10 (astronaut moving head f i r s t ) . The panel pressure varies a great deal with changes i n landing a t t i t u d e . Pressures a r e about l p s i when panel 13 i s a t t h e i n i t i a l contact point of t h e heat s h i e l d on w t h e water. W e panel B i s not at the i n i t i a l water contact point, pressures hn a r e reduced t o about 20 p s i a t -bo and 1 a t t i t u d e s . The peak pressures f o r 0 ' panels on both a c t i v e and passive landing systems should be t h e same. This i s due t o t h e velocity of t h e heat s h i e l d being t h e same f o r both vehicles a t impact. Figure 10 shows pressures f o r a condition l a t e r i n t h e impact where t h e velocity of t h e heat s h i e l d on t h e a c t i v e system i s less than t h a t on t h e passive system a s a r e s u l t of t h e shock-absorber action. Figure 10 presents average pressure a t t h e time of maximum acceleration f o r both t h e a c t i v e and passive landing systems. The t e s t conditions a r e t h e same as those presented i n f i g u r e 9. The v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y i s 30 f e e t per second, horizontal v e l o c i t y i s 30 f e e t per second, and r o l l a t t i t u d e i s 180. A t y p i c a l pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e heat shield i s shown by t h e crosshatched area on t h e sketch. Peak pressures a r e a t the water l i n e and f a l l off toward t h e center o f t h e wetted a r e a . The pressures p l o t t e d a r e average pressures f o r such a pressure d i s t r i bution. A t the time of maximum acceleration, t h e water pressures on t h e passive system were from 30 t o 50 p s i , whereas t h e pressures on t h e a c t i v e landing system were l e s s than 20 p s i .
CONCLUDING RESIARKS

Both active and passive systems can be used f o r manned spacecraft landings. The passive landing system presently used i n t h e Apollo design is s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r water landings over a wide range of impact conditions. The a c t i v e landing system which incorporates hydraulic s t r u t s and h o r i z o n t a l r e s t r a i n t s o f f e r s t h e c a p a b i l i t y of a hard-surface landing, as w e l l as a water landing. This system mey be used f o r t h e more advanced Apollo missions, i n which removal of t h e crewcouch attenuating system may be required s o t h a t more than t h r e e astronauts could be carried f o r e a r t h landings.

56

IM-SCALE AWLLO MODEL WITH ACTIVE LANDING SYSEM

CROSS SECTION OF AWLLO SPACECRAFT WITH PPSSlVE LANDING SYSTEM

LRDSS St-CTION OF IMPACT MCE

CR

5 DE VIEW 1

TOP VIEW

SECTION A-A

MODEL STETION

Figure 1

Figure 2

TEST APPARATUS

Figure 3

Figure 4

L-2461-4

57

HARD- SURFACE LANDING ACCELERATIONS V = 23 FPS ; b = 30 FPS . ROLL ATTITUDE 0 , , ' PASSIVE SYSTEM 7

WATER LANDING ACCELERATIONS V = 23 FF5, 4 = 30 FPS ; ROLL ATTITUDE = ' , 0

'
MAXIMUM NORMAL 2o ACCEL, g UNITS

@ , :
i

40

0 TURNOVER

.....

i . : ..+I .. .

.:..:
MAXIMUM NORMAL ACCEL. 20 g UNITS

ACTIVE

0-3b

'

-20

'

0 IO 40 I LANDING ATTITUDE, DEG

'

TURNOVER
, , I

'

20

00 9

-' 20

'

40

0 I IO LANDING ATTITUDE. DEG

'

'

20

'

'

Figure 5

Figure 6

PRESSURE TRANSDUCER IDCATIONS

WATER LANDING ACCELERATIONS FOR 180' ROLL CONDITION v = 30 FPS ; V = 30 FPS , , PASSIVE LANDING SYSTEM
Y

HANG ANGLE

MAXIMUM
g UNITS

PASSIVE SYSTEM

A''
1 -

- --?z

ACTIVE SYSTEM

Oc-

-- --I

0
LANDING ATTITUDE, DEG

Figure 7

Figure 8

V= 30 FPS ; ,

PRESSURES FOR BINEL B 30 FPS. ROLL ATTlTUDE=180

PRESSURES AT TIME OF MAXIMUM ACCELERATION V= 30 FPS; Vh= 30 FPS; ROLL ATTITUDE ~ 1 8 0 ~ ,

200-

MAXIMUM PRESSURE, 100PSI

PASSIVE

'\
' \

AVERAGE PRESSURE, 30 PSI

d'

'.

oLt

-40

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LANDING ATTITUDE, DEG

-26

'

-0

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-10

LANDING ATTITUDE, DEG

Figure 9

Figure 10

59

7.

PENETR-

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FOR

LUNAR SURJ?ACE EVALUATION

By Alfred G. Beswick and John Locke McCarty

The Langley Research Center has been studying the practicabilities of employing instrumented projectiles called dynamic penetrometers to evaluate the hardness and penetrability of terrestrial materials. This research has shown that characteristics of earth materials can be determined from penetrometer impacts which would be of great value in establishing an index of landability. The effort has also shown that present-day instrumentation technology permits the application of penetrometers in remote environments, such as that of the moon. A discussion of penetrometer impact research and instrumentation development background is presented, and plans for applying the technology to an Apollo reconnaissance mission are described. The present status of a major contract effort to extend penetrometer impact research and knowledge and to further develop penetrometer instrumentation components for an Apollo reconnaissance mission is described.
INTRODUCTION

One of the major problems facing the effort to land upon the moon is the acquisition of definitive data on landing sites to determine whether they can be safely landed upon. The acquired data must have sufficient detail to provide assurance that a selected site is capable of supporting a vehicle during landing and subsequent launch and is also safe for lunar surface operations. The Langley Research Center (LRC) has been evaluating the practicabilities of employing remotely operated devices called penetrometers to obtain such data since 1 6 . The LRC penetrometer is an instrumented projectile which measures 90 and transmits accelerations encountered during impact with a target surface. Impact research on earth materials has shown that characteristics of these accelerations are related to certain physical properties of the impacted material. Hence penetrometers can be usedto ascertain the properties of unknown targets in terms of accessible earth materials and thus can aid in determining 821 index of landability for the lunar surface. The purpose of this paper is to review penetrometer research and development and to show how penetrometers could be used to assist in certifying potential landing sites.
DEFINITION O THE P R O B W F

To more specifically define the problem, some of the measurements which must be obtained to establish a safe landing site for the lunar excursion module (m), for example, are given as follows. The area to be examined is

61

roughly that'of a 1000-foot-radius circle, which will be sufficient providing a beacon,or.yarkeris left on the surface during the verification process. If no beacon is !left, the area of the site to be certified must be increased by a factor of approximately 30. Protuberances or depressions which might cause bottoming or tilting of a landing vehicle can not exceed approxlmately 20 inches within a horizontal distance of roughly 30 feet. The effective slopes must be such that the total angle of tilt which may be experienced by a landing vehicle is less than12O. The minimum surface bearing s ngth must be such that a static load of 1 psi will penetrate no more than inckgs-anda dyn ic load of 0 12 psi will penetrate no more than 12 inches at a landing velocity-, 1 feet per second. These values refer to a circular L;EM landing pad 37 inches in diameter.

The recent successes of the Ranger program have done a great deal to narrow the range of uncertainty concerning the small-scale topographical features of the moon but have not provided additional insight with respect to its loadsupporting capability. The Lunar Orbiter program provides detailed photographic coverage of potential landing sites for measuring protuberances and slopes but has no capability for bearing strength measurements. Even though the Surveyor spacecraft can perform significant lunar-surface landability measurements, it can evaluate just one landing site per mission; this becomes expensive and time consuming as the number of sites to be investigated increases.

In order to augment present methods of measuring the load-supporting capability of the lunar surface, consideration is being given to providing Apollo with site certification capability. For these missions the LEN vehicle would be replaced with survey probes which would be ejected from an orbiting Apollo and directed to the lunar surface. Among the payloads being considered for delivery by such probes is a penetrometer system derived from investigations performed at the Langley Research Center.
BACKGROUND
To briefly review the background of LRC penetrometer impact research, figures 1 and 2 present typical penetrometer impact data. Figure 1 presents typical acceleration time histories obtained during impact of a penetrometer upon several earth materials, namely, concrete, sod, a bed of dust particles, and a layered configuration of dust on soil. Figure 2 is a cross plot of two of the significant characteristics of these acceleration signatures peak acceleration measured in earth g units and total acceleration pulse time in milliseconds. These data were obtained from impacts of a projectile having weight W of 1 pound, diameter d of 3 inches, and impact velocity V of 2 feet per sec0 ond. Projectiles having different size, density, or impact velocity produce similar variations in acceleration time history characteristics which result in shifts to the curve of figure 2 the relative positioning of the data for the ; different targets would be unchanged. For hard unyielding substances such as concrete or rock, the peak acceleration values are high and the acceleration pulse times are quite short. Furthermore, for these essentially elastic impacts the acceleration pulse shape tends towards symmetry about the peak acceleration. I

62

As the impacted material becomes softer and the load-supporting capability, or bearing strength, lessens, 8s in the case of sand and dust targets, peak scceleration values decrease with corresponding increases in the acceleration pulse the. The pulse shapes for these penetration cases depart from symmetry and become unique for each class of target and permit the definition of layered target configurations as demonstrated by the variations in the pulse shape of the dust-on-soil target of figure 1 .

Ve sf fig12e 2 iu...str.ie ?, & 8 pe=etr==&,or4mp=&& -h GE a &.mf&ce at a known velocity can indicate the hardness of that surface by measuring either the peak acceleration or the total acceleration pulse time, since these characteristics are dependent upon the target material. Thus, the hardness of the lunar surface can be described in terms of accessible earth materials from a knowledge of either of these impact characteristics. However, with the additional knowledge of the pulse shape, a great deal more can be learned about the nature of the lunar surface, such as the approximate depth of penetrated dust . layers as noted in figure 1

Some results of studies at the Langley Research Center have been presented , , in references 1 2 and 3; these results show that acceleration time histories generated by penetrometer impacts can be analyzed to define the character of the impacted material and that present-day instrumentation technology permits the development of remotely operated penetrometers for lunar surface exploration. These reports a l s o show that the penetrometer technique does not require a survival landing of a complex and delicate instrument package, yet a direct measurement of surface characteristics can be obtained which will aid in establishing an index of landability. Present LRC penetrometer studies are directed toward expanding the impact research effort to relate penetrometer impact characteristics to the bearing strength of dust-like target surfaces and also toward the development of necessary penetrometer supporting instrumentation.
APOLLO PENETROMETER MISSION CONCEPT

Figure 3 presents a concept of a lunar surface probe deployed from an Apollo spacecraft in-lunarorbit. The probe package consists of at least eight penetrometers, supporting data relay comunications equipment, and a delivery system for directing the probe from lunar orbit to a point near the landing site. The probe package is ejected from the Apollo spacecraft at point ( ) 1 as denoted in the figure and enters a desired surface approach trajectory maintained by its guidance-control system. At an appropriate instant a retromaneuver is performed which positions the probe package with its penetrometer payload a few thousand feet above the lunar landing site. Following retroburnout, the probe package is oriented with respect to the lunar vertical for penetrometer deployment operations as shown in figure 4 The probe package . maintains this attitude and position by means of its guidance-control system for a period of time (typically several seconds) which is sufficient to deploy the penetrometers and process the ensuing impact data. The probe package itself subsequently free falls to the lunar surface. Although a variety of deployment sequences could be used depending upon mission requirements, this figure shows

63

a sequential deployment in order to illustrate penetrometer operations. One penetmmeter is shown departing from the hovering probe package, while another is shown in the process of impacting upon the lunar surface. Acceleration data radioed by the impacting penetrometer are received by the data relay communications equipment onboard the hovering probe package and are appropriately processed and retransmitted to the Apollo spacecraft, which is still within line-ofsight transmission range. The data relay operation is necessary because of the limited transmission range of penetrometers. Penetrometer radio transmission ranges are short because the penetrometer instrument must be physically small and rugged, and hence low powered, its antenna pattern must be omnidirectional, and contingency must be provided for operations when the penetrometer is immersed in the lunar surface media. The data received aboard the Apollo spacecraft can be stored and/or retransmitted to earth. Since the Apollo spacecraft in a reconE naissance mode would not transport the L M vehicle, a number of probe packages could be carried and thus a number of landing sites could be surveyed during a single Apollo reconnaissance mission.

PRESENT STATUS

In mid 1964 the Langley Research Center undertook to implement and direct m a contract effort for the development of a operational penetrometer system for use on an Apollo reconnaissance mission. In April 1963, a 10-month contract was awarded to the Aeronutronic Division of the Philco Corporation (Contract NAS1-4923). The objective of this contract is to extend penetrometer impact research and to develop instrumentation from which design specifications f o r a flight penetrometer system can be derived. The penetrometer impact research extension includes the study of such penetrometer variables as penetrometer weight (up to 7 Ib) and size (up to 12 in. in diameter), and such impact variables as velocity (up to 230 f p s ) and angle (up to 60 from normal). The parametric studies also include the impact characteristics of target materials having a range of hardness and penetrability from that of rock to weak granular structures such as fine dust. The contract effort will also require the development of a low-density impact limiter suitable for limiting instrumentation shock loadings to tolerable levels and for providing low overall penetrometer density. In addition, penetrometer impact data will be correlated with data from LEM landing-pad tests. Near the end of the contract effort, field tests will be performed to assess the performance of the penetrometer technique in defining characteristics of unknown random target surfaces.
The other general task area of this contract consists of the development

of functional omnidirectional telemetering penetrometers and supporting communications equipment for data relay operations. The penetrometer requires the development of an omnidirectional acceleration sensor and electronic instrumentation components, including a radio telemetry transmitter, an omnidirectional antenna, and a power supply. This instrumentation is unique in that it must be packaged within a small volume and must operate satisfactorily during high shock loadings and immersion in soil-like media. A pictorial concept of such a penetrometer designed for an Apollo reconnaissance mission is presented in figure 5. The penetrometer is spherical and

64

has the capability of measuring and transmitting accelerations regardless of its attitude upon Impact. The penetrometer consists of an omnidirectional acceleration sensor located at the center and surrounded by concentrically
placed electronic modules and batteries. The instrumentation compartment is enclosed within an electromagnetic shield which also provides a uniform metallic reference for the omnidirectional antenna encircling the instrumentation sphere. All these components are completely encapsulated in a dielectric material, such as fiber-glass epoxy, which has good structural integrity. External to the instrumentation sphere is an impact iimiter s h e i i which serves a &us1p i i i o s e . First, it provides shock absorption to limit the impact forces on the instrumentation to tolerable levels; and, second, it assures sensitivity to soft weak targets by providing a low overall penetrometer density. The data relay system within the probe package and the receiving and storage equipment aboard the Apollo command and service module (CSM) provide for radio communication between the impacting penetrometers and the Apollo spacecraft. The data relay system components are available in existing technology, but engineerTng effort is required to adapt these instrumentation components to the penetrometer application. Figure 6 presents a functional block diagram which describes the essentials of penetrometer system instrumentation. Impact modulated radio slgnals from the impacting penetrometers are received by the dually polarized receiving antennas of the data relay system and selectively routed to diversity signal combining receivers. Each penetrometer has a unique transmitting frequency and hence there are separate receiver channels for each penetrometer. After detection by the receiver, the intelligence is appropriately conditioned and used to modulate the data relay system transmitter. These signals are received and stored aboard the CSM. The contract effort is expected to produce sufficient information to permit the design of a penetrometer system appropriate to an Apollo reconnaissance mission. Figure 7 presents anticipated impact data which would be derived from such a penetrometer design. This figure relates peak acceleration, measured in earth g units, to total acceleration pulse time, measured in milliseconds, for a nominal penetrometer weighing 4 pounds, measuring 9 inches in diameter, and impacting at 150 feet per second. The curve for this relationship is dashed in the low bearing strength region where it is possible that various combinations of properties of dust-like media can yield similar bearing strengths, which are described by different peak accelerations and pulse times. The minimum bearing strength criterion for the LE24 as outlined in the requirements for the Apollo program is within this dashed portion of the curve. This penetrometer configuration reduces the dynamic range requirements of the supporting instrumentation by the mechanical filtering action provided by the impact limiter so that target surfaces harder than the impact limiter material are not uniquely identified. This range reduction is acceptable for this application since there is no need to discriminate accurately among target surfaces having a load-supporting capaE4 bility greatly in excess of L 2 landing requirements. Although the data obtained from a particular penetrometer configuration may cause this impact characteristic to be slightly shifted, the relationships between the target materials remain fixed as previously noted.

CONCLUDING R M R S E AK Research to date has indicated that the penetrometer technique can provide needed information on the load-supporting capability of the lunar surface. The Langley Research Center contractual effort is principally directed towards extending existing penetrometer impact research and developing the technology necessary to provide the Apollo program with a penetrometer system capable of supplying the lunar-surface load-supporting measurements necessary to establish indices of landability.

1 McCarty, John Locke; and Carden, Huey D.; Impact Characteristics of Various . Materials Obtained by an Acceleration-Time-History Technique Applicable to Evaluating Remote Targets. NASA TN D-1269,1 6 . 92
2 McCarty, John Locke; Beswick, Alfred G ; and Brooks, George W.: Application . . of Penetrometers to the Study of Physical Properties of Lunar and Planetary Surfaces. NASA TN D-2413; 1 6 . 94

3. McCarty, John Locke; Beswick, Alfred G.; and Brooks, George W : Penetrometer . Techniques for Lunar Surface Evaluation. A Compilation of Recent Research
Related to the Apollo Mission, NASA TM x-890, 1 6 , pp. 123-130. 93

66

iM
TYPICAL IMPACT ACCELERATION TIME HISTORIES

TR

1 0 IO0 TOTAL PULSE TIME, msec

_-

_id

1,000

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

L-2462-4

Figure 4

1-2462-5

LUNAR PENETROMETER DESIGN

PENETROMETER SYSTEM INSTRUMENTATION

FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM

Figure 5

Figure 4

' .

Figure 7

68

8 SURVEYOR SPACECRAET T O U C m - I C S .
By Sidney A. Batterson

SUMMARY
A description of t h e touchdown-dynamics experiment which i s t o be c a r r i e d a s p a r t of t h e s c i e n t i f i c payload on t h e Surveyor spacecraft i s discussed. Data obtained during some f u l l - s c a l e landing t e s t s of t h e spacecraft a r e presented and indicate t h a t t h e simple and r e l i a b l e instruments mounted on t h e spacecraft t o carry out t h e experiment w i l l provide information on t h e spacecraft motions during t h e landing and on t h e contour of the surface on which t h e landing took place. The r e s u l t s f u r t h e r showed that the d a t a obtained from t h e experiment can i n d i c a t e whether s i g n i f i c a n t surface penetrations occur during a landing and can a l s o provide information on t h e mechanical properties of t h e landing surface.

INTROWCTION

It i s expected that t h e first s o f t landings on t h e moon w i l l be made by t h e Surveyor spacecraft. This paper discusses t h e touchdown-dynamics experiment which will be c a r r i e d by t h e Surveyor as part of t h e s c i e n t i f i c payload. A photograph of t h e spacecraft i n t h e landing configuration i s shown i n f i g u r e 1. It consists of a main frame which contains t h e equipment and payload required f o r t h e mission. This main frame i s supported by t h r e e leg-type landing gears and each landing gear consists e s s e n t i a l l y of a t r i p o d arrangement of t h r e e tubular members. The upper member of t h e t r i p o d i s a telescoping shock s t r u t and t h e two lower members a r e r i g i d tubes. Each tubular member i s hinged t o t h e main frame a t one end and t o a footpad which makes t h e i n i t i a l contact with t h e lunar surface a t t h e o t h e r end. Therefore, during t h e landing impact, t h e ground load developed a t t h e footpad causes it t o move i n t h e a r c of a c i r c l e about t h e r i g i d tube hinge l i n e located on t h e main frame. The t h r e e footpads l i e on a c i r c l e having a diameter of about 13 f e e t which i s j u s t about one-half t h e diameter associated with t h e LEM footpads. Three honeycomb crushable blocks a r e fixed r i g i d l y t o t h e main frame, one block being located n e w t h e hinge of each landing-gear leg. The purpose of these crushable blocks i s t o absorb the landing energy which i s not dissipated by t h e a c t i o n of t h e shock s t r u t s . I is t shown l a t e r t h a t during a high-velocity landing, t h e loads developed by t h e blocks a r e s i g n i f i c a n t .
The two primary objectives of the experiment a r e t o obtain data on t h e character of t h e lunar surface and t o determine t h e motions of the spacecraft during t h e landing. Data on the lunar surface will include information regarding i t s contour i n t h e landing area, i t s mechanical p r o p e r t i e s such as c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n if it proves t o be hard o r t h e e f f e c t of surface penet r a t i o n if it proves t o be soft. "he second objective, that of recording the spacecraft motion during t h e landing, w i l l serve a s an indication of t h e suitab i l i t y of v e h i c l e s equipped with leg-type landing gears f o r operating i n t h e a c t u a l l u n a r environment.

The approach being used t o meet these objectives c o n s i s t s of equipping t h e spacecraft w i t h simple sensors of high r e l i a b i l i t y and monitoring t h e i r outputs during t h e landing. These sensors w i l l measure t h e l i n e a r accelerations and angular v e l o c i t i e s of the main frame and t h e loads applied t o each of t h e gears during the landing impact.

INSTRUMENTATION
The sensors and t h e i r locations a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 2. An accelerome t e r and rate-gyro package w i l l be mounted r i g i d l y t o t h e main frame. The data obtained from t h i s package w i l l be t h e t h r e e orthogonal components of t h e mainframe l i n e a r acceleration and angular velocity. Each of t h e t h r e e landing gears will be equipped with s t r a i n gages mounted on both t h e r i g i d tubes and shock absorber i n order t o measure t h e a x i a l loads i n these members. A potentiometer w i l l be mounted on each landing gear t o determine i t s angular motion. The ins t a n t a t which each footpad and each crush block contacts t h e surface w i l l be indicated by a s e n s i t i v e contact switch located on each of these members.

APPARATUS AND TEST P R O C E D m

The methods developed f o r t h i s experiment were t r i e d on some experimental data obtained during landing-impact t e s t s made a t Hughes A i r c r a f t Company on a full-scale Surveyor spacecraft. A photograph of t h e Hughes drop t e s t f a c i l i t y used for these t e s t s i s shown i n f i g u r e 3. It can be seen t h a t t h i s f a c i l i t y employed a parallelogram linkage type of launching mechanism and a very r i g i d , sloping landing surface. The character of t h e landing surface could-be changed i n order t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t of various types o f t e r r a i n . Figure 4 i s a photograph showing t h e f u l l - s c a l e Surveyor spacecraft mounted on t h e launching r i g p r i o r t o a landing t e s t made on a simulated rocky surface. During these t e s t s lunar-gravity simulation w a s provided by a traveling-cable and pneumaticcylinder arrangement which applied a 5/6 e a r t h g l i f t force a t t h e center o f gravity of t h e vehicle throughout t h e impact. The equations f o r t h e touchdown-dynamics experiment a r e developed on t h e b a s i s of six-degree-of-freedom motion. The motion obtained during t h e Hughes drop tests, however, w a s coplanar. The prlmary purpose of t h e drop t e s t s w a s t o study the s t r u c t u r a l loading and s t a b i l i t y of t h e vehicle during landing; therefore, t h e drop-test instrumentation was not t a i l o r e d t o t h e s p e c i f i c requirements of t h e touchdown-dynamics experiment. Despite t h i s f a c t , t h e data from t h e onboard instruments obtained during some of these drop tests were plugged into t h e equations developed f o r the experiment.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 5 indicates t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e e q e r i m e n t t o describe t h e vehicle motions by using t h e Hughes t e s t data. The drop t e s t w a s made with i n i t i a l

of a horizontal velocity vh of 6 f e e t per second, a v e r t i c a l velocity Vv of 17 f e e t p e r second,and an a t t i t u d e (angle with horizontal due t o r o t a t i o n about a x i s normal t o t h e f i g u r e ) of 5 nose down. The s o l i d l i n e s ' i n d i c a t e t h e paths followed by t h e f r o n t footpad, t h e vehicle center of gravity, and t h e r e a r footpads from t h e i n s t a n t of i n i t i a l contact. These paths were calculated from t h e onboard instrument data by using t h e methods developed f o r t h e experiment. I n f i g u r e 5 , t h e vehicle and paths a r e drawn t o t h e distance s c a l e indicated along t h e edges of t h e figure. The dashed l i n e i n d i c a t e s t h e a c t u a l surface upon which t h e vehicle landed. The i n i t i a l contact w a s mde by t h e footpad on l e g 1 which then skidded along t h e surface while t h e r e a r footpads traveled downward and forward u n t i l they contacted t h e surface and then they a l s o skidded f o r a short distance along t h e surface. It can be seen t h a t t h e calculated motions of t h e footpads describe t h e a c t u a l landing surface fairly w e l l during t h e time i n which they are i n contact. This r e s u l t would i n d i c a t e t h a t instrumentation c a r r i e d onboard t h e spacecraft can be used t o define t h e contour of a hard surface. Furthermore, since t h e t r a v e l of t h e footpads i s obtained by combining t h e motion of t h e landing gear with t h e l i n e a r and angular motion of t h e upper p a r t of the vehicle, these same r e s u l t s a l s o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e motions of t h e main frame can be obtained by using onboard instruments
C O ~ t a C tconditions

Figure 6 i n d i c a t e s t h e c a p a b i l i t y of the experiment t o determine t h e loads applied t o t h e spacecraft by t h e landing surface. The data were obtained during t h e landing shown i n f i g u r e 3. The s o l i d l i n e i s a time h i s t o r y of t h e t o t a l )force normal t o t h e landing surface and was computed by using j u s t t h e accelerometer data. The accelerometer data include t h e loads developed on t h e previously described honeycomb crush blocks as well a s t h e loads applied t o t h e footpads. The dashed l i n e i s t h e t o t a l force normal t o landing surface obtained from a l l t h e landing-gear strain-gage measuring instrumentation and i n d i c a t e s only t h e t o t a l component of t h e loads applied t o t h e footpads. During t h e impact, i n i t i a l contact of t h e landing surface occurred on l e g 1 a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 5. The spacecraft then s t a r t e d to r o t a t e but before t h e r e a r footpads made contact, t h e shock strut on l e g 1 had compressed f a r enough t o allow t h e f r o n t crushable block t o make contact w i t h t h e landing surface and t o remain i n contact throughout t h e t i m e period indicated i n f i g u r e 6. This spacecraft conf i g u r a t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e f i r s t schematic sketch. After contact of t h e r e a r footpads, a s i m i l a r compression of the rear shock s t r u t s occurred and t h e r e a r crushable blocks were i n contact w i t h the landing surface throughout t h e t i m e period indicated on t h e figure. It can be seen that both t h e f r o n t and r e a r crushable blocks a r e i n contact a t the same time a t approximately 0.16 second a f t e r i n i t i a l contact. The configuration of t h e spacecraft during t h i s period i s a l s o shown schematically. The t i m e period during which a l l of t h e crush blocks are i n contact i s about 0.02 second, after which t h e f r o n t shock s t r u t starts extending so t h a t t h e f r o n t crush block i s l i f t e d c l e a r of t h e landing surface and t h e spacecraft then i s i n t h e p o s i t i o n indicated by t h e l a s t schematic sketch. Finally, t h e r e a r shock s t r u t s extend f a r enough t o l i f t t h e rear blocks c l e a r and t h e spacecraft is then supported by t h e footpads alone. A s indicated i n t h e figure, t h i s condition occurs approximately 0.20 second a f t e r i n i t i a l surface contact.

It can be seen i n f i g u r e 6 that during t h e time from t h e i n s t a n t of i n i t i a l contact u n t i l j u s t p r i o r t o contact of the f r o n t crush block, t h e t o t a l normal

71

force measured by t h e accelerometers agrees w i t h t h e values obtained from t h e landing-gear s t r a i n gages. This agreement, of course, i s t o be expected since the external load i s applied only t o the f r o n t landing-gear footpad and both s e t s of instruments a r e measuring t h e same load. This r e s u l t i n d i c a t e s t h a t a redundancy e x i s t s at t h i s time and would imply t h a t during t h i s i n t e r v a l , t h e data could be obtained even i f a f a i l u r e occurred i n e i t h e r one of t h e two measuring systems. After the f r o n t crush block contacts and i f a l l instruments continue t o function, t h i s redundancy will be used t o determine the load applied t o t h e crush block. The s o l i d l i n e ( f i g . 6 ) indicates t h e t o t a l load applied t o the crush blocks and footpads and t h e dashed l i n e i n d i c a t e s t h e loads applied t o t h e footpads alone. The load on t h e f r o n t crush block then i s the difference between the s o l i d and dashed curves during the time it i s t h e only contacting crush block. This load appears t o be i n the neighborhood of 1,500 pounds, and as would be expected with honeycomb, it can be seen t h a t t h e front-crush-block load remains s u b s t a n t i a l l y constant during crushing. A t about 0.14 second a f t e r i n i t i a l surface contact, t h e r e a r footpads contact, as indicated by t h e sharp r i s e i n the dashed curve, and then very s h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r t h e r e a r crush blocks contact. The loading developed upon contact of the r e a r blocks w a s very violent and excited a large o s c i l l a t i o n i n t h e accelerometer mounting s t r u c t u r e which i s evident i n the s o l i d - l i n e time h i s t o r y . If t h i s o s c i l l a t i o n i s averaged out, however, it can be seen t h a t when a l l three crush blocks a r e i n contact, t h e difference between the t o t a l applied loads and t h e t o t a l l e g loads i s approximately three times as great as when one crush block w a s i n contact with the surface. Also, when t h e f r o n t crush block i s r a i s e d c l e a r of t h e surface by t h e action of the f r o n t landing-gear l e g and leaves only t h e two r e a r crush blocks i n contact with t h e surface, the difference between t h e average t o t a l load and leg loads i s about twice the load on t h e s i n g l e block. Finally, a t about 0.20 second after i n i t i a l contact, a l l the crush blocks l o s e contact w i t h t h e surface and once again e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same load i s being measured by both instrumentation systems.
The data shown i n f i g u r e 6 would indicate t h a t the onboard instrumentation i s capable of measuring the applied external loads since agreement w a s obtained between two independent s e t s of measuring instruments. I n addition, t h e data indicate that even though no provision i s made t o measure t h e loads applied t o the crush blocks d i r e c t l y , these loads can be obtained. This information could be important i f s i g n i f i c a n t penetration occurs during the landing and t h e r e s u l t i n g applied loads a r e a f f e c t e d by t h e shape of t h e contacting elements.

Figure 7 indicates t h e c a p a b i l i t y of the experiment t o determine whether t h e contacting elements penetrated i n t o the lunar surface. I n order t o make t h i s analysis, data were analyzed f o r a landing t e s t made under t h e conditions j u s t described except t h a t during t h i s t e s t t h e landing surface was s o f t . The surface material f o r t h i s t e s t consisted of wood shavings and t h e surface slope w a s a l s o 15'. The displacements of t h e f r o n t and rear l e g s and vehicle center of gravity during the impact a r e shown i n t h e upper p l o t . The s o l i d l i n e s are t h e displacements shown i n f i g u r e 5 which were obtained f o r t h e hard-surface landings. The dashed l i n e s i n d i c a t e t h e displacements obtained during t h e landing on t h e s o f t surface and, as would be expected, i n d i c a t e s i g n i f i c a n t surface penetration. If, however, t h i s displacement data were viewed without having seen t h e a c t u a l landing and with no knowledge of t h e surface, it would

not be possible t o determine whether t h e dashed paths represented penetration o r were merely following t h e contour of a hard surface.
In order t o obtain information on surface penetration, it i s necessary t o analyze the loads developed on the members i n contact with the surface. The r e s u l t of t h i s analysis f o r l e g 1 i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n the lower p l o t . For t h i s l e g t h e applied-ground-load components p a r a l l e l and normal t o the instantaneous velocity vector of t h e footpad were determined. The r a t i o of the t a n g e n t i a l o r l m g i t c d i n a l I ~ a d the nc!-rmd. load is plnt.t.ed against. t.hp reslid tant footpad tc! velocity. For a hard surface, t h i s r a t i o i s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n . It can be seen t h a t f o r t h e hard-surface landing, the v a r i a t i o n of t h e r a t i o agrees with t h e well-established variation of sliding f r i c t i o n ; t h a t i s , t h e value increases as t h e v e l o c i t y decreases and does not become very large. The s o f t surface v a r i a t i o n i s very different; however, f o r t h i s condition the dashed curve starts a t a much l a r g e r value of the load-component r a t i o and increases as t h e depth of penetration increases u n t i l t h e point of maximum penetration i s reached. This point i s indicated on both the upper and lower p l o t s i n f i g u r e 7 by the heavy arrows. The increase i n t h e r a t i o with penetration i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e increase i n load due t o increasing surface penetration overrides the e f f e c t of the decreasing velocity, which would tend t o cause t h e load t o decrease. After t h e attainment of maximum penetration, t h e load r a t i o decreases very rapi d l y since both t h e penetration and velocity parameters now tend t o reduce the load. The p r i n c i p a l significance of figure 7 i s that it indicates t h a t it should be possible t o deternine vhether s i g n i f i c a n t penetration occurred fillring t h e landing from an examination of the load-component-ratio signatures.

The individual load components a l s o provide i n t e r e s t i n g and u s e f u l data. These components f o r l e g 1 a r e p l o t t e d i n f i g u r e 8. The upper p l o t shows the v a r i a t i o n of t h e load component perpendicular t o t h e instantaneous footpad veloci t y vector with r e s u l t a n t footpad velocity on both t h e hard and s o f t surfaces. For the hard surface, t h e normal load provides data on t h e bearing strength. It can be seen t h a t t h e maximum value of normal load developed on t h e hard surface w a s about 1,200 pounds. Furthermore, since t h e footpad area w a s about 100 square inches, it can be inferred from these data t h a t the hard-surface bearing strength a t t h i s velocity i s a t l e a s t 1 2 pounds p e r square inch. The hard-surface data indicate only a lower l i m i t of bearing strength since t h e value depends on the maximum load applied t o t h e surface. For t h e soft-surface landing, the normal load w a s about 200 pounds and remained s u b s t a n t i a l l y constant even though s i g n i f i c a n t changes occurred i n surface penetration and velocity. The r e s u l t could i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s load w a s the maximum t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r surface material could develop on t h e footpad i n a d i r e c t i o n normal t o i t s velocity. The v a r i a t i o n of t h e t a n g e n t i a l load i s shown i n t h e lower p l o t . These d a t a together with t h e normal-lnad data can be c o r r e l a t e d with the v a r i a t i o n s of t h e surface penetration and velocity p a r m e t e r s t o provide data on which t o base s t r u c t u r a l design and s t a b i l i t y analysis of lunar landing vehicles.

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CONCLUDING IiEMARKS
It has been shown that simple reliable instruments can be mounted on a spacecraft to obtain information on the motions of the spacecraft during landing and on the contour of the surface on which the landing took place. The data from these instruments also indicated whether significant surface penetrations occurred during the landing and they provided information on the mechanical properties of the surface such as its bearing strength, coefficient of friction, and dynamic-loading characteristics.

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SURVEYOR LANDING I N ~ T R U ~ E N ~ A ~ f O N

63-FT

Figure 1

L-2463-1

Figure 2

Figure 4

1-2463-5

75

CENTER -OF-GRAVITY AND FOOTPAD DISPLACEMENTS

INITIAL CONDITIONS: Vh = 6 F P S ; Vvz17FPS; ATTITUDE=5

FORCES NORMAL TO LANDING SURFACE

-ACCELERLWC _ _ _ STRA.
FRONT CRUSH BLOCK IN CONTACT

It K S \ ; v , I L

fir
I

LOAD) IILAND1NGGEAR LOADS) CRUSH BLOCKS IN CONTACT

8
VERTICAL DISTANCE, FT

IO xi03

FORCE, 4 LB

=._

4 8 1 2 HORIZONTAL DISTANCE, F T

1 6

04

08

1 2

1 6 .20 TIME, SEC

Figure 5

Figure 6

EFFECT OF LANDING SURFACES LEG I LOAD COMPONENTS

15

xI0'

HORIZONTAL DISTANCE. FT

______
NORMAL LOAD

HARD SURFACE SOFT SURFACE 15

-HARD SURFACE

r XlO'

___-

SOFT SURFACE

IO 15 RESULTANT VELOCITY, FPS

20

1 0 1 5 RESULTANT VELOCITY, FPS

20

Figure 7

Figure 8

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9.

LAlyDING

STABILITY FOR LUNAB-LA.NDING VEHICLES

8 -

By W i l l i a m C. Walton, Jr., Robert W. Herr, and H. Wayne Leonard

SUMMARY

The NASA Langley Research Center i s currently conducting coordinated theor e t i c a l and experimental s t u d i e s d i r e c t e d toward developing t h e c a p a b i l i t y t o predict t h e dynamic h i s t o r y of a lunar-landing vehicle during t h e landing impact, and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , t o predict whether or not t h e vehicle w i l l overturn. I n t h e present paper, t h e r e s u l t s obtained from t h i s study t o d a t e are summarized. The plan f o r t h e research i s outlined, and a dynamic model of a lunarlanding vehicle, which i s being used i n the experimental phase of t h e program, i s described. The r e s u l t s of drop t e s t s of t h e model a r e discussed. A curve i s shown which gives t h e measured boundary on approach v e l o c i t y and o r i e n t a t i o n f o r s t a b i l i t y against overturning during a v e r t i c a l landing on a sloping surface. The vehicle o r i e n t a t i o n (yaw) i s shown t o have a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on s t a b i l i t y . There i s a d e s c r i p t i o n of an idealization of a lunar-landing vehicle which forms t h e b a s i s f o r a digital-computer program which has been developed f o r computing impact h i s t o r i e s of a vehicle. Idealization of t h e shock-absorber a c t i o n and of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of t h e footpads w i t h t h e surface i s discussed. j3y corr e l a t i n g experimental and computed s t a b i l i t y boundaries, it i s shown t h a t t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e model must be considered f o r adequate representation of landing s t a b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The r e s u l t s a l s o suggest t h a t a "two-footforward" approach might be preferable t o a "one-foot-forward" approach f o r a four-legged vehicle.
IIYTRODUCCION

This paper presents r e s u l t s of research a t t h e NASA Langley Research Center d i r e c t e d toward developing t h e capability t o p r e d i c t motions of a lunarlanding vehicle during t h e landing impact and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , t o predict whether o r not t h e c r a f t w i l l overturn. An outline of t h e research plan follows:
1 Devise a dynamic m o d e l incorporating i n its landing gear t h e mechanical . a c t i o n s of an a c t u a l vehicle. 2. Determine, by drop t e s t s of t h e model, boundaries on approach v e l o c i t i e s and o r i e n t a t i o n s f o r s t a b i l i t y against overturning.

3 . I d e a l i z e a general lunar-landing vehicle, including t h e model as a s p e c i a l case, and derive t h e equations of motion f o r t h e idealized vehicle.
4. Program a d i g i t a l computer f o r numerical s o l u t i o n of t h e equations of
)mot ion.

I
77

5 . Correlate t h e measured and computed s t a b i l i t y boundaries. 6. Refine t h e vehicle i d e a l i z a t i o n on t h e b a s i s of t h e correlation.

SYMBOLS

i
Jr
U

yaw angle, i e g surface slope, deg coordinate axes

1/6-scm MODEL
The 1/6-scale model ( f i g . 1) i s constructed b a s i c a l l y of aluminum and f e a t u r e s inverted t r i p o d legs. The configuration follows closely an e a r l y Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corp. version of t h e lunar excursion module (LEM) Each of the l e g s t r u t s telescopes. Telescoping of a strut i s r e s i s t e d by crusha b l e aluminum honeycomb i n s e r t s mounted i n t h e strut. The struts are attached t o t h e body by universal j o i n t s , and junction of t h e t h r e e struts i n a l e g i s e f f e c t e d by a s p e c i a l swivel j o i n t . The telescoping and t h e j o i n t and swivel a c t i o n s allow universal movement of a f o o t r e l a t i v e t o t h e body. To d a t e spiked f e e t have been used t o bring about a quick stop of a f o o t upon impact. Mass and moments of i n e r t i a are adjusted by weights mounted on t h e center l i n e of t h e model. Perfect i n e r t i a l scaling was not achieved because it was not f e a s i b l e t o scale down t h e thin-walled t u b u l a r s t r u t construction visualized f o r f u l l - s c a l e configurations. The model l e g s a r e t h e r e f o r e r e l a t i v e l y heavy when compared with t h e body. No attempt w a s m a d e t o achieve e l a s t i c scaling.

The drop-test r i g c o n s i s t s e s s e n t i a l l y of a swing t o which t h e model a t t a c h e s by means of a vacuum p l a t e a t t h e top, and a t i l t i n g platform upon which t h e model impacts. Separation of t h e m o d e l from t h e swing i s accomplished by breaking t h e vacuum. The variables, v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l velocity, p i t c h rate, and pitch, r o l l , and yaw a t t i t u d e s a t impact can be controlled within limits appropriate t o t h e LEM. Surface slopes up t o 20' may be provided on t h e impact platform.
VERTICAL IMPACT WITH YAW

Most of t h e points made subsequently depend on an understanding of a type of impact which i s described as a v e r t i c a l impact with yaw. Figure 2 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e idea. A four-legged vehicle is shown a t t h e i n s t a n t of f i r s t eontact with a sloping surf'ace. The light upper surface i s an imaginary horizontal plane and t h e dark sloping surface beneath represents t h e landing . surface. The angle of slope i s u. The Y - a x i s l i e s i n t h e horizontal plane and runs i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of slope. The X-axis coincides w i t h t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n

of t h e sloped landing surface and t h e horizontal plane. The vehicle impacts with a level a t t i t u d e and with sink velocity only (no h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y ) . The rearmost f o o t s t r i k e s t h e landing surface first. It i s assumed t h a t t h e rearmost f o o t s t r i k e s t h e surface a t t h e o r i g i n of t h e X,Y axes. The y a w angle 9 i s measured between t h e Y - a x i s and t h e diagonal connecting t h e rearmost and foremost feet. For 9 equal t o zero, one f o o t points i n t h e direct i o n of slope a t t h e i n s t a n t of impact. For 9 equal t o 45O, two f e e t impact simultaneously on t h e X - a x i s with t h e other two f e e t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of slope.
Figure 3 shows t h e results of some drop t e s t s of t h e 1/6-scale model involving impacts of t h i s type. The s i n k velocity a t impact required t o overt u r n t h e vehicle i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t t h e yaw angle For sink v e l o c i t i e s above t h e boundary curve t h e model overturns. For v e l o c i t i e s below t h e curve t h e model comes t o r e s t upright. The slope u i s l 5 O and t h e landing surface i s sheet lead over plywood over reinforced concrete, Lead was chosen after some experimentation because it stops the spiked f e e t abruptly upon contact, does not s t o r e e l a s t i c energy, and leaves t h e foot f r e e t o l i f t off on subsequent impact of other f e e t .

+.

The s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e of t h e curve i n f i g u r e 3 i s t h e extremely rapid decline i n landing s t a b i l i t y as the yaw angle i s varied upward from zero. There i s also a decline i n landing s t a b i l i t y as t h e yaw angle i s varied downward from &>' , but it is not nearly a s d r a s t i c . ANALYSIS
This s e c t i o n deals i n a very general way w i t h progress i n the e f f o r t t o develop p r a c t i c a l procedures f o r predicting impact phenomena such as those j u s t discussed. The a n a l y t i c a l representation being used f o r a lunar-landing vehicle i s shown i n f i g u r e 4. The vehicle i s t r e a t e d as an a r b i t r a r y r i g i d body t o which t h e r e are attached legs; each l e g consists of t h r e e s t r u t s i n an inverted t r i p o d arrangement. There m y be t h r e e o r four legs. The struts a r e considered t o be connected t o t h e body by universal j o i n t s , and t h e junction point of t h e s t r u t s i n a l e g i s a l s o considered t o be a universal j o i n t . There i s a shock absorber i n each s t r u t . The individual s t r u t s may telescope but do not deform otherwise. The locations of t h e p o i n t s on t h e body where t h e struts a t t a c h and t h e i n i t i a l positions of t h e f e e t r e l a t i v e t o t h e body may be a r b i t r a r i l y chosen. The l e g s a r e considered t o have no mass. I n representing an a c t u a l vehicle o r model, t h e masses and moments of i n e r t i a of t h e l e g s and footpads are combined with t h e body mass and moment of i n e r t i a .

Two b a s i c problems t o be faced i n using t h i s i d e a l i z a t i o n t o represent an a c t u a l v e h i c l e o r model are establishing a mathematical model of t h e shockabsorber a c t i o n and establishing a mathematical model of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e f e e t and t h e landing surface.
With regard t o shock absorbers, honeycamb i s generally considered d e s i r a b l e as a shock-absorbing material because it i s supposed t o provide a constant r e a c t i v e f o r c e while crushing, which i s independent of t h e crushing rate. Some

79

t e s t s have been made t o check t h i s supposition. The r e s u l t s of these t e s t s are indicat.ed i n figure 3 . The sketch on t h e l e f t represents a t y p i c a l measured force-deflection curve f o r one of t h e honeycomb i n s e r t s f o r t h e dynamic model when loaded i n a s t a t i c t e s t machine. The reactive f o r c e builds up with e l a s t i c deformation of t h e i n s e r t u n t i l crushing i s i n i t i a t e d . The f o r c e remains essent i a l l y constant with d e f l e c t i o n once crushing starts. The sketch on t h e r i g h t i s t y p i c a l f o r dynamic crushing accomplished by dropping a weight on t h e i n s e r t . The crushing r a t e v a r i e s from 10 f e e t per second when t h e weight h i t s t h e i n s e r t t o zero when t h e weight i s slowed t o a stop. The dynamic crush force i s a l s o f l a t and t y p i c a l l y runs about 16 percent higher than the s t a t i c crush force. I n i t i a l l y it was decided t o ignore any e f f e c t s of e l a s t i c i t y of t h e vehicle. Thus t h e force exerted on t h e body by a shock absorber w a s represented i n a very simple way, a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 6. The force produced by a shock absorber w a s considered t o a c t along t h e instantaneous axis of t h e strut, and t h e magnitude of t h e force was programed a s a s t e p function of t h e s t r u t stroking rate. For a closing s t r u t , associated with positive values of t h e stroking rate, t h e f o r c e l e v e l w a s set a t t h e measured value of the dynamic crush f o r c e of t h e honeycomb. A p o s i t i v e value of f o r c e indicates t h a t t h e shock i s pushing on t h e vehicle and t h e landing surface. A negative value of force i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e shock i s pulling on t h e vehicle and t h e surface. The force l e v e l f o r an opening strut w a s set t o give a very rough representation of t h e bearing f r i c t i o n f o r c e r e s i s t i n g t h e opening of a strut which w a s unopposed by t h e honeycomb i n s e r t s . For the i n i t i a l a n a l y t i c a l representation of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between a f o o t and the landing surface, a foot w a s stopped when it contacted t h e surface and w a s held f i x e d at t h e contact point as long as t h e strut forces pressed down on it. The f e e t w e r e , however, completely free t o l i f t off and were considered t o move a s r i g i d extensions of t h e body when not pressed i n t o t h e surface. Once these various i d e a l i z a t i o n s have been established, it i s s t r a i g h t forward t o w r i t e t h e complete three-dimensional equations of motion of t h e system. For t h e shock-absorber and landing-surface representations j u s t d i s cussed, where e f f e c t s of e l a s t i c i t y a r e excluded, numerical i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e equations using a high-speed d i g i t a l computer presents no s p e c i a l problems. A very simple i n t e g r a t i o n scheme has been.programed and gives good r e s u l t s i n reasonable computer times. Time h i s t o r i e s are generated f o r a l l parameters of i n t e r e s t involved i n an impact. A s t a b i l i t y boundary computed by using t h i s program i s compared w i t h t h e experimental boundary i n f i g u r e 7. It i s apparent from t h i s p l o t t h a t t h e analysis gives a dangerously unconservative prediction. I n fact the sharp decline i n s t a b i l i t y i s completely missed by t h e analysis. Examination of measured a c c e l e r a t i o n h i s t o r i e s indicated t h a t t h e m o d e l w a s bouncing during impact, t h a t exclusion of t h e e f f e c t s of e l a s t i c i t y w a s t h e root of the deficiency i n the analysis. Therefore, t h e a n a l y t i c a l representat i o n of a shock absorber w a s modified as shown i n f i g u r e 8. When a strut i s compressed, t h e f o r c e i s taken t o be a function of t h e stroke deflection i n which there i s a l i n e a r e l a s t i c buildup t o the crushing force. Effective value-

80

f o r t h e slope of the e l a s t i c portion of t h e force-deflection curve were obtained by s t a t i c - l o a d tests of t h e complete model. E l a s t i c d e f o m t i o n s of t h e body, a s w e l l a s t h e legs, s u b s t a n t i a l l y d f e c t e d t h e force-deflection curves which were obtained; therefore, t h e representation of t h e system e l a s t i c a l l y by only springs i n series with t h e shock absorbers has t o be taken with a g r a i n of s a l t . However, it was believed t h a t t h e approach taken w a s good enough t o prove o r disprove t h e supposition t h a t e l a s t i c i t y i s t h e problem.

1% vas foi~nd-fi..h~_t. pmp-arni ng t.hp ~ e w &mck-&ngrbpy represent.at.ion n_nd continuing t o stop a f o o t a t i t s point of impact yielded correct t r a j e c t o r i e s during t h e f i r s t few hard contacts- of the f e e t i n which t h e r e w a s crushing of t h e shock absorbers. However, once t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e system had bled down t o t h e point where t h e r e was no f i r t h e r crushing of t h e shocks, t h e remaining energy w a s locked i n t h e system and showed up i n t h e analysis as bouncing of t h e vehicle which continued indefinitely. This bouncing had a subs t a n t i a l and e r r a t i c e f f e c t on t h e computed s t a b i l i t y which w a s completely u n r e a l i s t i c since, i n t h e tests, bouncing of t h e model i s completely danrped out a f t e r t h e f i r s t f e w hard foot impacts. Another examination of t h e measured a c c e l e r a t i o n h i s t o r i e s indicated t h a t a substantial p o r t i o n of t h e energy d i s sipation, once crushing ceases, is involved i n t h e foot-ground i n t e r a c t i o n . A i d e a l i z a t i o n of t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n was established on t h e b a s i s of t e s t results n of t h e type shown i n f i g u r e 9.
I n t h i s tes%, one of t h e spiked f e e t w a s simply prdssed i n t o t h e landing surface and t h e f o r c e required t o produce 8, given depth of penetration was measured. E s s e n t i a l l y l i n e a r p l o t s of force against, penetration r e s u l t e d f o r l e a d and plywood surfaces as sketched. The computer w a s t h e n yrogramed t o place t h e f o o t a t a depth so t h a t t h e penetration f o r c e balanced t h e instantaneous normal component of t h e shock-absorber forces bearing down on t h e foot. This procedure damped t h e system down enough so t h a t s e n s i b l e i n t e g r a t i o n s could be obtained although s u b s t a n t i a l l y longer computer times were required than those required f o r t h e i d e a l i z a t i o n which d i d not include e l a s t i c i t y .
A s t a b i l i t y boundary computed from t h e revised i d e a l i z a t i o n s f o r t h e shock absorber and t h e foot-ground i n t e r a c t i o n is compared with the t e s t results i n f i g u r e 10. The agreement i s considerably b e t t e r than one would expect, cons i d e r i n g t h e crudity of t h e idealizations. With t h e r e f i n e d vehicle idealization, t h e decline i n s t a b i l i t y i s d e f i n i t e l y found. From these results it would appear t h a t it i s necessary t o consider vehicle e l a s t i c i t y i n establishing a d i g i t a l simulation of a lunar-landing vehicle.
CONCLUDING REMARKS

I n a d d i t i o n t o showing t h a t vehicle e l a s t i c i t y should be considered i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a d i g i t a l s i d a t i o n of a lunar-landing vehicle and demonstrating t h e importance of considering t h e intermediate yaw angles ( nonplanar landfngs), t h e results t o d a t e a l s o raise t h e question of whether a one-foot-forward landing, as presently contemplated f o r the LXM, i s r e a l l y t h e preferred mode On t h e b a s i s of these results alone, one would conclude t h a t a O f landing.

81

two-f oot-forward ( o r two-foot-downhill) landing i s preferable. I n comparing a two-foot-forward approach with a one-foot-forward approach, it i s seen that f o r t h e two-foot-forward case t h e margin of s t a b i l i t y f o r a p e r f e c t l y trimmed approach i s b e t t e r and t h e decline i n s t a b i l i t y f o r an approach which i s not p e r f e c t l y trimmed is not nearly so bad. It i s recognized t h a t study of a g r e a t e r variety of approaches and/or study of a model more l i k e t h e LJ3M might change t h i s impression. However, it i s believed t h a t t h e question should be given serious consideration by t h e Apollo management.

82

Figure 1

1-2333-1

Figure 2

L-2464-2

EXPERIMENTAL
SUR

ANALYTICAL MODEL

UNSTABLE

0
* , I i , , , (

IO

1 5

20 25 30 YAW &INGLE,DEG

35

40

45

%'<-FOOT

Figure 3

Figure 4

STATIC AND DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF ALUMINUM-HONEYCOMB SHOCK ABSORBERS

ANALYTICAL REPRESENTATION OF INELASTIC SHOCK ABSORBER

STATIC

FORCE

DEFLECTION

r
DYNAMIC

OPENING

-I FORCE STRUT STROKING RATE

I
CLOSING

Figure 5

Figure 6

STABILITY CORRELATION WITHOUT ELASTICITY

LEAL? SURFACE, SLOPE -15"; HORIZONTAL VELOCITY = O

ANALYTICAL REPRESENTATION OF ELASTIC SHOCK ABSORBER

THEORETICAL

1 2
IO
VERTICAL VELOCITY, 8 FPS 6 4

OPEN I NG

CLOSING

STROKING RATE YAW ANGLE, DEG

STROKE DISPLACEMENT

Figure 7

Figure 8

84

LANDING-SURFACE IMPEDENCE

STABILITY CORRELATION WITH ELASTICITY

LEA9 SURFACE; SLOPE ~15'; HORIZONTAL VELOCITY = 0

/
1 0

~LYWOOG

UN*BLE THEORETICAL WSS'* STMLE

FORCE,

A
05
0

FORCE

3
SURFACE PENETRATION, FT

, - -e ,
5
IO

,
35

,
40

,
45

1 5

20 25 x ) i W ANGLE. GEG

Figure 9

Figure 10

10.

TECHNIQUE FOR CONDlTCTING FuI;L-SCALE

UXDING-IMPACT TEXTS AT Sl3KJLAm

LUNAR GRAVITY

By Ulysse J. Blanchard
SUMMARY

An investigation of a small-scale dynamic model has been made to develop and evaluate a technique for conducting full-scale landing-impact tests at simulated lunar gravity. Results obtained during small-scale model landing tests using an inclined-plane technique to simulate lunar gravity show good correlation with results obtained during similar free-body landings of the model under the influence of earth gravity. lh-pact accelerations, time histories, and behavior characteristics are in good agreement for the two test methods. These small-model tests indicate that the inclined-plane-simulator technique could be used to conduct a full-scale investigation of the L 2 (lunar-excursion-module) E4 landing-gear structure and some stability characteristics during planar landings. A full-scale simulator and test vehicle have been designed and are under construction.
INTRODUCTION Small-scale-model tests and computer analysis have been, and still are, very useful tools for the study, design, and development of the LEM landing gear. However, final evaluation of the landing-gear structure and a demonstration of vehicle stability can best be achieved by subjecting the prototype landing gear to impact dynamics expected during lunar landing. In order to test exact structure and to maintain dynamic similarity during impact testing of the full-scale vehicle here on earth, it is necessary to simulate the reduced gravitational field of the moon. Several methods could be used to simulate lunar gravitational force for full-scale landing-impact studies on earth. These methods include vertical lift cables or gimbaled lift engines which counteract 5/6 of the force due to earth gravity at the center of gravity of the vehicle. Cable lift systems require a balance mechanism and servomechanisms to maintain the proper gravity effect during the entire landing impact. Such a system has been used for a small-size vehicle. Existing systems of this type, capable of accommodating a L;EM-size vehicle, are primarily intended for research and pilot training during the landing-approach and hover phases of the lunar landing for which required . response rates are lower than would be necessary during actual landing impact. The gimbaled engine presents interference, geometry, and mass-inertia problems when applied to actual landing impact of the LEM configuration. A controlled elevator-descent technique provides a relative acceleration of 1/6 g between the impact platform and a free-body vehicle (under l g influence) during

landing (ref. 1 . This method provides all the requirements for establishing ) structural integrity and attitude stability during the landing process at lunar gravity. However, a large and complex facility would be required to provide adequate impact time and accomodate the LEN vehicle. Established scaling techniques for a small dynamic model could be applied to a full-size vehicle. The vehicle wodd be free dropped in earth-g environment which would require that the vehicle have a mass 1/6 that of the prototype. Attaining the proper mass distribution, inertias, and geometrical relationships such as center-of-gravity location would be difficult. Also, the test vehicle would be subjected to 6 times the acceleration of lunar landing, and test velocities would be about 2 times full-scale values. L
2

An inclined-plane technique, previously used at Langley Research Center for studies of man's self-locomotion at lunar gravity (ref. 2 , has been ) studied in order to develop a simplified approach to the lunar-landing impactsimulation problem for prototype spacecraft. This technique uses a suspension cable to support the vehicle on an inclined surface in order to obtain a reaction force 1/6 that due to earth gravity. Although this technique would be restricted to two-dimensional studies and limited with respect to surface simulation, it would provide an adequate interim means of studying full-scale landing-gear structure and some two-dimensional stability characteristics. Some results of evaluation tests of this system conducted with a small-scale model are presented herein and are compared with free-body tests under earthgravity influence. Additional description and analysis of the model-evaluaticm tests are presented in reference 3. A brief description of the proposed fullscale simulator and test vehicle is presented in the present paper.
SYMBOLS
A

area, ft2 acceleration, ft/ sec2 force, lb gravity moment of inertia, slug-& moment of inertia about Y - a x i s , length, ft
mss, slugs

I?
6 3

I *Y
2

slug-ft*

r
t

radius, in. time, sec

aa

velocity, f t / s e c gross w e i g h t , l b
body-axis system
a w r acceleration, r d i a n s / s e c * n a

grEvitatj.ond ret.fn;

gewtn/D omnar

geametric model scale c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n stress, lb/in2

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMEMT AND TESTS

The method used t o e s t a b l i s h and demonstrate the f e a s i b i l i t y of a simul a t o r based on t h e inclined-plane principle i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n figure 1 Using . a conventional and much-used small-model t e s t technique, t h e model w a s landed as a free bo&y with e a e n gravity acting. This technique i s d i f f i c u l t t o accomplish with a f u l l - s i z e model. The model w a s launched a t various landing conditions by using a standard four-link pendulum device. The same model, prope r l y scaled, w a s a l s o landed a t simulated lunar gravity by using t h e inclinedplane technique. The model w a s supported with i t s v e r t i c a l a x i s i n c l i n e d r e l a t i v e t o the e a r t h v e r t i c a l so t h a t the effective g r a v i t y f o r c e normal t o t h e inclined landing surface w a s 1/6 t h a t due t o e a r t h gravity. Landing-impact c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s obtained by using these two dynamic-model t e s t techniques were compared f o r s i m i l a r i t y . The degree of correlation between these two model t e s t methods w a s considered an indication of the s u i t a b i l i t y of t h e inclinedplane technique f o r f u l l - s c a l e application. Scaling l a w s p e r t i n e n t t o obtaining s i m i l a r i t y f o r these two t e s t procedures a r e shown i n t h e following table:
Model scale

Quantity

prototype

LUnar

Scale factor

Free-body test

(e

6)

Inclined-phe test ( e = 1)
hl

Length S t r e s s (shock absorber) Acceleration Mass Force

A r e a (cross section)

h
1

A1

a
a
F/a bA, ma
A

a
a

Pa

??/e
A2 A2

(We1m
hF 2
h2A
V%V

7% A*

h3A 6 V

Velocity Time Inertia Angular acceleration

Gi
Vla mi 2
l/t2

m
eh

a t
(h4/p)1

fit
+I

(dNa

(UNa

During free-body t e s t s t h e model w a s scaled t o represent gravity differences by applying the r e l a t i o n s h i p s shown i n t h e table. For geometric s c a l i n g t h e charI d e n t i c a l shock-absorber a c t e r i s t i c length was varied as the scale f a c t o r A. material was assumed f o r model and prototype; therefore, t h e s t r e s s r e l a t i o n . ship w a s 1 t o 1 The g r a v i t a t i o n a l r a t i o p i s d i c t a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e force due t o e a r t h gravity i s 6 times that of t h e moon; thus, l i n e a r accelerat i o n s experienced by t h e model were 6 times those which would occur on t h e moon. With these three r e l a t i o n s h i p s governing, other p e r t i n e n t scale r e l a t i o n s h i p s were derived. I n t h e case of t h e inclined-plane t e s t s , the geometric and stress s c a l e f a c t o r s were unchanged. However, lunar gravity i s simulated which causes t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l r a t i o p t o become unity and t h e acceleration r a t i o then becomes 1 t o 1. The shock-absorber elements u t i l i z e d were the constant-force structural-deformation type which could r e a d i l y be adjusted t o provide t h e desired applied force. This type of shock absorber permitted s e l e c t i o n of a mass relationship f o r t h e model. A mass scaling f a c t o r of A3 w a s selected. A s a result, applied f o r c e was varied by A3 by varying t h e cross-sectional area of the shock-absorber elements by A3 i n order t o maintain t h e same r a t i o of i n e r t i a l and applied forces. Other pertinent f a c t o r s were derived accordingly. I n figure 2 the model i s shown suspended on t h e inclined-plane t e s t appar a t u s . During i n t i a l t e s t s with t h e inclined-plane system, it w a s determined t h a t attaching t h e upper end of t h e support cable t o a t r o l l e y which r o l l e d on an overhead t r a c k p a r a l l e l t o t h e landing surface ( f i g . 1) w a s more d e s i r a b l e than a fixed pivot point. The t r o l l e y moves with t h e model and thus provides e s s e n t i a l l y planar motion during impact and slideout. The equipment f o r obtaining horizontal landing speed included a catapult track, f a l l i n g weight, pulley and cables, and a r e l e a s e l a t c h . When released by t h e l a t c h , t h e model w a s accelerated along t h e t r a c k by t h e f a l l i n g weight. The weight w a s a r r e s t e d by t h e f l o o r as t h e model dropped off t h e end of t h e track. The model then swung towwd and impacted on t h e landing surface. A t a l l times during catap u l t i n g and landing, the lightweight unpowered t r o l l e y responded t o movement of t h e model mass by means of t h e connecting support cable. The r a t i o of mass of t h e t r o l l e y and cable t o t h a t of t h e model w a s 1 t o 40. The support cable w a s 20 feet long and angular changes a f f e c t i n g t h e g r a v i t y r a t i o during gear stroke o r vehicle landing motions were small. During landing t h e model was f r e e , t o r o t a t e i n p i t c h about t h e Y - a x i s through the center of gravity which coincided with t h e support-cable axis. Model motion and displacement w a s constrained t o t h e X-Z plane which w a s normal t o t h e landing surface a t impact. Landing p i t c h a t t i t u d e w a s p r e s e t by r o t a t i n g the model about t h e support cable and repositioning t h e catapult-cable attachment points.
A detailed description of t h e model i s presented i n reference 3. The landing gear was a four-leg arrangement with t r i p o d s t r u t s . Shock absorption w a s provided only i n t h e primary struts. A l l landings w e r e made with t w o pads forward.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Model Evaluation of Simulator Technique Figure 3 shows a comparison of impact-acceleration time h i s t o r i e s obtained during landings using both the free-body and inclined-plane t e s t methods. For convenience of comparison the data are converted t o f u l l - s c a l e lunar values i n terms of e a r t h gravity. The v a r i a t i o n of normal, longitudinal, and angular azcelerz.tioii a t t h e ceiitei- of gi-aV5ty w , t h L i m e i s shown. .Tnese time h i s t o r i e s a r e f o r landings a t a -15O p i t c h a t t i t u d e , o r forward pads down, and a s l i d i n g c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n of about 0.2. The magnitude and t h e of acceleration pulses were i n good agreement. Similar correlation w a s obtained a t other landing conditions investigated.

Maximum accelerations measured during landings a t various a t t i t u d e s are shown i n f i g u r e 4. Maximum f u l l - s c a l e normal, longitudinal, and angular acceleration a r e p l o t t e d against touchdown p i t c h a t t i t u d e f o r landings made a t two nominal values of s l i d i n g coefficient of f r i c t i o n , 0.2 and 0.7. V e r t i c a l and horizontal landing speed f o r these d a t a w a s 10 f t / s e c . The data p l o t t e d a t a c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n of 0.2 and a t a p i t c h a t t i t u d e of -l5O were obtained from t h e time h i s t o r i e s shown i n f i g u r e 3 . The trends were similar and acceleration values were generally i n good agreement. A t a c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n of 0.7 and a p i t c h a t t i t u d e of -15O v a r i a t i o n s i n pad-surface f r i c t i o n f o r c e s (indicated by longitudinal acceleration) r e s u l t e d i n some d i f f e r ences i n acceleration. These v a r i a t i o n s a l s o a f f e c t e d s t a b i l i t y as indicated by t h e data points f o r t h e free-body test. The shaded d a t a points s i g n i f y a turnover. Obtaining consistent pad f r i c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r both t e s t methods w a s a problem a t t h e c r i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y conditions (il5O). However, f o r t h e range of conditions investigated, o v e r a l l agreement of turnover stab i l i t y f o r t h e two t e s t methods w a s considered s a t i s f a c t o r y . A comparison of s t a b i l i t y and motion c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i l l u s t r a t e d i n motion p i c t u r e s of s e v e r a l t y p i c a l t e s t s using t h e two model t e s t methods, free-body and inclined-plane, i s summarized i n t h e following table:

Run Test method

G n attit&,

l G y
T Surface

Comments

1 Free body
2

Inclined plant

3 Free body
4 Inclined plant

5 Free body
5 Inclined
plant

/XI 1
I
Flat

O.*

Motions similar during landings on low-friction surface (lubricated s t e e l surface).

as runs 1 and 2.

Flat

Simulated downhill slope of 9O. Motions similar.

7 Free body
Flat

8 Inclined plant

High pad f r i c t i o n force. Near unstable condition. Rotation t o p i t c h condit i o n very near arerturn. Motions similar.

Overall planar-landing motions were very similar f o r t h e two t e s t methods.

91

The m o d e l tests indicated that planar landings conducted with t h e inclinedplane technique r e s u l t e d i n impact and motion c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s very similar t o those obtained during free-body landings. Full-scale Simulator A s a r e s u l t of t h i s small-model evaluation, t h e NASA Langley Research Center has embarked on a program which includes construction of a f u l l - s c a l e inclined-plane impact simulator and t e s t s of a f u l l - s c a l e vehicle. The gantry s t r u c t u r e of t h e e x i s t i n g Langley lunar-landing f a c i l i t y shown i n f i g u r e 5 w i l l be used t o support t h e t r o l l e y and t r a c k assembly f o r t h e vehicle suspension cable. The planned f u l l - s c a l e simulator resembles t h e one used f o r t h e smallmodel t e s t s and i s shown i n f i g u r e 6. The t r a c k w i l l be 200 feet long and t h e support cable length w i l l b e approximately l9O f e e t . The 40- by 100-foot landing surface w i l l be mounted on r a i l s i n order t o c l e a r t h e t e s t area f o r o t h e r work u t i l i z i n g t h e lunar-landing f a c i l i t y . The landing surface will be a bridge deck type of construction consisting of heavy planking over s t e e l trusswork. The s t r u c t u r e w i l l weigh about 60 tons. There i s an obvious change i n t h e catapulting apparatus shown i n f i g u r e 6 and t h a t used i n t h e small-model tests ( f i g . 2). During preliminary design, it was determined t h a t application of the falling-weight p r i n c i p l e t o the f u l l scale operation would require an excessive amount of heavy portable equipment. Therefore, a scheme w a s adopted by which horizontal speed could be obtained from a pendulum type of displacement by means of t h e parallelogram l i n k s formed by t h e p a i r of' launch cables, t h e winch base, and t h e t e s t vehicle. This technique w a s evaluated w i t h t h e small-model t e s t . The apparatus, as presently planned, w i l l be capable of v e r t i c a l and horizontal speeds of 15 f t / s e c and The t e s t vehicle can a l s o be oriented with one p i t c h a t t i t u d e s of up t o %?O. o r two legs forward along t h e flight path. Details of t h e f u l l - s c a l e t e s t vehicle which i s under copstruction a r e shown i n figure 7. The body of t h e vehicle i s a truss frame made of welded steel tubing. The center section i s e s s e n t i a l l y a cylinder t o which a r e attached f o u r outrigger trusses. These outriggers provide t h e attachment p o i n t s f o r t h e landing-gear s t r u t s . The landing gear i s a strengthened version of t h e LE51 gear. The s t r u t s will be made stronger i n order t o assure s t r u c tural i n t e g r i t y during e a r l y t e s t s . Prototype shock f o r c e s w i l l be provided by aluminum honeycomb elements. Estimated weight of t h e balanced vehicle w i l l be approximately 12,000 pounds and p i t c h moment of i n e r t i a , about 9,300 slug-ft2. Balance weights can be used t o a d j u s t o r update these values. I n i t i a l l y , t h e f u l l - s c a l e t e s t vehicle and simulator technique will be evaluated over a sample range of landing conditions. Instrumentation w i l l be provided t o monitor motions, center-of-gravity accelerations, and shockabsorber forces. Results will be c o r r e l a t e d with data obtained f r o m similar landings of a representative small-scale M model shown i n figure 8. Three of t h e s e I 2 landing models a r e c u r r e n t l y being t e s t e d , one each a t G ~ . u m a , n 24 A i r c r a f t Engineering Corp., t h e NASA Manned Spacecraft Center, and Langley. Research e f f o r t on t h e f u l l - s c a l e t e s t v e h i c l e w i l l include parameters and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such as s t r u c t u r a l behavior and loading stresses of LEX4

landing-gear components which a r e d i f f i c u l t t o obtain o r duplicate with small models. Prototype iandlng-gear hardware could be investigated as p a r t of t h i s f u l l - s c a l e t e s t vehicle o r by integration of an a c t u a l LIM vehicle w i t h t h e simulator.
CONCLUDING REMARKS

A small-scale dynamic-model investigation has been made t o develop and evaluate a technique f o r conducting f u l l - s c a l e landing-impact t e s t s under simul a t e d lunar-gravity conditions. Results of model landing t e s t s using an inclined-plane technique f o r simulating lunar g r a v i t y show goad c o r r e l a t i o n with results obtained during free-body landing t e s t s . Impact accelerations, time h i s t o r i e s , and behavior c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are i n good agreement. These t e s t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e inclined-plane-simulator technique could be used t o conduct a f u l l - s c a l e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of planar landings. A f u l l - s c a l e simulator and t e s t vehicle are planned and are under construction. This e f f o r t w i l l pravide a t o o l f o r investigating prototype landing-gear s t r u c t u r e and some twodimensional s t a b i l i t y during E34 landing impact.

REFEREWES

1 Carden, Huey D.; H e r r , Robert, W.; and Brooks, George W. : Technique f o r . t h e Simulation of Lunar and Planetary Gravitational F i e l d s Including P i l o t Model Studies. NASA TN D-2415, 1964.
2. Hewes, Donald E.; and Spady, Amos A . , Jr.: Evaluation of 2 GravitySimulation Technique f o r Studies of Man's Self-Locomotion i n L u n a r &vironment. NASA TN D-2176, 1964.

3. Blanchard, Ulysse J.: Model Investigation of Technique f o r Conducting FullScale Landing-Impact Tests a t Simulated Lunar Gravity. NASA TN D-2586,
1965
9

93

SMALL-SCALE LUNAR LANDING SIMULATION

FREE BODY

iNCLiNED PLANL

Figure I

Figure 2

L-2465-4

Figure 3

Figure 4

94

FULL-SCALE WNAR IMPACT StMULATOR

Figure 5

1-2471-2

Figure 6

FULL- SCALE TEST VEHI

BALANCE WElG

Figure 7

Figure 8

L-2465-9

95

I
1 . DISCUSSION O F R N E V U TECHNIQUES 1 E DZ O S
By Gene C. Moen

SUMMARY
Sz-~eral tecku-Liqdes been d2k-elGpe< Frimr-j&- Gz~iii-zartpL for reridezvous. These techniques a r e compared i n terms of t h e i r r e l a t i v e f u e l expenditupes and i n terms of the guidance cues required by t h e astronaut f o r each technique. A review of t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s and differences between t h e Gemini-earth rendezvous and t h e Apollo-lunar rendezvous i s made. I n addition, a description of t h e Langley rendezvous simulator i s included.

INTRODUCTION To date, several techniques have been developed and simulated both f o r e a r t h and lunar rendezvous, t h e emphasis being placed on t h e e a r t h case. Some of these techniques, because of t h e equipment required and t h e f u e l considerat i o n s , appear t o be b e t t e r s u i t e d f o r lunar rendezvous than other techniques. I n this paper, the various techniques are discussed and a cursory analysis of each i s made i n terms of t h e Apollo mission. However, before these rendezvous techniques a r e discussed, it i s desirable t o cover b r i e f l y both t h e s i m i l a r i t y and difference between t h e earth- and lunar-rendezvous problem and a l s o t o describe b r i e f l y t h e Langley rendezvous simulator.

SYMBOLS
R Xi ,Yi ,Zi range between vehicles, n. m i . coordinate axes fixed i n i n e r t i a l space with o r i g i n i n t a r g e t vehicle incremental change of velo'city F E DZ O S COMF'hUSON O EARTH AND LUNAR R N E V U Both t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s and differences between t h e Gemini-earth rendezvous and t h e Apollo-hnar rendezvous a r e presented. me s i m i l a r i t i e s a r e a s follows:
(1)Both w i l l use automatic systems f o r t h e prime rendezvous mode.

AV

(2) Both w i l l require some form of backup techniques i n t h e event of equipment f a i l u r e .

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( 3 ) Both w i.11 require t h e same basic kind of information t o be supplied t h e a s t r m a u t - s p e c i f i c a l l y such information a s ranges, closure r a t e s , r e l a t i v e positions, line-of-sight angular r a t e s , l o c a l angles.

( 4 ) The rendezvous w i l l be i n i t i a t e d from a large separation distance, i n excess of 50 n. m i . , and w i l l be terminated below 1/2 n. m i . a t which point t h e docking maneuver i s i n i t i a t e d .

( 5 ) The t a r g e t a c q u i s i t i o n w i l l be t h e same. The t a r g e t w i l l be acquired e i t h e r through t h e use of radar o r through a c t u a l v i s u a l observations.

The differences a r e a s follows:
(1)I n t h e lunar case, ground tracking w i l l be somewhat uncertain. It has been determined from some of our lunar probes t h a t accurate ground tracking can be obtained from earth. However, t h e r e w i l l be times when t h e vehicles w i l l be occluded by t h e moon and tracking cannot be obtained. ( 2 ) A large rendezvous window will be required f o r t h e lunar mi,ssion. This requirement r e s u l t s from t h e f a c t t h a t t h e lunar launch window w i l l be expanded a s a r e s u l t of a degraded launch system.

(3) A lunar-rendezvous maneuver may have t o be i n i t i a t e d from a landing t r a j e c t o r y . The Langley Research Center has conducted several s t u d i e s which cover t h i s problem ( r e f s . 1 t o 3). Reference 1 i s of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t because it shows t h e phase r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e command service module (CSM) and t h e lunar excursion module (m)following aborts from t h e powered descent t o t h e lunar surface.

(4) The lunar rendezvous cannot be aborted. Individual rendezvous can be terminated and r e i n i t i a t e d , but once separation of the CSM and LEM occurs, it i s absolutely necessary t o complete t h e rendezvous a t some f i t u r e t i m e . However, it should be noted t h a t t h e lunar mission w i l l have two a c t i v e and manned vehicles e i t h e r of which has t h e a b i l i t y t o rendezvous with t h e other.
LANGLFY RENDEZVOUS SIMULATOR
The Langley rendezvous simulator i s shown i n f i g u r e 1. This simulator i s a six-degree-of-freedom simulator. The basic component of t h i s simulator i s a 40-foot-diameter s t e e l sphere t h e i n t e r i o r surface of which forms t h e projection surface. Located i n t h e center of t h e sphere i s a three-axis gimbal on which a s t a r - f i e l d projector and a two-axis t a r g e t p r o j e c t o r a r e mounted. The s t a r f i e l d projector contains s t a r s through t h e f o u r t h magnitude. The two-axis t a r get projector p r o j e c t s a blinking l i g h t spot against t h e star background and t h u s simulates t h e t a r g e t motion against t h e i n e r t i a l background.

Also included i s a fixed-base cockpit i n which t h e command a s t r o n a u t ' s p o s i t i o n i s simulated. This cockpit includes t h e instruments and windows which are required f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r t a s k being studied. Thus, t h i s simulator has t h e capability of providing t h e test s u b j e c t s w i t h a r e a l i s t i c instrument

__.
display, a r e a l i s t i c f i e l d o f ! ! ! ! i s t i c out-the-window presentation of the t a r g e t motion against t h e inertialbackground. Also i n support of t h i s simulation, various computers i n t h e Langley computer f a c i l i t y a r e used t o solve t h e equations of motion and t o command t h e equipment. O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i n t h i s regard i s t h a t t h e computer and command signals a r e "trunked" over distances of several thousand f e e t . DISCUSSION OF RE2iDEZVOUS TECHNIQUES I n order t o evaluate t h e various techniques f o r rendezvous which have been developed, each has been reviewed individually i n t e r m s of t h e type of i n f o r mation presented t o t h e astronaut and the method by which it i s presented. Table I presents a b r i e f rundown on t h e various techniques developed t o d a t e . They a r e l i s t e d i n what i s believed t o be t h e i r r e l a t i v e rank i n terms of f u e l economy. Listed a t t h e t o p of the columns a r e s i g n i f i c a n t cues and parameters which go i n t o a rendezvous, and i n t h e columns I and 0 define t h e method by which t h e information i s presented t o t h e astronaut. I n t h e p i l o t decision column, an attempt has been made t o show t h e degree of decision made by t h e p i l o t ; t h a t i s , where t h e block has a "no," he merely performs a predefined task based Qpon c e r t a i n indications and i n t h e case of "yesY1'he must make some s i g n i f i c a n t decision i n addition t o h i s task.
Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i n t h i s t a b l e i s t h e generally decreasing r e l i a n c e on instruments from t h e top t o t h e bottom of t h e t a b l e .

Automatic Rendezvous Technique The automatic rendezvous technique i s presently considered t o be t h e prime mode. It uses a computer t o solve t h e rendezvous equation and u t i l i z e s inputs from t h e range radar and i n e r t i a l platform and, i n t u r n , provides guidance i n f o m a t i o n t o t h e astronaut on instruments. Range -Range -Rate Rendezvous technique. The range-range-rate Figure 2 shows t h e range-range-rate technique uses t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t once the nominal coplanar t r a j e c t o r y i s defined, a unique range-range-rate schedule i s a l s o defined. The t a s k of t h e astronaut i s t o remain i n a chasing o r b i t u n t i l he obtains t h e proper i n i t i a t i o n range. Also associated with t h e chasing o r b i t i s a unique closure-rate curve. If t h e astronaut did nothing, he would continue or, t h i s w r v e and m i s s t h e t a r g e t vehicle by approximately 20 nautical miles. However, when t h e proper i n i t i a t i o n point occurs a s read from the range meter, he t h r u s t s toward t h e t a r e get and t h i s t h r u s t a l t e r s h i s t r a j e c t o r y t o a near-collision course. H then monitors h i s range and range-rate instruments and t h r u s t i n order t o maintain l h i s proper closure r a t e . It should be noted t h a t t h e technique i s a s y e t

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l i m i t e d t o coplanar rendezvous and has been primarily studied with t h e Gemini mission parameters.
If t h i s technique of rendezvous i s expanded t o t h e more general case s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e out-of-plane case - t h e range-rate schedule can no longer be p r e c i s e l y defined.

Radar-Instrument Technique The radar-instrument technique uses t h e same basic p r i n c i p l e a s t h e range-range-rate technique, but by t h e addition of instrumentation accommodates t h e out-of-plane condition. I n t h e radar-instrument technique t h e p i l o t has displayed on instruments t h e following parameters: range, range r a t e ; azimuth and elevation angles t o t h e t a r g e t ; and azimuth and elevation angular r a t e s . Figure 3 shows t h i s technique. I n order t o accommodate t h e out-of-plane components, it i s necessary t o e s t a b l i s h closure-rate envelopes. Because of t h e out-of-plane components,the astronaut will approach t h e t a r g e t vehicle i n s i d e some i n i t i a l approach envelope. Again when the proper i n i t i a t i o n point occurs, he t h r u s t s toward t h e t a r g e t u n t i l h i s range-range-rate schedule f a l l s i n s i d e the i n t e r c e p t envelope, and additional t h r u s t i n g i s done t o keep i n s i d e t h e i n t e r c e p t envelope. Also, during the rendezvous maneuver, the astronaut t h r u s t s perpendicular t o t h e l i n e of s i g h t i n order t o maintain h i s line-of-sight angular r a t e s within c e r t a i n l i m i t s - usually on t h e order of 1/2 m i l l i r a d i a n second.

Modi f ied-semi opt i c a l and Semio p t i c a l Techniques I n order t o understand t h e modified-semioptical and semioptical techniques, it i s necessary t o look a t t h e i r i n e r t i a l t r a j e c t o r i e s and t h e i r geometries.
Figure 4 shows t h e i n e r t i a l t r a j e c t o r i e s f o r both t h e modified-semioptical and semioptical techniques and a l s o t h e i n e r t i a l t r a j e c t o r y i f no rendezvous i s attempted. The coordinate system shown i n this figure i s a target-centered rectangular coordinate system, t h e axis of which s t a y s p a r a l l e l t o l i n e s drawn i n i n e r t i a l space. The advantage of viewing t h e t r a j e c t o r i e s i n t h i s r e f e r ence frame i s that t h e t a r g e t motion against t h e i n e r t i a l s t a r background can be easily seen. When t h e astronaut v i e w s t h e t a r g e t out t h e window, t h e t a r g e t w i l l appear t o move down through t h e i n e r t i a l star background. I n t h e case of t h e semioptical technique, t h e p i l o t t h r u s t s perpendicular t o h i s l i n e of s i g h t t o keep the apparent t a r g e t motion a r r e s t e d against t h e i n e r t i a l background while he maintains a desirable closure rate along t h e l i n e of s i g h t . Figure 5 shows t h e geometry of t h e semioptical-type rendezvous and shows t h e r e l a t i v e positions of t h e two vehicles during t h e rendezvous maneuver. Note t h a t during most of t h e maneuver, t h e succeeding line-of-sight rays s t a y i n e r t i a l l y parallel. I n the case of t h e modified-semioptical technique, t h e p i l o t executes a t h r u s t i n g which places him on an approximate i n t e r c e p t course. A t a point i n

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h i s t r a j e c t o r y , the t a r g e t motion w i l l appear t o n u l l against t h e star background. Figure 6 shows t h e geometry of t h e modified-semioptical technique. The difference between t h i s technique and that shown i n f i g u r e 5 i s t h a t t h e astronaut allows t h e i n e r t i a l line-of-sight r a r s t o d r i f t u n t i l he reaches t h e n u l l point, and from t h a t point he completes t h e rendezvous by using t h e semiopticnl t.echniq1-1.e
~

Full-Optical Technique
A s y e t a Full-optical technique has not been developed. The Langley Research Center i s very i n t e r e s t e d i n t h i s technique and some work has been done i n t h i s area. References 4 and 5 present t h e work done by Langley which i s primarily i n t h e area of o p t i c a l devices and techniques f o r obtaining range and range-rate information. However, by d e f i n i t i o n , t h i s technique w i l l require no instrumentation and, a s such, should be t h e ultimate i n backup techniques.

Comparison of Fuel Expenditures One of t h e major parameters used i n comparing rendezvous techniques i s t o compare t h e i r r e l a t i v e f u e l expenditures. However, t o compare Fuel expenditure of the various techniques, it i s necessary t o compare them f o r t h e same set of i n i t i a l conditions. For t h e purpose of f u e l comparisons, t h e vehicles were assumed t o be i n circular-coplanar o r b i t s p r i o r t o t h e i n i t i a t i o n of t h e rendezvous maneuver, with t h e o r b i t s separated by 20 n. m i . A s was mentioned previously t h e techniques have been ranked according t o t h e i r r e l a t i v e f u e l expenditures, a s denoted by t h e numbers 1 t o 6 i n t a b l e I. I n order t o understand w h y they f a l l i n t h i s order, it i s again necessary t o look a t some inertial trajectories. Figure 7 shows t h e i n e r t i a l t r a j e c t o r i e s f o r both t h e Hohmann t r a n s f e r and t h e automatic rendezvous. A s i s commonly lmown, t h e Hohmann t r a n s f e r provides a minif u e l expenditure f o r rendezvous between vehicles a t two d i f f e r e n t a l t i t u d e s . This type of rendezvous has the disadvantage t h a t i f an e r r o r i s made i n estimating t h e separation a l t i t u d e , it will not provide a p o s i t i v e i n t e r c e p t . To compensate f o r t h i s condition, a l l rendezvous are accelerated from t h e 1800 o r b i t a l t r a v e l associated with t h e Hohmann t r a n s f e r t o approximately 130 a s i s t h e case with t h e automatic rendezvous. This procedure r e s u l t s i n a displacement of the i n e r t i a l t r a j e c t o r y from t h e Hohmann t r a n s f e r and t h e result i s a f u e l penalty.

The values of

AV are 7 1 f t / s e c for t h e Hohmann t r a n s f e r and 90 t o

100 f t / s e c f o r t h e automatic rendezvous. The number 1 before automatic rendezvous designates it a s t h e f i r s t technique l i s t e d i n t a b l e I.
Figure 8 again shows t h e i n e r t i a l t r a j e c t o r y f o r t h e semioptical technique. 1%s apparent from these t r a j e c t o r i e s that t h i s technique i s expensive i n terms i Of fuel. For t h e set of i n i t i a l conditions selected, the technique would require

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a v e l o c i t y of approximately 400 f t / s e c . However, note t h a t t h i s technique requires only a small amount of instrument display ( t a b l e I ) . It i s an easy technique t o control and it does insure a p o s i t i v e rendezvous, but t h e penalty, or trade-off, i s f u e l expenditure. Figure 9 shows t h e composite of a l l t h e t r a j e c t o r i e s except t h e f u l l o p t i c a l technique. The radar-instrument, t h e range-range-rate, and t h e modified-semioptical techniques a l l f a l l within a narrow band. However, a l l approach the automatic rendezvous t r a j e c t o r y and a l l a r e competitive i n terms of f u e l flows. The equivalent AV values a r e a l s o shown. The t r a j e c t o r y f o r t h e f u l l - o p t i c a l technique or i t s probable f u e l expend i t u r e s cannot, a s y e t , be accurately predicted. However, because t h e technique w i l l r e l y on the astronaut f o r decision, it i s expected t h a t it w i l l f a l l well above t h e semioptical t r a j e c t o r y and hence w i l l probably approach the f u e l expenditures of t h e techniques 2, 3 , and 4.

L .

SUMMARY OF TECHNIQUES
The following statements a r e believed t o be a f a i r summary of t h e techniques discussed:
(1)The automatic rendezvous technique i s presently being considered a s t h e prime rendezvous mode. It requires t h e most instrumentation and automatic equipment; however, it i s t h e most economical i n terms of v e l o c i t y change. ( 2 ) The radar-instrument technique requires a l a r g e amount of instrumentat i o n . It i s competitive with other techniques i n terms of f u e l flow and i s primarily a computer backup because it does require s t a b l e platform information.

( 3 ) The range-range-rate technique was primarily developed f o r an i n plane rendezvous. It does require a minimum of instrumentation, but it i s coupled closely t o t h e Gemini mission where t h e r e i s complete coverage of earth track.
( 4) The modif ied-semioptical technique requires a minimum of instrumentat i o n , uses p i l o t decisions, i s competitive i n terms of AV values, and will serve a s a backup t o both t h e computer and s t a b l e platform.

( 5 ) The f u l l - o p t i c a l technique, although undeveloped, w i l l serve a s a backup t o the complete automatic system.

( 6 ) The semioptical technique i s b a s i c a l l y a brute-force technique. i s c o s t l y i n f u e l flow but does insure a rendezvous.

It

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The following t a b l e presents the

A V

values f o r t h e various techniques:

Technique
1 Automatic . 2. Radar instrument 3. Range-range r a t e 4. Modified semioptical 5. Full optical 6. Semioptical

AV, f p s

go t o loo 120 t o 170 120 t o 150 120 t o 150

400

CONCLUDING REMARKS

I n conclusion, t h e r e i s a l a r g e s i m i l a r i t y between the Gemini-earth rendezvous and t h e Apollo-lunar rendezvous, and a l l techniques developed f o r e a r t h rendezvous should be investigated i n terms of t h e lunar-rendezvous problem.
O f t h e techniques investigated, there a r e those which a r e highly competit i v e i n terms of comparative incremental v e l o c i t y values. However, i f t h e o v e r a l l p i c t u r e i s examined, it i s believed t h a t t h e modified-semioptical technique probably has a s l i g h t edge because (1) it requires a minimum of instrument display, ( 2 ) it i s comparative i n terms of f u e l usage, and ( 3 ) it requires n e i t h e r a computer nor an i n e r t i a l platform.

1. Middleton, David B.: Simplified Technique f o r Aborting a Lunar Landing AA Mission During Powered Descent Using Manual Backup Guidance. N S TN D-2724, 1965.
2. Miller, G. Kimball, Jr.; and Barker, L. Keith: Lunar Landings. NASA TN D-2338, 1964.
A Simple Abort Scheme f o r

3 . Miller, G. Kimball, Jr.:

Landings.

A Simplified Guidance Scheme f o r Aborting Lunar N S TN D-2504, 1964. AA

4. Lineberry, Edgar C

Jr. ; Brissenden, Roy F ; and Kurb jun, Max C : Analytic a l and Preliminary Simulation Study of a P i l o t ' s A b i l i t y To Control t h e T e d n a l Phase of a Rendezvous With Simple Optical Devices and a Timer. NASA TN D-965, 1961.

.,

5 . Garren, Kenneth R.:

i n Space by U s e of Optical F i l t e r i n g .

A Technique f o r Visual Detection of Distant Objects N S TN D-2531, 1964. AA

TABLE I
RENDEZVOUS

TECHNIQUES

RANGE-

-RATE TECHNI

Figure 1

L- 2466- 2

Figure 2

104

MODIFIED-SEMIOPTICAL AND SEMIOPTICAL TECHNIQUES INERTIAL TRAJECTORIES RADAR-INSTRUMENT TECHNIQUE TRAJECTORY

WHFN NO
I.

RANGE RATE,
FPS

''4
TARGET
Xi

NULL POINT7

RENDEZVOUS ATTtMPl ED

....-

I._

7 \

-150-

MODIFIED

I I f

II

I1

SEMIOPTICAL-' TRAJECTORY
30
40 50

0
lo

20

RANGE, N Mi.

Figure 3

Figure 4

SEMI OPTICAL TECHNIQUE

INERTIAL LINE OF SIGHT

MOD IF1ED -SEMI OPT1CAL TECHNIQUE

INERTIAL LINE OF SIGHT

INERTIAL STAR BACKGROUND

NO RENDEZVOUS TARGET lNTERCEP7 TARGET ORBIT TARGET INTERCEPT

Figure 5

Figure 6

AUTOMATIC RENDEZVOUS TECHNIQUE

INERTIAL TWJECTORIES

HOHMANN TRANSFER TARGET AUTOMATIC

RELATIVE AV, FPS HOHMANN TRANSFER 71 I. AUTOMATIC RENDEZVOUS 90 TO 100

Figure 7

RADAR-INSTRUMENT, RANGE-RANGE-RATE, AND MODIFIEDSEMIOPTICAL TECHNIQUES SEMIOPTICAL RENDEZVOUS TECHNIQUE

INERTIAL TRAJECTORIES AUTOMATIC RENDEZVOU HOHMANN TRnNSF INSTRUMENT -RANGE RATE ED SEMIOPTICAL INERTIAL TRAJECTORIES

71 HOHMANN TRANSFER I. AUTOMATIC RENDEZVOUS 90 TO 1 0 0

'

HOHMANN TRANSFER 7 1 I ALITOMATIC RENDEZVOUS 90 TO 1 0 0 2 RADAR INSTRUMENT 120 TO 150 3 RANGE-RANGE RATE 120 TO 150 4 MODIFIED SEMIOPTICAL 120 TO150

6. SEMIOPTICAL

4 00

6 SEMIOPTICAL

400

Figure 8

Figure 9

106

1 . DYNAMIC SIMULATION O LEN DOCKING WITH 2 F

APOLLO COMMAND MODULE I N LUNAR ORBIT

By Howard G. Hatch, Jr., and Jack E. Pennington

SUMMARY

A f u l l - s i z e p i l o t e d simulation of t h e docking of t h e lunar excursion module (LEN) with t h e command and service module (CSM) has been conducted on t h e sixdegree-of-freedom Langley rendezvous docking simulator.

Docking with t h e LEM with i t s top hatch t o t h e CSM w a s studied and p i l o t s performed t h e maneuver with only v i s u a l observation of t h e t a r g e t f o r guidance information. The objectives of t h e simulation were t o determine i f v i s u a l a i d s were needed t o complete t h e docking and t o determine t h e e f f e c t s of l i g h t i n g conditions, control mode, and pressure s u i t on t h e mission. The results showed that t h e 2 i l o t s could dock within s p e c i f i e d tolerances i f v i s u a l a i d s were used. The most desirable v i s u a l a i d s were a collimated r e t i c l e a i d i n t h e LEN and an illuminated standoff cross i n t h e CSM. The l i g h t i n g conciitions studied had no effect on docking when v i s u a l a i d s were used. The most deljirable control modes were t h e d i r e c t mode f o r t r a n s l a t i o n cont r o l and rate command with a t t i t u d e hold f o r a t t i t u d e control. The d i r e c t a t t i tude control mode was extremely d i f f i c u l t . When t h e p i l o t w a s wearing a pressurized s u i t , he found t h a t control w a s degraded somewhat. INTROWCTION One concept f o r lunar o r b i t rendezvous docking between t h e lunar excursion module and t h e command and service module i s f o r t h e LEM t o be t h e a c t i v e vehic l e and dock with i t s t o p hatch t o t h e CSM. I n t h i s maneuver t h e pilot,who norm a l l y f l i e s t h e LEM looking forward out the t r i a n g u l a r f r o n t window, must lean back and look out a s m a l l overhead-window i n order t o perform t h e maneuver. The docking maneuver i s considered t o s t a r t a t ranges c l o s e r than 1/2 mile. A t t h i s point t h e p i l o t probably w i l l be flying t h e LEM looking out t h e f r o n t E window; then, a t a range of 50 f e e t o r so, t h e p i l o t w i l l r o t a t e t h e L M 90' and approach t h e CSM with t h e LEM top hatch forward. To study a p i l o t ' s a b i l i t y t o complete t h e f i n a l docking alinement while f l y i n g t h e LEN with i t s top hatch forward and using only "out-the-window" v i s u a l cues f o r guidance iMormation, Langley Research Center has conducted a fulls c a l e p i l o t e d simulation u t i l i z i n g t h e six-degree-of-freedom Langley rendezvous docking simulator.

The oblectives of t h e s i r e t o determine i f visual a i d s w e r e necessary t o complete a docking and t o determine t h e e f f e c t of l i g h t i n g conditions and control modes. I n addition, a short study was made t o determine t h e e f f e c t o f docking when t h e p i l o t i s f l y i n g i n a f u l l y pressurized s u i t .
SM L T R I UAO

An overall v i e w of t h e Mngley rendezvous docking simulator i s shown i n figure 1 This view shows t h e Gemini model i n s t a l l e d . Results of Gemini . docking studies a r e presented i n references 1 t o 3. The simulator c o n s i s t s of an overhead carriage and cable-suspended gimbal system. The carriage i s e l e c t r i c a l l y driven and provides 3 O of t r a n s l a t i o n . The gimbal i s hydraulically driven and provides 3 O of r o t a t i o n . Thus, t h e p i l o t f l i e s t h e vehicle i n s i x degree-of-freedom motion which i s controlled i n a closed-loop fashion through a ground-based analog computer.
The operating volume of the simulator i s 210 feet by 15 f e e t by 4 0 feet. Since t h i s f a c i l i t y allows t h e use of f'ull-size t a r g e t models, t h e p i l o t i s presented three-dimensional, real-world v i s u a l information. Because t h e LEM i s much larger than t h e Gemini, t h e whole vehicle would not f i t i n t h e gimbal system. However, a s w i l l be shown, t h e e n t i r e LEM configuration was not needed f o r t h i s simulation.

IJM/CSM Docking Configuration Figure 2 i s a schematic drawing of t h e LEM docked with t h e CSM. Here t h e LEM descent stage has been added t o t h e ascent stage f o r c l a r i t y . Actually, i n

lunar o r b i t , only the ascent stage would dock with t h e CSM. The crew compartment of the I;EM i s located on t h e f r o n t of t h e ascent stage. The docking hatch i s on t o p of t h e ascent stage. Since t h e p i l o t f l i e s t h e L;EM from t h e crew compartment, o n l y it and t h e t o p hatch were needed f o r t h i s simulation.
The crew compartment and top hatch were mounted i n t h e gimbal system a s shown i n figure 3 which i s a view of t h e LXM docking simulator. This view i s equivalent t o that i n figure 2; t h e r e s t of t h e LEN ascent stage would be located below t h e crew compartment. Even though only p a r t of t h e complete I;EM configuration was used i n t h i s simulation, every e f f o r t w a s made t o duplicate t h e f i e l d s of view, i n t e r i o r arrangements, and motion that t h e complete L;EM would have. For instance, t h e center of gravity of t h e I;EM i s located approximately i n t h e middle of t h e ascent stage, and even though t h e gimbal d r i v e axes were not about t h a t point, E t h e analog computer w a s programed t o d r i v e t h e system so t h a t t h e L M simulator would r o t a t e about t h e c o r r e c t center of gravity and a l l motions would be proper.

108

P i l o t Position i n LEM I n t h e a c t u a l W, t h e p i l o t i s positioned as shown i n f i g u r e 2 i n h i s r e s t r a i n i n g harness; h i s l i n e of s i g h t out t h e t o p window i s about 2 f e e t t o t h e E l e f t of and about 3' f e e t above t h e L M center l i n e . The t o p window is located about 1 foot from t h e p i l o t ' s eyes and consists of two panes of glass, 1 inch apart. The window area i s 3/8 sq ft. With these dimensions, t h e p i l o t ' s f i e l d of view i s 41.75O forward, 6 O a f t , 9 . 5 O right, and loo l e f t . (See f i g . 2.) With t.hi.c. fie16 of view, t h e p i l o t cannot see the docking mechanism of e i t h e r vehicle when they a r e docked o r i n close proximity of each o t h e r . Figure 4 shows a p i l o t positioned i n t h e LEI4 simulator. Here t h e p i l o t i s wearing a prototype pressure s u i t . Runs were made with t h e s u i t pressurized t o determine i t s e f f e c t on t h e completion of t h e docking maneuver. Because of t h e way t h e LEM was mounted i n t h e gimbal system, t h e p i l o t was l y i n g on h i s back r e l a t i v e t o t h e hangar f l o o r so a couch w a s used t o obtain correct body position instead of normal LE51 harness r e s t r a i n t . The I.,EM p i l o t ' s proper p o s i t i o n w a s such t h a t h i s body was t i l t e d back from I n order t o prevent t h e t h e longitudinal a x i s of t h e LEM by about 20' t o 30. p i l o t from having a head-down p o s i t i o n i n t h e simulator, a l l runs were flown a t a 20 angle u p h i l l . I n addition t o t h e 200 t o 30 body s l a n t , t h e p i l o t ' s head The tilt of t h e p i l o t ' s head w a s l i m i t e d t o 20 because was t i l t e d back 20. of pressure-suit r e s t r i c t i o n s . Thus, the p i l o t had t o r o t a t e h i s eyes up as f a r as they would go i n order t o obtain the a d d i t i o n a l 40' o r 50 he needed t o s e e s t r a i g h t out t h e t o p window. During t h i s simulation, no cockpit instrumentation w a s used, so the p i l o t had t o rely s t r i c t l y on "out-the-window" v i s u a l cues f o r guidance information. The p i l o t flew t h e LXM with two hand controllers: t h e a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l l e r on t h e right and t h e t r a n s l a t i o n controller on t h e l e f t . "he c o n t r o l l e r s were about 2 feet apart, 2 f e e t forward, and l f e e t below t h e p i l o t ' s eye position. $ The c o n t r o l l e r s were oriented f o r f l y i n g t h e LEN looking forward out the f r o n t window. Thus, f o r example, when t h e p i l o t t w i s t s t h e a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l l e r handle t o t h e r i g h t he yaws t o t h e r i g h t while looking out t h e f r o n t w i n d o w . However, when looking out t h e t o p window, t h i s same vehicle motion looks l i k e a r o l l t o t h e l e f t . There were other control e f f e c t s which t h e p i l o t had t o remember each t i m e he made a control input.
REsuI;TS AND DISCUSSION

'

Preliminary Studies and Docking Program

A t first, t h e p i l o t s found docking t h e LXM with i t s t o p hatch t o t h e CSM very d i f f i c u l t ; an expedient method of' a l l e v i a t i n g some of t h e v i s u a l and cont r o l problems w a s t o i n s t a l l a mirror i n t h e cockpit and t o manipulate t h e

c o n t r o l l e r l o g i c so t h a t t h e p i l o t ' s control inputs would be consistent with t h e view i n t h e mirror. However, manipulating t h e c o n t r o l l e r l o g i c reduced i t s r e l i a b i l i t y , and as t h e p i l o t s became more accustomed t o t h e task, they found they could adapt t o normal c o n t r o l l e r l o g i c and view d i r e c t l y out t h e t o p window. Some p i l o t s s a i d t h a t when they looked up 9 ' they automatically 0 switched controller inputs; thus, s t u d i e s w i t h t h e mirror and manipulating t h e c o n t r o l l e r l o g i c were abandoned e a r l y i n t h e program.

It was obvious that t h i s unusual way of f l y i n g t h e IEM w a s d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e p i l o t s ; consequently, t h e first p a r t of t h e formal simulation program w a s t o determine what v i s u a l a i d s would make t h e t a s k s e a s i e r f o r them.

As s t a t e d previously, t h e objectives of t h e simulation program w e r e t o determine the e f f e c t s of v i s u a l aids, t o study t h e e f f e c t s of l i g h t i n g condit i o n s , and t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t of d i f f e r e n t c o n t r o l modes. The i n i t i a l conditions f o r t h e simulation were as follows:
Longitudinal displacement, f t V e r t i c a l dis.placement, tf ' Lateral displacement, f t Attitudes, deg Initial rates.

...................... ........................ ........................ ............................. .............................

30

3 3
S O

None

I n the visual-aid study both LEM-mounted and CSM-mounted a i d s were studiedc Daylight and dark l i g h t i n g conditions were studied; there w a s no g l a r e i n t h e daylight conditions. The control modes studied w e r e : for t r a n s l a t i o n , *oneshot pulse and d i r e c t ; and f o r a t t i t u d e , rate command with and without a t t i t u d e hold, one-shot pulse, and d i r e c t . One-shot,pulse means t h a t when t h e hand cont r o l l e r is deflected, t h e j e t s a r e f i r e d once f o r a few milliseconds. To f i r e t h e j e t s again, t h e p i l o t has f i r s t t o center t h e hand c o n t r o l l e r .
The p i l o t s performing t h e t e s t were Langley t e s t p i l o t s , Manned Spacemaft Center pilots, p i l o t s from industry, and 1 2 astronauts. The LEM parameters used are shown i n t h e following t a b l e :

Linear acceleration, f t / s e c A n g u l a r acceleration R o l l , deg/sec2 Pitch, deg/sec2 Yaw, deg/sec2 Specific impulse, sec

Mass, s l u g s . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.8 . ....... 5.8 . . .. .. ........... .. .. .. .. .. ................... .. .. .. ............ 46.8 ...... ... . .. 303
Docking R o l l Orientation

During t h e program, t h r e e docking r o l l o r i e n t a t i o n s were used. (See f i g . 5.) I n t h e f i r s t r o l l o r i e n t a t i o n t h e LEM p i l o t was looking i n t o t h e

CSM command p i l o t ' s docking window. However, s h o r t l y after t h e program began, t h i s r o l l orientation w a s changed because other s t u d i e s showed t h e r e would be harmful j e t impingement on t h e radar antenna i n t h i s position. The second r o l l o r i e n t a t i o n was such t h a t t h e LEM p i l o t ' s l i n e of s i g h t (LOS) i n t e r s e c t e d t h e CSM a t a point below t h e f a r l e f t window. After a short while it was mutually agreed t o change t h e r o l l o r i e n t a t i o n u n t i l LEM p i l o t ' s LOS i n t e r s e c t e d t h e CSM a t t h e engineer's docking window f o r p a r t of t h e visual-aid study.

Visual-Aid Study Figure 6 shows t h e v i s u a l a i d s t h a t were used on and i n s i d e t h e CSM. These a i d s were used i n conjunction w i t h a i d s i n t h e L 2 t o help t h e p i l o t determine E4 r e l a t i v e alinement between t h e two vehicles. Two v i s u a l a i d s were used on t h e LEM: first, illuminated crosshairs scribed on t h e inner and outer windows, and second, a collimated r e t i c l e . With e i t h e r t h e scribed l i n e s o r t h e r e t i c l e , t h e p i l o t saw a cross superimposed on everything as he looked out t h e window. Thus, when using the "stripes-only" a i d on t h e CSM ( f i g . 6), t h e p i l o t would r o t a t e E t h e L M u n t i l t h e LEM cross w a s superimposed on t h e CSM s t r i p e s . He then observed the aspect of t h e CSM e i t h e r by looking at t h e whole vehicle o r a t t h e window by the s t r i p e s . B remembering how these look when t h e two vehicles y were properly alined, he could estimate any e r r o r i n alinement. Although t h e p i l o t s could dock under these circumstances, they preferred a more p o s i t i v e way of determining alinement. When the docking r o l l o r i e n t a t i o n was changed, concentric c i r c l e s were mounted a t the p i l o t ' s LOS, but these, too, only gave t h e p i l o t a rough estimate of r e l a t i v e alinement

To give t h e p i l o t a p o s i t i v e alinement cue, a three-dimensional a i d was needed, but it could not be mounted on t h e outside of t h e CSM. For t h i s reason, t h e f i n a l docking o r i e n t a t i o n w a s established because then t h e LEM p i l o t looks almost d i r e c t l y i n t h e CSM engineer's window behind which t h e r e i s adequate room t o mount v i s u a l a i d s . The first a i d s used i n s i d e t h e CSM were cones - one of which i s shown i n f i g u r e 6. The cones were used i n conjunction with t h e s t r i p e s and when t h e p i l o t superimposed t h e LEM cross on t h e CSM cross he could use t h e cone f o r h i s aspect cue. There w a s a gap i n t h e middle of t h e LEM r e t i c l e cross s o t h e p i l o t could see t h e cone c l e a r l y . Thus, during an approach, t h e p i l o t s kept t h e crosses superimposed by using a t t i t u d e control and t h e cone a l i n e d by using t r a n s l a t i o n control. Several other cones of d i f f e r e n t s i z e s w e r e used. It w a s found t h a t t h e cone shown i n f i g u r e 6 w a s good f o r l a r g e r ranges ,and t h a t a smaller cone with less t a p e r was good f o r close ranges. For t h i s reason, a double cone would probably be best. The cone shown i n figure 6 has an apex angle of 20'.
The next a i d used was t h e standoff cross. This cross i s a small version of t h e aid t h a t is proposed f o r mounting on t h e LEM t o be used by t h e CSM p i l o t . This a i d gives t h e p i l o t a very c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n of alinement.

11 1

The best Yisual aids seemed t o be t h e LEM collimated r e t i c l e and the CM S standoff cross. The collimated r e t i c l e is best because it eliminates refocusing between the target and the r e t i c l e and permits greater head movement. The refocusing problem with the i l l u m i n a t e d crosshairs occurred because the p i l o t had t o keep checking t o see i f the inner and outer crosses were lined up because any s m a l l head movement would cause a misalinement.
The standoff cross w a s considered t o be the best visual a i d f o r the CSM because it provides both attitude and translation cues, requires nothing t o be attached t o the outside of the CSM, is simple t o i n s t a l l , has low power requirements, and i s consistent with the aid on the LEM. Although the standoff cross S , was considered the best visual aid f o r the C M some p i l o t s preferred the cone and s t r i p e s mainly because the large vertical s t r i p e on the outside of the CSM provided a b e t t e r r o l l cue than the standoff cross. However, the standoff' cross did provide an adequate r o l l alinement cue.

The average terminal conditions obtained when the p i l o t s used the standoff cross on the CSM and the r e t i c l e on the LEM as the visual aids are shown i n t h e following table:
I

Lighting :onditiona Tolerance Day

Night

R a d i a l position error, f't Closure rate, fps Radial rate, f p s Attitude error, deg Body angular rate, deg/sec Attitude fuel, l b Translation fuel, l b Time, sec

. . . . . . . . . . . . .I ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,, ............ ..................

. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. , 0.1 t o 1 ..... ... 1 . . . . .. . . . . .

0.5 10 1

0.48
0.32
0.10

0.43 0.40 0.11

3.a
0.50 12.4

3.17
0.45

3*6 163

11.6 3.6 179

Rate command without attitude hold w a s used f o r a t t i t u d e control and the direct mode f o r translation control. These data are f o r 82 runs flown by eight difhm ferent pilots, f i v e of w o were astronauts. Shown also are the actual LEM/CSM docking tolerances; the averages are well within the tolerances. The variables t h a t gave the p i l o t s the most trouble were body angular rates. The problem w a s t h a t maximum deflection on t h e hand controller commanded an angular r a t e of 20 deg/sec. Thus, only a very s-ll control input represented 1 deg/sec; so, if the p i l o t made any small last-second a t t i t u d e corrections, the body r a t e could easily be out of the tolerance range. To avoid t h i s situation, t h e p i l o t s must t r a i n not t o make any last-second control inputs. I n t h i s simulation, many of the p i l o t s did t r a i n themselves not t o make any last-second inputs. The data i n the table show that there was l i t t l e difference between the terminal conditions f o r day and night lighting conditions. This similarity

ll2

resulted because t h e standoff cross w a s illuminated a t a l l times, and even at night it provided an excellent Uinement cue.
The d i s t r i b u t i o n of terminal a t t i t u d e e r r o r s i s shown i n f i g u r e 7 f o r day runs with t h e standoff cross. This p l o t shows f o r any value of t h e terminal a t t i t u d e s t h e percentage of t o t a l runs within that tolerance. This f i g u r e shows that t h e majority of the terminal a t t i t u d e errors were w e l l within t h e loo docking tolerance. The terminal radial-position e r r o r (fig. 8) was a l s o within the tolerance. Tne ai-ti-tuie f u e i usage (fig. g j w a s mu& nigher Cnan t n e transl a t i o n f u e l usage because of t h e automatic damping system used i n conjunction with t h e rate command attitude conkrol.

Control Mode Studies The combination of t h e d i r e c t m o d e f o r t r a n s l a t i o n control and rate command with a t t i t u d e hold f o r a t t i t u d e control w a s t h e most desirable control mode studied. Rate command without a t t i t u d e hold was flyable but t h e rate deadband obtained, 3/4 deg/sec, w a s considered'to be high. The pulses i n t h e pulse mode were t o o small and required too m y inputs t o obtain desirable rates. n The d i r e c t mode i n a t t i t u d e control w a s extremely d i f f i c u l t t o f l y . Pressure Suit Studies When flying with the most desirable control modes, the p i l o t s could perform t h e docking maneuver while wearing f u l l y pressurized s u i t s without undue difficulty

Training Although t h e p i l o t s could dock t h e LEM and become accustomed t o t h e unusual task, it w a s by no means easy. O f t h e more than 600 runs, there were more than 300 t r a i n i n g runs because each p i l o t performed about 15 runs before he was considered trained.
ASsuE;6pTIONS MADE I N EQUATIONS O MOTION F

I n t h e equations of motion used i n t h i s simulation, it was assumed t h a t t h e t a r g e t was stable and that t h e mass, center of gravity, and i n e r t i a of t h e LEM did not change because of t h e s m a l l amaunt of f u e l used compared w i t h the vehicle mass. I n addition, orbital mechanics effects were neglected. The primary e f f e c t i s a small v e r t i c a l d r i f t due t o closure rate. The average Closure rate was about 0.35 fps, and from an i n i t i a l range of 30 feet, t h i s rate would cause an uncorreeted miss distance of about 2 f e e t . However, it was assumed t h a t because t h e control inputs required t o correct t h i s d r i f t were smaller than the normal

corrective inputs, t h e drift would be hardly detectable. t o be true. CONCLUSIONS

Tests have shown t h i s {

A study of t h e p i l o t e d simulation of t h e docking of t h e LEM with the CSM has yielded t h e following conclusions: 1 Docking t h e U t 4 with i t s t o p hatch t o t h e CSM i s possible and can be . performed more e a s i l y when v i s u a l a i d s a r e a v a i l a b l e t o t h e L 2 p i l o t . E4

f ' 2. O t h e v i s u a l a i d s studied, t h e collimated r e t i c l e on t h e L;EM i n comb i n a t i o n with an illuminated standoff cross on t h e CSM proved t o be t h e most desirable.

3. There w a s no e f f e c t of l i g h t i n g conditions when three-dimensional v i s u a l a i d s were used.

4. I n a study of t h e control modes, t h e d i r e c t a t t i t u d e control w a s found t o be extremely d i f f i c u l t , but was deemed acceptable as a l a s t - r e s o r t emergency mode.

5. When t h e p i l o t w a s wearing a pressurized s u i t , he found t h a t control w a s degraded somewhat.

REFERENCES
1 Pennington, Jack E.; Hatch, Howard G., Jr.; Long, Edward R. j and Cobb, . Visual Aspects of a N l - S i z e Pilot-Controlled Simulation of t h e Jere B.: Gemini-Agena Docking. NASA TN D-2632, 1965.

2. Jaquet, Byron M ; and Riley, Donald R.: . t r o l l e r s and Instruments f o r Docking.

An Evaluation of Gemini Rand ConNASA T x-1066, 1965. M

3. H a t c h , Howard G.,

Jr.; Riley, Donald R.; and Cobb, J e r e B. : Simulating Gemini-Agena Docking. Astronaut. Aeron., vol. 2, no. l , Nov. 1964, l (Also available as NASA RP-417.) pp. 74-81.

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SCHEMATIC OF APOCLO LEM/CSV DOCKING

Figure 1

L-2467-1

Figure 2

Figure 3

L-2467-3

RLOT iN LEM SIMULATOR

Figure 4

E-2461-4

VISUAL C i X F3R 00CKlNG

CONE ANC 51H1tt

>

5 AhOWF CROSS 1

TERMINAL ATTITUDE ERROR DISTRIBUTION

TERMINAL RADIAL POSITION ERROR DISTRIBUTION

''Or
80 -

/ -

-ROLL --_-PITCH
PERCENT OF TOTAL RUNS YAW PERCENT OF TOTAL RUNS TOLERANCE-

60 -

40 TOLERANCE~

20

2 4 6 8 MAXIMUM TERMINAL ATTITUDE, OEG

0 .2 .4 6 8 I MAXIMUM TERMINAL RADIAL POSITION ERR0

Figure 7

Figure 8

FUEL USAGE DISTRIBUTION

--_

ATTITUDE TRANSLATION

Figure 9

13. SIMPLIFIED MANUAL GUIDmCE TECHNIQUE

F R L'JNAR ORBIT ESTABLISHMENT O

By Gene W. Sparrow and G. Kimball Miller, Jr.

SUMMARY
A simplified v i s u a l technique f o r guidance i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a low-altitude c i r c u l a r o r b i t about t h e moon has been developed a n a l y t i c a l l y and simulated by using t h e Langley lunar o r b i t and landing approach simulator. The c o n t r o l t e c h nique required t h e p i l o t t o hold a f i x e d a t t i t u d e of t h e spacecraft thrust a x i s r e l a t i v e t o t h e l i n e of s i g h t t o t h e horizon and a star ( o r p a t t e r n of s t a r e ) during t h e braking maneuver. The horizon was used f o r p i t c h - r e f e r e n c e and t h e s t a r s and horizon were used f o r yaw and r o l l reference. Simulation r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e that t h e technique can be used t o e s t a b l i s h o r b i t s close to'the desired cular o r b i t i f t h e proper vehicle orientation i s used. INTRODUCTION

During t h e p a s t f e w years procedures for manually c o n t r o l l i n g various phases A problem area which has received a t t e n t i o n i s that of e s t a b l i s h i n g a low-altitude c i r c u l a r o r b i t about the moon. Recently, a v i s u a l technique f o r guidance i n performing t h i s t a s k has been developed a n a l y t i c a l l y and was used i n t h e i n i t i a l study made on t h e Lunar Orbit and Landing Approach (LOLA) simulator. The results of t h i s study a r e presented i n t h i s paper.

of t h e lunar mission have been studied a t the Langley Research Center.

SYMBOLS

K
t

thrust angle measured between thrust axis and l i n e of s i g h t t o receding horizon, degrees
t h r u s t i n g t i m e , seconds
ANALYTICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GUIDANCE TECHNIQUE

The problem of e s t a b l i s h i n g a lunar orbit i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n figure 1 The . Apollo spacecraft i s shown approaching t h e moon on a hyperbolic t r a j e c t o r y . If t h e desired c i r c u l a r o r b i t i s t o be established, t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e vehicle must be reduced t o t h e proper value a t t h e desired a l t i t u d e . The geometry of t h i s t a s k w a s examined a n a l y t i c a l l y by assuming a 70.5-hour earth-moon t r a j e c ) t o r y which would pass within about 80 nautical miles of t h e lunar surface. A

braking maneuver was i n l t i a t e d a t an a l t i t u d e of about 120 n a u t i c a l miles and terminated i n an 80-nautical-mile-altitude c i r c u l a r o r b i t . It was found t h a t , f o r a fuel-optimum maneuver, t h e angle K between t h e v e h i c l e ' s t h r u s t axis and t h e l i n e of s i g h t (LOS) t o t h e receding horizon remained very nearly cons t a n t , a s shown i n t h e graph of figure 1. The v a r i a t i o n of K with t i m e f o r a fuel-optimum maneuver ( s o l i d l i n e ) i s noted t o be nearly constant throughout t h e maneuver and K can t h e r e f o r e be approximated by a constant value, as i n d i cated by the dashed l i n e . Subsequent computations regarding t h e use of a constant angle t h e braking maneuver revealed t h e following r e s u l t s :

K during

(1)For t h e selected 70.5-hour t r a j e c t o r y , it was possible t o i n i t i a t e t h e r e t r o t h r u s t maneuver over a wide range of a l t i t u d e s , and t h e maneuver could be performed e f f i c i e n t l y i f t h e proper angle K and t h r u s t i n g period w e r e used. This p o s s i b i l i t y i s indicated i n figure 2, i n which t h e values of t h e angle K and t h e thrusting time that should be used a r e p l o t t e d a s a function of t h r u s t i n i t i a t i o n a l t i t u d e . The lower p a r t of figure 2 shows t h e apocynthion and pericynthion of t h e r e s u l t i n g o r b i t s and i n d i c a t e s that t h e r e s u l t i n g o r b i t s a r e very nearly c i r c u l a r , lying between a l t i t u d e s of 75 and 85 n a u t i c a l miles.
( 2 ) Other r e s u l t s of t h e a n a l y t i c a l s t u d i e s showed t h a t t h e constant-angle technique can be used f o r approach t r a j e c t o r i e s other than t h e 70.5-hour traj e c t o r y used i n this study. I n an a c t u a l application a s p e c i f i c t r a j e c t o r y , such a s the 70.5-hour t r a j e c t o r y , could be used a s a nominal t r a j e c t o r y , Small departures from t h i s nominal t r a j e c t o r y can be considered as perturbations. I n t h i s approach, t h e proper angle K and t h r u s t i n g time can be obtained by using t h e nominal values with s m a l l corrections i n K and time. The corrections can be obtained from l i n e a r perturbation equations.

I n order t o determine t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h e techniques developed t o a space mission, an evaluation of t h e technique under reasonably r e a l i s t i c cond i t i o n s i s desirable. The h a l y t i c a l procedure which had been developed was evaluated on t h e Langley lunar o r b i t and landing approach simulator. I n order t o make the simulation compatible with t h e Apollo spacecraft, c e r t a i n geometrical constraints were considered. The c o n s t r a i n t s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d by figure 3 . The Apollo spacecraft is shown i n an a t t i t u d e appropriate f o r t h e braking maneuver. The v i e w of t h e horizon from t h e p i l o t ' s p o s i t i o n 4 n t h e command module during t h e braking maneuver i s blocked by t h e excursion module. It was assumed, theref o r e , t h a t t h e Apollo telescope would be used t o v i e w t h e horizon. The simulat i o n corresponded t o the condition i n which t h e telescope axis w s displaced 3 a 0 from t h e t h r u s t axis, and t h e f i e l d of v i e w encompassed approximately 30 with a one-to-one magnification.

The simulator setup i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n figure 4, which shows t h e p i l o t ' s cockpit, the computer, t h e t e l e v i s i o n camera, and t h e r o t a t i n g spherical model

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of the moon. P i l o t control inputs are fed t o t h e computer, which controls t h e r o t a t i o n a l rate of t h e spherical model md alss the m g d a r m i e n t a t i o n of t h e camera. The video signal from the camera i s relayed t o the p i l o t ' s t e l e v i s i o n monitor, which has graduated crosshairs on i t s face. These crosshairs are used t o provide spacecraft-attitude reference. A collimating l e n s mounted i n f r o n t of t h e t e l e v i s i o n monitor places t h e image a t i n f i n i t y and adds t o the realism of t h e display. Included i n the simulator setup but not shown i n figure 4 were several small lights, which represented s t a r s just above the lunar horizon.
The basic p i l o t i n g procedure i s straightforward. The p i l o t must f i r s t orient t h e vehicle t h r u s t axis so t h a t it i s i n the plane of the o r b i t , and he must then obtain the proper angle between the thrust vector and the l i n e of sight t o t h e horizon. The p i l o t i n g procedure i s illustrated i n figure 5 . The spacecraft i s first oriented so that t h e lunar horizon i s just i n v i e w but with a maximum amount of t h e lunar surface visible. This orientation i s illustrated by t h e sketch a t the l e f t of figure 5. The spacecraft i s then r o l l e d u n t i l the horizon appears level, as shown by the sketch on the r i g h t of figure 5. The p i l o t then t r a c k s the lunar features as they move with respect t o t h e v e r t i c a l crosshair and, i f necessary, yaws t h e spacecraft so t h a t t h e landmarks move para l l e l t o t h e v e r t i c a l l i n e . When the p i l o t i s s a t i s f i e d t h a t he i s on t r a c k he pitches up t o the proper thrust angle K and acquires a star o r recognizable star p a t t e r n . This phase i s i l l u s t r a t e d by the sketch a t t h e bottom of' figure 5. Thrust i s then i n i t i a t e d and zero ;yaw and r o l l angles a r e maintained by keeping t h e star a t t h e acquired location with respect t o the v e r t i c a l crosshair and by keeping the horizon level. The thrusting period l a s t s about 5 minutes. Although a stop watch w s used f o r timing, a body integrating accelerometer couldl be used a t o determine the required change i n velocity.

I n t h e simulation, t h e p i l o t had approximately 2 minutes, between i n i t i a t i o n of t h e simulation a t an a l t i t u d e of 165 n a u t i c a l miles and thrust i n i t i a t i o n a t about 1 0 nautical miles, t o track the lunar landmarks, a l i n e the space2 c r a f t with respect t o t h e plane of t h e orbit, and p i t c h t o t h e proper t h r u s t angle. P i l o t control of spacecraft a t t i t u d e i s complicated t o some extent by t h e o f f s e t of t h e viewing a x i s o r center l i n e of the telescope from t h e r o l l o r thrust a x i s of t h e vehicle. The angular offset r e s u l t s i n visual coupling between spacecraft r o l l and yaw motions. L i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y w a s encountered with t h e simulated telescope once the p i l o t had a t t a i n e d some experience. I n t h i s simulation, spacecraft a t t i t u d e control was accomplished by using an acceleration-command system. Motion pictures were made of t h e p i l o t ' s v i e w of the lunar t e r r a i n during t h e approach andbraking maneuver t o assist i n subsequent evaluations.
RESULTS OF SIMULATION

The p i l o t s could a l i n e t h e i r spacecraft with the plane of t h e o r b i t f a i r l y well i n about 2 minutes. Average roll and y a w angles over t h e t h r u s t i n g portion of a given flight were fairly small, although some o s c i l l a t i o n s as large as 6 O o r 8 did occur. However, r o l l e r r o r s have no e f f e c t on t h e establishment of ' t h e o r b i t , and yaw e r r o r s do not degrade the safety of t h e mission. The primary

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e f f e c t of yaw e r r o r s r e s u l t s i n t h e establishment of apocynthion a l t i t u d e s that are greater than t h e nominal.

"he simulation r e s u l t s a r e presented i n figure 6, which shows t h e percentage of the t o t a l f l i g h t s t h a t had pericynthion and apocynthion a l t i t u d e s that l i e w i t h i n t h e indicated ranges. For example, about 35 percent of t h e flights had pericynthion a l t i t u d e s t h a t l i e between 75 and 80 n a u t i c a l m i l e s . It i s seen that the pericynthion a l t i t u d e s always exceed 75 n a u t i c a l miles and t h e apocynthion a l t i t u d e s a r e always l e s s than 95 n a u t i c a l miles. Thus, t h e establ i s h e d o r b i t s have a l t i t u d e s t h a t always l i e between 75 and 95 n a u t i c a l miles.
CONCLUDING REMARICS
A simplified v i s u a l guidance technique f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a low-altitude o r b i t about t h e moon has been simulated by using t h e Langley lunar o r b i t and landing approach simulator. Although t h e o r b i t s established by t h i s technique vary somewhat from t h e desired 80-nautical-mile c i r c u l a r o r b i t , it i s believed that subsequent c i r c u l a r i z a t i o n toward t h a t a l t i t u d e m y be accoma plished through t h e use of navigational techniques such a s spacecraft o p t i c s o r earth-based tracking. This simple v i s u a l guidance technique t h e r e f o r e appears adequate f o r t h e establishment of safe o r b i t s .

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CO

S AND

Figure 1

Figure 2

GEOMETRY OF LUNAR-ORBIT ESTABLISHMENT

DIRECTION

----\

OF MOTION

Figure 3

Figure 4

L-2468-5

PILOTING PROCEDURE
THRUST AXIS TriRUST AXIS

SUMMARY RESULTS

XIS

NM

figure 5

Figure 6

3.24

1 . MANUAL CONTROL OF APOUO RIGH-ALTITWDE ABORT 4

By Alfred J. Meintel, Jr., and Kenneth R. W r e n

SUMMARY

hdil,

ru

A fixed-base simulation study has been conducted at Langley to determine whether a pilot could manually orient the Apollo vehicle, by using only an "outthe-window" visual scene as an attitude reference, to the proper reentry attitude following a high-altitude (120,000 feet and above) abort from earth launch. The effects of different visual scenes, vehicle control system failures, and various aerodynamic parameters caused by different launch boosters and abort altitudes were investigated in the study.

The results of over 1 0 simulation runs show that manual orientation is 00 possible but can be critical for certain abort conditions when control-system failures are present.

The Apollo mission employs a launch escape tower attached to the manned spacecraft for the purpose of separatingit from the Saturn launch vehicle in the event of an abort during launch. If a launch abort occurs, the spacecrafttower combination is expected to tumble randomly about a l l three axes. The Apollo vehicle has two attitudes at which it is aerodynamically stable. One of these aerodynamic trim points is with the apex (small end) of the vehicle pointed in the direction of flight and the other, with the heat shield forward. The apex-forward trim attitude is undesirable because of the excessive forces exerted on the occupants and also because of the possibility that deployment of the landing parachute may be hampered. Therefore some method of stabilizing and orienting the vehicle to a heat-shield-forward position is required. The methods used for this maneuver depend on the altitude at which the abort is initiated. Figure 1 shows the flight phases for the three abort regions. The low-altitude abort (launch pad to 25,000 feet), which is completely automatic, uses landing parachutes for stabilization and orientation. The medium-altitude abort (25,000 to 120,000 feet), which is also automatic, retains the launch escape tower on the vehicle and deploys canard surfaces at the upper end of the tower. The canard surfaces use aerodynamic forces to prevent an apex-forward orientation of the vehicle. The high-altitude abort phase (120,000 feet and above) precludes the use of the canard surfaces for orientation because of the low air density at these altitudes. Therefore after the escape rockets have separated the vehicle from the Saturn booster, the crew will manually jettison the escape tow& and orient the vehicle to the desired attitude by using the spacecraft's reaction control system. The time shown in figure 1 represents the approximate total control time available, during which the

spacecraft jets are able t o overcome the aerodynamic forces acting on the vehicle. This control time is a fmction of the altitude and velocity at which the abort was initiated. The spacecraft has an onboard attitude reference system which under normal conditions would give the desired attitude information. However, it is highly probable that during the tumbling phase of flight this reference will be lost. Thus the only reliable attitude reference available to the pilot may be the "but-the-window" visual scene. A simulation study has been completed at Langley t o determine whether a pilot could perform the orientation by using only the external visual scene. The various conditions assumed for the study are as follows: The time-variant aerodynamic parameters for four abort trajectories were programed into the study. The launch vehicles and abort attitudes for the four abort trajectories considered were: Saturn- 120,OOO ft; Saturn IB, 1 0 OOO ft; Saturn V, 150, V, 2, OOO ft; and Saturn IB, 1 0 0 0 ft. Vehicle tumbling rates were assumed to be 100 deg/sec 5,0 about all three spacecraft axes. The onboard attitude reference system was considered to be unreliable and was not used in this study. However, spacecraft rotation-rate information was available both on a cockpit instrument and for use in the control-system feedback of the automatic control. Also the two separate control systems available in the Apollo vehicle were used in the study. In addition, the effects of control system failures on the pilot's ability to perform the manual orientation were investigated. Figure 2 shows the dynamic-pressure (9) time histories of the four trajectories used in the simulation. The approximate control authority lines for both single and dual control systems are shown. "he total control time available for a given trajectory is the time that the trajectory lies below the control authority line. The primary objectives of the study were to determine whether a pilot could perform the orientation task in the time available and to establish a sound operational procedure for doing so. A secondary objective was to determine the effects of control system failure on this task and in the event that the visual scene did not provide sufficient information for the orientation maneuver, to recommend possible pilot aids to remedy the situation.
EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURE

The equipment used in the simulation is shown in figure 3. The study was conducted in a 53-foot-diameter inflated radome. A three-axis attitude system with a projector mounted on the center axis supplied the motion of the visual scene. The projector was a point-source-light type and supplied an unrestricted scene from horizon to horizon. The pilot viewed the projected scene from a fixed-base Apollo mock-up. The proper window configuration and pilot eye location of the actual Apollo vehicle were duplicated. The pilot controlled the motions of the attitude-drive system with a three-axis side-arm controller

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through an analog computer. The computer program and the gimbal system allowed complete r o t a t i o n s about a11 t h r e e axes.. "he only instrument d i s p l a y used i n t h e study was a three-axis body rate indicator located on the instrument panel of the mock-up. The program was e s s e n t i a l l y a three-degrees-of-freedom r o t a t i o n problem, but the e f f e c t s of t h e nonlinear aerodynamic parameters of t h e four t r a j e c t o r i e s were programed i n t h e computer as a function of time from abort i n i t i a t i o n . ALSO programed as a function of time were tiie vehicle aititii& velecity vhizh determined t h e rate of motion of t h e vehicle above t h e earth. This ground speed w a s displayed t o t h e p i l o t by driving the scene transparency with respect t o t h e point-source light. The o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e p i l o t w i t h respect t o t h e e a r t h i s shown i n f i g u r e 4. The launch i s f r o m Cape Kennedy with an abort occurring a t some a l t i t u d e above 120,000 f e e t . The p i l o t manually j e t t i s o n s t h e escape tower and the spacecraft e n t e r s a tumbling f l i g h t phase. The r a t e feedback from t h e onboard rate gyros w i l l s t o p t h e tumbling i f t h e system i s operating properly. If a f a i l u r e has occurred i n t h e automatic control system, t h e p i l o t must damp t h e r a t e s manually. When t h e tumbling has been arrested, t h e p i l o t maneuvers t h e vehicle t o t h e proper heading direction. The vehicle heat s h i e l d i s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t with the p i l o t looking back toward the launch s i t e . The proper r o l l a t t i t u d e of t h e vehicle is with the p i l o t upside down, h i s head toward t h e earth. Two good yaw o r heading references, Cape Kennedy and Tampa Bay, a r e shown. The p i l o t then pitches t h e vehicle so t h a t t h e western horizon i s a t t h e t o p of t h e window with t h e e a r t h above t h e horizon and t h e sky below. The procedure i s as follows:
(1)Check rate needles and n u l l any e x i s t i n g r a t e i n roll o r yaw ( 2 ) If p i t c h r a t e e x i s t s , allow it to continue u n t i l e a r t h scene appears i n window

( 3 ) If no p i t c h rate e x i s t s , p i t c h vehicle u n t i l e a r t h scene appears

(4) Maneuver vehicle u n t i l proper heading is established

(5') P i t c h vehicle u n t i l horizon i s a t t h e t o p of t h e window with t h e e a r t h

above and sky below

(6) Hold t h i s position u n t i l aerodynamic capture when horizon i s forced

out of f i e l d of view a t top of window.

Two projection transparencies were used i n t h e study, a c l e a r view of Florida and a +percent cloud-cover scene with no recognizable landmarks. An a r t i s t ' s conception of t h e c l e a r view of Florida i s shown i n f i g u r e 5. -Prominent landmarks which were used as references a r e Cape Kennedy, Tampa Bay area) Lake Okeechobee, Florida peninsula, and the Florida Keys. This photo w a s made of the a c t u a l f l a t transparency but when projected with the point-light source, it gave a f u l l horizon t o horizon scene. The p i l o t saw only a small portion of t h i s scene a t any one t i m e owing t o the window f i e l d of view.

rc

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The simulated a l t i t u d e f o r t h e v i s u a l display w a s 167,000 f e e t . The p i l o t view through t h e left-hand docking window i s shown i n f i g u r e s 6 t o 9. In f i g ure 6 t h e p i l o t has established t h e proper heading d i r e c t i o n by positioning t h e spacecraft so t h a t the Cape Kennedy area i s viewed through t h e window. The p i l o t would then p i t c h the vehicle down so t h a t t h e Cape moves toward t h e t o p of t h e window and out of view. As t h e p i l o t continued t o p i t c h t h e vehicle, the Tampa Bay area and t h e western horizon would come i n t o view ( f i g . 7). The p i l o t would continue t o p i t c h t h e vehicle down u n t i l t h e western horizon w a s a t the t o p of the window. When aerodynamic capture occurs t h e horizon would be forced up out of the window and t h e p i l o t would see the view i n f i g u r e 8. This view could a l s o be the View when t h e vehicle was captured i n t h e apex-forward posit i o n . Therefore t h e p i l o t must o r i e n t t h e vehicle t o t h e proper heading before capture occurs since t h e r e w i l l be no v i s u a l reference after capture. The view shown i n f i g u r e 9 i s a broken cloud-cover scene. This scene would be the p i l o t ' s view when t h e 90-percent cloud-cover transparency w a s used. To o r i e n t the vehicle by using t h i s scene, the p i l o t performed a ground-tracking t a s k t o determine h i s d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t . The ground tracking was performed by t h e p i l o t ' s pointing t h e nose of t h e vehicle toward t h e e a r t h and maneuvering t h e spacecraft u n t i l the motion of t h e scene i n t h e window w a s from top t o bottom. H e would then p i t c h t h e vehicle down u n t i l the horizon w a s a t t h e t o p of h i s window and again w a i t f o r aerodynamic capture. Because t h e time a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s maneuver w a s limited and because ground tracking might be impossible (completely overcast scene o r a night launch), an a r t i f i c i a l yaw o r heading reference was investigated. The reference used w a s a sodium o r trimethyl aluminum vapor t r a i l which could be ejected f r o m t h e payload of a Nike-Apache rocket launched j u s t p r i o r t o t h e Saturn launch. This o r i e n t a t i o n a i d w a s s i m ulated by projecting a 10 wide by go long orange t r a i l which s t a r t e d above Cape Kennedy and extended over t h e western horizon. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Over 1000 p i l o t e d simulation runs were performed by using t h e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t external scenes w i t h both single- and dual-reaction-control systems. Test p i l o t s from Langley Research Center, Manned Spacecraft Center, and North American Aviation as w e l l a s astronauts were used as t e s t subjects i n t h e study. Typical r e s u l t s of a set of t h e d a t a m s are shown i n f i g u r e 10. The d a t a show t h e percent of successful runs (runs i n which the aerodynamic capture w a s with the vehicle i n a heat-shield-forward a t t i t u d e ) f o r t h e t h r e e scenes f o r both single- and dual-reaction-control systems (RCS). The d a t a are f o r aborts from t h e Saturn IB vehicle a t a 120,000-foot a l t i t u d e . !he d a t a are f o r runs with no failures i n t h e spacecraft control system. Failures i n t h e control system were investigated for a l l conditions but are not shown i n t h i s paper. The d a t a point out t h a t there i s very l i t t l e difference between using t h e c l e a r scene o r t h e vapor t r a i l a s a yaw reference, 97 t o 98 percent of t h e runs being successful. The velocity ground-tracking or cloud-tracking technique w a s only 70 t o 80 percent successful. This r e s u l t i s mainly due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s insuff i c i e n t time t o o r i e n t t h e vehicle accurately. If i n l i n i n g up t h e motion of

128

Ithe t r a c k i n t h e window, an e r r o r of 30 o r more e x i s t s , a capture i n t h e apexforward a t t i t u d e could occur. This amount o f e r r o r d i d e x i s t about 25 t o 30 percent of t h e time. The d a t a presented a r e representative of t h e many cases which were s t u d i e d i n t h e simulation.

The r e s u l t s of t h e study i n d i c a t e that i f a heading reference, e i t h e r landmarks o r vapor t r a i l , i s available, manual o r i e n t a t i o n i s possible f o r a l l a b o r t s above 120,000 f e e t except f o r t h e Saturn V 320,000-foot abort when only single-control system i s functioning. This Saturn V 120,000-foot-abort case allows only 18 seconds of c o n t r o l time with very l i t t l e c o n t r o l power; therefore, a s u c e s s f u l o r i e n t a t i o n search is improbable. Malfunctions i n t h e c o n t r o l system cause approximately a 10-percent decrease i n t h e successful runs f o r 120,000-foot aborts. Orientation using ground t r a c k i n g i s possible but i s not o p e r a t i o n a l l y sound f o r t h e I20,OOO-foot a b o r t s because of t h e possible e r r o r i n l i n i n g up t h e t r a c k . This e r m r i s cailsed by t h e necessary haste i n xhich t h e maneuver must be perormed. Therefore f o r a l l cloud-cover conditions, an a r t i f i c i a l yaw reference uch as t h e vapor t r a i l should be used.

FLIGHT PHASES FOR APOLLO HIGH-ALTITUDE ABORT

ALTITUDE, FT TUMBLING FLIGHT

1 00
BO -

1
1

i1

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120,000

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60-

LB/FT~ STABILIZATION 40

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DUAL RCS AUTHORITY PlllTHORlTY

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Figure 1

Figure 2

APOLLO ABORT SIMULATOR

PILOT ORIENTATION DURING APOLLO LAUNCH ABORT

TUMBLING

FLIGHT TOWER JETTISON

Figure 3

Figure 4

Figure 5

1-2469-8

Figure 6

Figure 7

L-2469-10

Figure 8

SUCCESSFUL RUNS FOR

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L- 2469- 12

15. PRELIMINARY TESTS WITH THE ~ G L E Y

LUNAR LANDING RESEARCH FACILITY

By Donald E. Hewes
SUMMARY

Preliminary t e s t s performed with the Langley lunar landing research f a c i l i t y i n d i c a t e t h a t a s a t i s f a c t o r y degree o f lunar f l i g h t and landing simulation has been achieved. It i s concluded on the basis of these i n i t i a l t e s t r e s u l t s t h a t f u t u r e t e s t s using the Langley f a c i l i t y , which provides a c t u a l f l i g h t experience w i t h a r e a l i s t i c vehicle, w i l l a i d i n defining handling-quality c r i t e r i a f o r t h e lunar excursion module.
INTRODUCTION

Successful performance of t h e final-touchdown landing phase of the lunar excursion nodule (M) depends t o a great extent on provision of s a t i s f a c t o r y handling q u a l i t i e s f o r t h e vehicle. Because of t h e present-day limited experience with manned spacecraft, t h e b a s i s for e s t a b l i s h i n g s a t i s f a c t o r y handlingJ4 q u a l i t y c r i t e r i a for t h e L 3 i s limited t o p a s t experience with earthbound airc r a f t and current e f f o r t s with a number of fixed- and moving-base simulators u t i l i z i n g computers, simulated cabins, and o p t i c a l l y generated v i s u a l r e f e r ences. Recently two new types of simulators, providing a c t u a l f l i g h t experience with operational vehicles, have become a v a i l a b l e t o assist i n verifying and r e f i n i n g t h e current estimated spacecraft c r i t e r i a . One of these simulators i s t h e lunar landing research vehicle (LLRV) based a t NASA F l i g h t Research Center and the other i s t h e Langley lunar landing r e s e q c h f a c i l i t y (LLEU?), which i s t h e subject of t h i s paper. Operational f l i g h t envelopes f o r these two research t o o l s a r e determined by features unique t o each design but a r e complementary t o each other and overlap so a s t o provide means f o r c o r r e l a t i n g a c t u a l f l i g h t t e s t experience.

SYMBOLS
KlJ2
S
X,Y,

rate and r a t e - i n t e g r a l feedback gains, respectively

d i f f e r e n t i a l ' operator

down-range, cross-range, and v e r t i c a l distances, respectively, f t v e r t i c a l velocity, f t / s e c v e r t i c a l acceleration, f t / sec2

i
i '

angle of pitch, deg angular velocity i n pitch, deg/sec

.. e

angular acceleration i n pitch, deg/sec2

angular velocity i n r o l l , deg/sec

b
ia
\t
'c1

angular acceleration i n roll, deg/sec2

$ ,

angular velocity i n yaw, deg/sec

;r;
max

angular acceleration i n yaw, deg/sec2

Subscript : maximum DESCRIPTION O FACILITY F Photographs of t h e Langley lunar landing research f a c i l i t y (LLRF') are shown i n figures 1 and 2. Simulation of lunar gravity i s achieved i n t h i s f a c i l i t y by employing an overhead partial-suspension system, which provides a l i f t i n g force by means of cables acting through the center of gravity of t h e LLBF vehicle so a s t o cancel e f f e c t i v e l y a l l but 1/6 of t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l force of t h e e a r t h . The l i f t i n g f o r c e and v e r t i c a l alinement of t h e cables a r e cont r o l l e d automatically through t h e action of servo-controlled hydraulic drive systems which power the overhead t r a v e l i n g bridge crane and d o l l y u n i t mounted on t h e l a r g e gantry structure. The bridge follows down-range motion of t h e vehicle; the underslung d o l l y follows cross-range motion. The cables are attached t o t h e vehicle by means of a gimbal system which provides freedom of motion i n pitch, roll, and yaw. This system c o n s i s t s of a swiveled-truss assembly d i r e c t l y over the cab and two v e r t i c a l s t r u t s attached t o t h e vehicle on i t s p i t c h axis. Load c e l l s a r e c a r r i e d i n t h e v e r t i c a l s t r u t s t o sense cable force f o r t h e l i f t servosystem, and cable angle sensors a r e mounted on the bottom of the d o l l y t o provide e r r o r feedback s i g n a l s f o r t h e bridge and dolly servo-controlled d r i v e systems. Automatic braking equipment b u i l t i n t o the servo drive u n i t s provides an e x t r a s a f e t y f e a t u r e unique t o t h i s particular f a c i l i t y .

The current f l i g h t envelope i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n , f i g u r e 3 . The vehicle can be flown anywhere within a corridor $0 feet i n t h e down-range x-direction, 42 f e e t crosswise i n t h e y-direction, and 180 f e e t v e r t i c a l l y i n t h e z-direction. For t h e i n i t i a l t e s t program, t h e servo d r i v e systems can follow t h e vehicle a t v e l o c i t i e s up t o about 23 f e e t p e r second i n t h e x-direction, 8 f e e t per second i n t h e y-direction, and 15 f e e t per second i n t h e z-direction.

a The vehicle, shown i n f i g u r e 4, w s constructed with many pieces of offT the-shelf equipment, such as a helicopter cabin and h e l i c o p t e r landing-gear

134

shock s t r u t s , so as t o f a c i l i t a t e design, construction, and maintenance of t h e vehicle. Xitrogen gas i s used f o r pressurizing t h e f u e l system which supplies 90 percent hydrogen peroxide t o t h e main l i f t i n g rocket motor assembly and t h e 20 a t t i t u d e rocket motors located around the periphery of t h e vehicle frame. The cab has provisions f o r two t e s t pilots, each with a complete s e t of cont r o l s . A common instrument panel i s mounted between t h e two p i l o t s . Attitude controls a t t h e right-hand seat, sham i n f i g u r e 4 and i n the next two f i g u r e s ( f i g s . 5 and 6), consist of a s e t of standard f o o t pedals f o r yaw c o n t r o l and a 'two-axis side-arm controller, of t h e pencil type, u s d f o r pitch and rsll cor?t r o l . The left-hand s e a t i s provided with a three-axis side-arm c o n t r o l l e r similar t o t h e one intended f o r a c t u a l LdN use. Thrust of t h e main engines i s controlled by e i t h e r p i l o t using t h e c o l l e c t i v e p i t c h l e v e r s with h i s l e f t hand. Figures 7 and 8 show schematically t h e vehicle main t h r u s t and a t t i t u d e control systems. For t h r u s t control, the p i l o t p o s i t i o n s a b a l l valve with h i s t h r o t t l e l e v e r through a servo-controlled boost system employing a nonlinear cam follower which compensates f o r nonlinear t h r u s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s produced by t h e b a l l valve. Overall response i s l i n e a r with a t i m e l a g of 90 milliseconds o r l e s s . Feedback of vehicle dynamics t o t h e p i l o t i s by means of instrument d i s p l a y as w e l l as "out-of -the-window" visual reference and "seat-of -the-pants" motion cues. Various parameters of t h i s system - namely, s t i c k t r a v e l , sensit i v i t y , f r i c t i o n , f o r c e gradient, mechanical and e l e c t r i c a l deadbands, and a r e t h e subject of t h e current research s t u d i e s being thrust-to-weight r a t i o c a r r i e d out with t h i s f a c i l i t y .

The attitude-control-system diagram i s f o r p i t c h c o n t r o l only; the diagrams f o r r o l l and yaw controls are similar. Control i s achieved by use of torques generated by on-off operation of p a i r s of small a t t i t u d e rockets. The cormnand signal f o r these motors i s the sum of the p i l o t ' s command, two possible feedback s i g n a l s derived f r m t h e rate g y r o s of t h e vehicle, and a pulse-width modulation generator (designated as PWM). Adjustment of gains K1 and K2 can be made by the p i l o t during f l i g h t and determines t h e mode of c o n t r o l operation, namely, acceleration, r a t e , o r p o s i t i o n cammand. With K1 and K2 s e t a t zero, the p i l o t ' s c o n t r o l l e r serves t o command the angular acceleration of t h e vehicle i n an open-loop manner. With K1, o r t h e r a t e feedback gain, set at some f i n i t e value, t h e p i l o t commands angular velocity; a l s o damping of angular motion i s introduced. By s e t t i n g K2, o r t h e r a t e - i n t e g r a l feedback gain, a t some f i n i t e value, a form of angular position command i s provided; t h a t i s , steady-state a t t i t u d e of t h e vehicle will be a d i r e c t function of c o n t r o l l e r displacement.

Two modes of on-off rocket operation a r e provided. I n "bang-bang" mode with t h e PWM switch open, t h e rockets are turned on anytime t h e c o m n d s i g n a l e r r o r exceeds the deadband voltage levels, and they remain on u n t i l the e r r o r i s reduced t o a lower value. With t h e PkM switch closed, t h e rockets a r e pulsed on and off a t a d i s c r e t e frequency anytime t h e s i g n a l e r r o r exceeds t h e deadband value. The "on" t i m e f o r a given cycle i s a d i r e c t function of t h e s i g n a l e r r o r i n excess of t h e deadband value so that a small e r r o r results i n only shortduration pulses; whereas a l a r g e e r r o r causes t h e duration of each "on" pulse t o be longer up t o t h e point of continuous "on" t i m e . A l l t h e many parameters r e l a t i v e t o t h i s system a r e a l s o t h e subject of t h e current research program.

A campasison of t h e Langley LUG' vehicle with t h e L 3 i s shown i n f i g u r e 9, E4 which presents sketches of t h e two vehicles t o i l l u s t r a t e geometric similarities and a t a b l e of ty-picai system c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The two vehicles are approximately t h e same s i z e and weight, and control c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e Langley LLRF vehicle can be r e a d i l y adjusted t o match those of t h e LEM vehicle. The most apparent differences i n t h e two vehicles are t h e landing gear and cabin arrangements. Current plans c a l l f o r a modification o f t h e Langley vehicle, a t a l a t e r date as p a r t of t h e research program, t o duplicate pertinent LEM cabin d e t a i l s , --- c ---_ the s t . m d . i ~ r e s t r a i n t system f o r crew members: t h e t r i a n g u l a r windows, i n - l i i d i ng ~ t h e exact c o n t r o l l e r s , and pertinent instrumentation. This a d d i t i o n a l cabin w i l l be interchangeable w i t h t h e current cabin which a l s o w i l l be a l t e r e d t o other possible arrangements so t h a t up-to-date comparative t e s t s can be made t o evaluate optimum design of lunar landing and f l i g h t vehicles.

Factors which are expected t o have a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on t h e p i l o t ' s a b i l i t y t o control a lunar landing vehicle a r e (1)Axes of control:

roll., yaw, pitch, and thrust

(2) Control system gains

(3) Control system deadbands

(4) Type of p i l o t controllers:

( 5 ) Modes of control operation:

t w o - a x i s and three-axis hand units

acceleration, r a t e , and p o s i t i o n on-off and pulse-width modulation

(6) Modes of t h r u s t e r operation: (7) F i e l d of vision

(8) F l i g h t instrumentation (9) P i l o t p o s i t i o n and r e s t r a i n t :
(10) Landing approach t r a j e c t o r i e s :

seated and standing v e l o c i t y and angle

The f i r s t s i x i t e m s are those which have already been discussed r e l a t i v e t o t h e control system. The next t h r e e p e r t a i n t o t h e design c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e cabin housing, and they a f f e c t the feedback of motion and v i s u a l cues t o t h e p i l o t f o r use i n h i s decision-making process f o r controlling t h e vehicle. The f i n a l item e s s e n t i a l l y i d e n t i f i e s t h e i n i t i a l t e s t conditions; namely, t h e f l i g h t - p a t h angle and t h e r e s u l t a n t velocity of t h e L;EM as it approaches t h e surface within t h e a l t i t u d e range covered by t h i s f a c i l i t y . Excessive v e l o c i t y could overtax t h e braking c a p a b i l i t i e s o f t h e vehicle and t h e p i l o t ' s a b i l i t y t o a s s e s s the s i t u a t i o n and control the vehicle accurately. A s t e e p approach ,

angle can r e s t r i c t t h e p i l o t ' s vision of the touchdown point; whereas, too shallow m g l e c a r ye&lt i n t h e vehicle s t r i k i n g obstacles o r t h e vehicle landing with excessive horizontal velocity causing it t o tilt over. The i n i t i a l research program t o assess these various f a c t o r s i s divided , i n t o s e v e r a l phases. Phase 1 which gives Langley t e s t p i l o t s t h e opportunity t o become thoroughly f a n d l i a r with the t e s t operation and a s e r i e s of selected c o n t r o l system parameters, i s currently underway. Phases 2 t o 5 w i l l be used t o make f i n a l evaluation under f u l l y operational conditions of t h e system parameters which were explored i n phase 1. Several t e s t subjects from other NASA Centers, including some of t h e astronauts, w i l l be used i n these study phases so as t o obtain a cross-sectional sampling of subjective evaluation. Phase 6 of t h i s program w i l l consist of using t h e vehicle, modified t o duplic a t e all p e r t i n e n t LEM cabin d e t a i l s , t o evaluate t h e f i n a l s e l e c t i o n of LEM handling-quality c r i t e r i a . There w i l l , of course, b e followup research programs t o explore t h e handllng-quality c r i t e r i a f o r future-generation lunar or other planetary f l i g h t vehicles.

DISCUSSION OF PRTGIMINARY TEST RESULTS

A few comments can be made a t t h i s t i m e r e l a t i v e t o checkout and f l i g h t t e s t s performed so f a r . However, inasmuch as these comments are based on a l i m i t e d number of tests, t h i s information must be t r e a t e d only as preliminary i n nature.
I n t h e way of a general comment concerning handling c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e research vehicle, one of t h e t e s t p i l o t s , who has had much experience with h e l i copter and VTOL research, as well as w i t h many spacecraft simulators, made part i c u l a r note of l a r g e a t t i t u d e a n g l e s required t o produce horizontal t r a n s l a t i o n s and t o correct small d r i f t r a t e s during t h e landing. These l a r g e angles, which exceeded 20, have no correspondence with previous f l i g h t experience f o r near-landing hover conditions and consequently were regarded as q u i t e unusual. Furthermore, a much c l o s e r coordination o f t h r u s t c o n t r o l with a t t i t u d e cont r o l s was required t o prevent l o s s of a l t i t u d e while making t h e l a r g e a t t i t u d e changes. These f l i g h t test observations serve t o s u b s t a n t i a t e some of t h e expected differences between a i r c r a f t and lunar-vehicle handling characterist i c s and a l s o t o v e r i f y t h e need f o r carrying out s t u d i e s u t i l i z i n g t h i s type Of simulation technique which provides actual f l i g h t experience with r e a l i s t i c vehicles. One of t h e noteworthy problems, encountered so far, developed with t h e t h r o t t l e c o n t r o l system during t h e f i r s t two f l i g h t s . This problem served t o pinpoint t h e c r i t i c a l nature of response l a g i n t h e main t h r u s t control system and i t s e f f e c t on t h e I;EM handling q u a l i t i e s during a landing. I n tnese two flights, each with a d i f f e r e n t t e s t p i l o t , a l a g of about 1/2 second occurred, apparently as t h e r e s u l t of a galled condition i n t h e b a l l valve. A s a consequence, t h e p i l o t s were unable t o control e f f e c t i v e l y t h e v e r t i c a l descent of t h e vehicle close t o t h e ground and a limit-cycle v e r t i c a l o s c i l l a t i o n developed. A landing w a s made t h e f i r s t time, however, i n s p i t e of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n ,
. 'a I. e

but touchdown occurred a t a v e l o c i t y g r e a t e r than 5 f e e t p e r second. I n t h e second test, t h e p i l o t w a s unable t o complete t h e landing and t h e f l i g h t w a s h a l t e d by use of t h e s a f e t y abort system. Subsequent tests with a revised actuator and b a l l valve have shown that v e r t i c a l o s c i l l a t i o n s could be avoided and s a t i s f a c t o r y landings performed with v e l o c i t i e s below 2 f e e t p e r second with a t h r o t t l e system l a g of 1/10 second o r l e s s . This result i s i n agreement with t h e r e s u l t s of a simulation study of WOL height-control requirements (ref. l , as shown i n f i g u r e 10, which i s a ) p l o t showing p i l o t r a t i n g s assigned t o each t e s t condition i n which t h e t i m e l a g w s varied. The data from reference 1 a r e f o r a condition of zero damping a i n v e r t i c a l l n o t i o n and approximate t h a t of t h e LLRF t e s t s shown. The indicat i o n s are, therefore, t h a t main-engine thrust-response time t o p i l o t cammands during lunar landings i s a very s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r i n providing s a t i s f a c t o r y handling q u a l i t i e s . Several combinations of a t t i t u d e system parameters have been explored; t h e 1 r e l a t i o n of these parameters t o L;EM design values i s depicted i n f i g u r e 1 , which shows t h e combination of maximum c o n t r o l power o r angular acceleration and maximum rate command produced by f u l l - s t i c k t r a v e l for a l l t h r e e control axes. Some points are shown f o r t h e Edwards L;L;Rv, which has a l s o undergone a number of preliminary evaluations. All the t e s t combinations shown a r e f o r t h e bang-bang mode of a t t i t u d e motor operation. I n general, the t e n t a t i v e p i l o t r a t i n g s assigned t o these combinations i n d i c a t e that t h e r e i s a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e range o f values which can produce acceptable handling q u a l i t i e s . L U Z tests, t h e p i l o t s have indicated a preference f o r t h e h i & e r values of r a t command and intermediate values of control power. Although acceptable pIn the ilot r a t i n g s were assigned t o most of these conditions, an objection w a s expressed concerning roughness and nonlinear response of t h e bang-bang system. It should be noted t h a t d i r e c t comparisons me not being made as y e t because of need f o r more data points t o show t h e e f f e c t s of o t h e r system parameters, such as dead bands and type of f l i g h t t a s k which so f a r have been d i f f e r e n t i n p r a c t i c a l l y every case. Motion p i c t u r e s of one of t h e i n i t i a l f l i g h t t e s t s c a r r i e d out i n the Langley f a c i l i t y showed a successful take-off, t r a n s l a t i o n , and landing i n which an acceptable combination of these system parameters w a s used.
CONCLUDING REMARKS

.-

Prelimlnary t e s t s performed with t h e Langley lunar landing research f a c i l i t y indicate that a s a t i s f a c t o r y degree of lunar f l i g h t and landing simul a t i o n has been achieved. It i s concluded on t h e b a s i s of these i n i t i a l t e s t results t h a t f u t u r e tests using t h e Langley f a c i l i t y , which provides a c t u a l f l i g h t experience with a r e a l i s t i c vehicle, w i l l a i d i n defining handlingq u a l i t y c r i t e r i a f o r t h e lunar excursion module.

1 Garren, John F., Jr.; and Assadourian, Arthur: VTOL Height-Control Require. a e n t s i n Hovering as Determined FrmMotion Simulator Study. NASA TN D-14-88, 1962.

LANGLEY LUNAR LANDING RESEARCH FACILITY

LLRF SUSPENSION SYSTEM

Figure 1.

t-2471-2

Figure 2

L-2471-4

LLRF FLIGHT ENVELOPE

L-2471-3
Figure 3 Figure 4

140

--

I.-2471-5
Figure 5

Figure 6

L-2471-6

iLRF VEHICLE CONTROLSYSTEM

LLRF VEHICLE THROTTLE SYSTEM

Figure 7

Figure 8

COMPARtSON OF LEM AND LLRF VEHICLE

figure 9

VARfATIO

BiUN
ONTROL TEST

PILOT RATlhG eF HOVERING 5 CONTROLLABIL IN

I
1 a

10

12

FIRST-ORDER TIME DELAY. SEC

Figure 10

figure 11

16. STATUS O F APOI;lro-SATURN V DYNAMIC-MODEIS PROGRAM

By S u e r A. Leadbetter
I

1SUMMARY
The s t a t u s of t n e Apoiio-Saturn 'i dynamic-models prugram mid some tyqjical i t e s t r e s u l t s and thoughts on f u t u r e work with t h e scaled models are presented. Some construction d e t a i l s and associated components of 1/40-scale and l / l 0 - s c a l e dynamic models a r e given. The t e s t program i s proceeding s a t i s f a c t o r i l y , t h e i n i t i a l r e s u l t s contributing t o t h e evaluation of analyses.
INTRODUCTION

N w and complex s t r u c t u r a l dynamic problems are being revealed with t h e e advent of t h e highly r e f i n e d space-flight vehicles of present and f u t u r e design. The s t r u c t u r a l dynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e f l i g h t configuration must be accur a t e l y known t o i n s u r e control-system s t a b i l i t y and t o p r e d i c t any e f f e c t s of unsteady o r t r a n s i e n t loads which may be imposed on t h e f l i g h t s t r u c t u r e from t h e t i m e of assembly a t t h e launch s i t e u n t i l t h e vehicle has t r a v e r s e d t h e e n t i r e f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y . Analytical studies are not always r e l i a b l e f o r complex configurations because of t h e l a c k of proper d e f i n i t i o n of associated parameters and boundary r e s t r a i n t . The use of properly scaled models t o obtain experimental data enables an evaluation of t h e a n a l y s i s and furnishes t h e designers with valuable information during t h e development cycle of t h e program. P a s t experience has shown that models provide a means 'of obtaining required experimental data with less expenditure of time, cost, and manpower than would be necessary with f u l l - s c a l e t e s t i n g . The Langley Research Center, with t h e cooperation of t h e Marshall Space F l i g h t Center, i s undertaking an experimental and t h e o r e t i c a l program t o study t h e s t r u c t u r a l dynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e Apollo-Saturn V launch vehicle through the use of dynamic models. The purpose of t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n i s t o discuss t h e s t a t u s of t h e model program, t o include some t y p i c a l t e s t results, and t o indicate some thoughts on f u t u r e model work.
DISCUSSION

Model Program Many f a c t o r s had t o be considered i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e c u r r e n t Saturn V dynamic-model program. The Saturn I dynamic model, sho-m i n figure 1, w a s valuable i n determining t h e l a t e r a l and t o r s i o n a l dynamic-response c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Results of model ground v i b r a t i o n surveys a r e Of a complicated launch vehicle. presented i n references 1 t o 4. This l/?-scale r e p l i c a model of t h e f i r s t I s a t u r n v e h i c l e w a s constructed as an a i d i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of obtaining required experimental v i b r a t i o n d a t a with t h e use of dynamic models. Comparisons between t h e model data and the f u l l - s c a l e data have demonstrated

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t h a t useful information could be obtained from properly scaled models. The success of the Saturn I model program has l e d t o the current dynamic-model program t o study the Saturn V vehicle. With due consideration of p a s t s t u d i e s and f u t u r e needs, t h e following program objectives served a s guidelines i n developing t h e necessary models and t e s t s . The study w i l l serve t o advance t h e technology of dynamic modeling, w i l l provide s t r u c t u r a l dynamic data t o evaluate and improve analyses, and w i l l providh,$reliminary and t r e n d data p r i o r t o t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of t e s t r e s u l t s from t h e f h l - s c a l e dynamic t e s t vehicle. I n addition, t h e program w i l l provide model data f o r comparison with data from t h e f u l l - s c a l e vehic l e obtained during s t u d i e s of a dynamic t e s t vehicle that w i l l be conducted a t t h e Marshall Space F l i g h t Center and with a c t u a l f l i g h t data. Model t r a n s f e r functions and parameter e f f e c t s w i l l be studied. The parameter s t u d i e s will include such items a s configuration changes by i n s t a l l i n g i n t e r s t a g e sections f a b r i c a t e d with d i f f e r e n t construction methods. I n order t o s a t i s Q t h e program objectives, a broad and comprehensive Saturn V dynamic-models program having the wide range of model s i z e and assoc i a t e d t e s t equipment indicated i n f i g u r e 2 w a s developed. The l / l 0 - s c a l e model i s e s s e n t i a l l y a reduced-size r e p l i c a of t h e Apollo-Saturn V launch vehicle. Associated hardware o r components f o r t h e l a r g e model include honeycomb and monocoque i n t e r s t a g e s a t t h e S-II/S-TvB and S-lC/S-II interfaces; a simulated Lox suction duct, t o be i n s t a l l e d within one of t h e f i v e Lox suction duct tunnels i n t h e f i r s t - s t a g e f u e l tank f o r studies of longitudinal response characteri s t i c s ; and spring r e s t r a i n t s t h a t simulate t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e hold-down struct u r e that exists a t t h e launch s i t e . A l/lO-scale model, not shown, that simul a t e s t h e s t r u c t u r a l dynamic properties of a m u l t i - c e l l f i r s t - s t a g e concept i s a l s o available f o r t e s t i n g . The l/)+O-scale model simulates t h e s t r u c t u r a l dynamic properties of t h e prototype. Associated 1/40-scale model hardware available for the t e s t program includes a scaled model of the launch umbilical tower f o r studies of coupling between vehicle and tower, a mechanical model of the mathematical fuel-slosh analogy, and springs that simulate t h e r i g i d i t y of t h e hold-down s t r u c t u r e a t t h e launch s i t e . The overall program, including both t h e Langley Research Center and the Marshall Space Flight Center e f f o r t s , includes results from t e s t s of t h e 1/40scale and l/l0-scale models, t h e full-scale dynamic t e s t vehicle, and t h e f u l l s c a l e f l i g h t vehicle f o r comparison with results of companion analyses. Assoc i a t e d hardware extends t h e model s t u d i e s t o t e s t s that include parameter e f f e c t s .
A closer look a t t h e a c t u a l models i s appropriate. A photograph of t h e 9 - f o o t - t a l l 1/40-scale model assembled on t h e simulated model of t h e launch umbilical tower i s shown i n figure 3 . This model of t h e Saturn V i s e s s e n t i a l l y a machined tube, with magnesium as t h e prime material, having simulated j o i n t s a t t h e proper longitudinal locations. Fuel and h x propellants f o r t h e l a t e r a l t e s t s a r e represented by a l l o y s having low melting p o i n t s and with t h e proper mass and centers of gravity. Weights i n t h e various tankage areas can be a l t e r e d by removing predetermined sections of simulated f u e l o r by heating t h e a l l o y and removing t h e correct amount of weight t o achieve a d e f i n i t e f l i g h t time representation. The simulated launch umbilical tower has scaled mass, s t i f f n e s s , and i n e r t i a properties. The rods supporting t h e combined models a r e designed t o represent t h e r i g i d i t y , i n both longitudinal and l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n s , of t h e support posts a t t h e launch s i t e s . Fuel-slosh simulators, consisting of

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spring-mass assemblies, can be located a t various p o s i t i o n s i n t h e model f i r s t s t a g e and t h e spring constants o r mass can be v a r i e d t o study coupling between s l o s h and vehicle bending during s i m u l a t e d f l i g h t conditions. I n addition, springs have been constructed t o simulate t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l spring r e s t r a i n t of t h e t r a n s p o r t vehicle. Figure 4 i s a photograph of t h e l/l0-scale model supported i n a two-cable suspension system designed t o simulate free-free f l i g h t conditions. (See refi :=) This $-font-t.sll model is essentiRll_yV a r q l i c a of t h e f u l l - s c a l e f l i g h t v e h i c l e from t h e f i r s t - s t a g e t h r u s t s t r u c t u r e through t h e lunar excursion module (LEM) adapter section. Examples of duplicated s t r u c t u r e t h a t should be pointed out include t h e skin-stringer i n t h e t h r u s t s t r u c t u r e , s k i r t , and i n t e r s t a g e regions, t h e i n t e g r a l l y milled i n t e r n a l s t r i n g e r s of t h e pressurized propellant-tank w a l l sections, t h e corrugated f i r s t - s t a g e i n t e r t a n k section, t h e E4 honeycomb s t r u c t u r e of the instrument u n i t and L 2 adapter, and t h e gimbaled engines on t h e booster stages. The lunar excursion module, s e r v i c e module, command module, and t h e launch escape system a r e scaled t o simulate f u l l - s c a l e p r o p e r t i e s . Water i s used t o simulate f u e l and Lox, and small p l a s t i c b a l l s are used t o represent t h e weight of t h e hydrogen fuel. Some of t h e complex d e t a i l s b u i l t i n t o t h e model can be seen i n f i g u r e 5. This i s an i n t e r i o r view of t h e l / l 0 - s c a l e model f i r s t - s t a g e f u e l tank p r i o r t o completion. Three of t h e f i v e h x suction duct tunnels have been i n s t a l l e d . The tunnels are 2.5 inches i n diameter and have a w a l l thickness of 0.024 inch. Ring s t i f f e n e r s a r e i n t e g r a l l y machined on t h e o u t e r d i m e t e r . The f u e l - s l o s h baffles and t h e i n t e g r a l l y m i l l e d T - s t i f f e n e r s can be seen. The s l o s h b a f f l e s are f a b r i c a t e d of 0.004-inch aluminum and have a 4-inch chord. S t a t u s of Model Program
Of i n t e r e s t a t t h i s t i m e i s t h e present s t a t u s of t h e Saturn V dynamicmodels program. The t e s t program f o r b o t h models i s now underway and the status of each i s i n d i c a t e d i n f i g u r e 6. The model i s i n d i c a t e d i n t h e f i r s t column. The $est a p p l i e s t o t h e boundary r e s t r a i n t and t h e type of measurement o r direct i o n of motion involved. Free l a t e r a l means t h a t t h e model i s suspended t o simulate f l i g h t conditions and t h e measurements are being made i n t h e lateral, t h a t i s , e i t h e r p i t c h o r yaw, d i r e c t i o n . Free l o n g i t u d i n a l i n d i c a t e s simulated f l i g h t conditions and that l o n g i t u d i n a l responses a r e being studied. Fixed l o n g i t u d i n a l means t h a t t h e model i s r e s t r a i n e d i n a manner t h a t simulated holddown conditions and that t h e longitudinal response i s being determined, and fixed l a t e r a l means t h e same hold-down r e s t r a i n t , t h e l a t e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s being measured. The parameter s t u d i e s include t h e a l t e r n a t e i n t e r s t a g e s i n t h e t e s t program as w e l l as possible s t u d i e s where v a r i a t i o n of j o i n t r e s t r a i n t can be made. The launch umbilical tower and slosh associated with t h e 1/40-scale model involve measurement of coupling between model and tower and e f f e c t s of v a r i a t i o n of fuel-slosh frequency on body bending. As i s indicated i n figure 6 , free-lateral tests on both models, some longitudinal tests on t h e l / l 0 - s c a l e model, and some t e s t s with t h e launch umbilical tower ( W T ) on t h e l/kO-scale model have been conducted. Results f r o m t h e s e t e s t s w i l l be compared with results from similar tests on t h e dynamic t e s t v e h i c l e being conducted a t t h e

+-

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Marshall Space Flight Center. The staged f u l l - s c a l e dynamic t e s t vehicle, representing f l i g h t with the S-IVB and payload, w i l l be t e s t e d i n l a t e summer and t e s t s of t h e complete vehicle w i l l s t a r t i n e a r l y 1966. Typical Model Data Some t y p i c a l r e s u l t s from l a t e r a l t e s t s on t h e 1/40- and t h e l / l 0 - s c a l e models a r e presented. A p l o t of measured and calculated frequency v a r i a t i o n with percentage of propellant i n t h e f i r s t stage i s shown i n f i g u r e 7. The p o s t - t e s t a n a l y t i c a l results using the Myklestad-Holzer method a r e based on l / l 0 - s c a l e model parameters; t h a t i s , they were taken from t h e l / l 0 - s c a l e model drawings and mass measurements. The a n a l y s i s included shear and modified r o t a r y i n e r t i a e f f e c t s but did not consider f u e l slosh. "he spacecraft stage percentage f u l l defines the mount of propellant remaining i n t h e S-1C stage tanks and thus lifto f f i s represented a t t h e 1 0 percent l e v e l and f i r s t - s t a g e burnout i s a t 0 per0 cent level. The open symbols represent the results from the simulated o r 1/40-scale model and t h e s o l i d symbols represent t h e r e s u l t s from t h e r e p l i c a o r l/l0-scale model. It can be seen t h a t i n a l l modes t h e magnitude of r e s u l t s from t h e l/lO-scale model i s l e s s than those from t h e 1/40-scale model. The results of t h e analysis indicate b e t t e r agreement a t t h e lower frequencies. The f o u r t h mode a t f i r s t - s t a g e burnout has not been i d e n t i f i e d from t h e recorded information. However, it i s f e l t t h a t the mode has coupled with engine response and w i l l be i d e n t i f i e d with f u r t h e r data reduction. It should be pointed out t h a t t h e pret e s t analysis indicated l e s s agreement with experimental r e s u l t s than i s shown i n f i g u r e 7. However, t h e improvement i n comparative r e s u l t s w a s not aided by changes i n a n a l y t i c a l methods but was a r e s u l t of a b e t t e r mathematical-repres e n t a t ion of the model. I n general, these data were clean and were not badly d i s t o r t e d by close proximity t o a component o r l o c a l panel response. This information on t e s t r e s u l t s i s only a saurple of t h e data measured on t h e models. Another example of model data ( f i g . 8) i s shown f o r the 50-percent-full condition and f i r s t four mode shapes. The normalized deflection i s shown p l o t t e d against t h e normalized vehicle length f o r t h e f i r s t four bending modes ( f i g . 8); h/%, i s t h e deflection a t a point divided by t h e deflection a t t h e t i p of t h e model. The c i r c l e s represent t h e r e s u l t s from tests of t h e l / b - s c a l e model and t h e squares represent t h e r e s u l t s of t e s t s on t h e l/l0-scale model. Again t h e analysis i s based on t h e l/l0-scale model s t r u c t u r a l dynamic p r o p e r t i e s and results of p o s t - t e s t calculations. The agreement between t h e r e s u l t s from t h e two models and t h e calculated values i s considered t o be good. Again, a t these frequencies, model components, such a s engines, were not adversely a f f e c t i n g mode shapes. Other t e s t s , with t h e staged model where t h e S-1C or t h e S-1C and S-I1 stages were removed, have had bending modes a t higher frequencies and have shown strong coupling with body response, engines, o r panel modes. For example, when t h e model w a s staged by removing t h e S-1C and t h e launch escape system t o simulate f l i g h t during second-stage burning, t h e f i r s t mode was clean and well defined, but the second mode coupled with second-stage engine response and t h e t h i r d mode. coupled with a l o c a l ring-panel response of t h e S-I1 hydrogen tank.

16 4

Future Studies Both t h e /lO-scale and t h e 1/40-scale models a r e considered t o be excellent models f o r t h e purpose f o r which they were constructed and w i l l amply serve t o meet t h e objec i v e s of t h e current program. But what of t h e f u t u r e and, i n part i c u l a r , of what value w i l l these models be f o r other programs? A s an example E of a possible use of t h e l a r g e r model, the current model simulates t h e L M as E indicated i n f i g u r e 9. The instrument unit and L M adapter duplicate f u l l s c a l e construction and a r e f a b r i c a t e d of aluminum honeycomb with a minimum skin thickness of 0.0017 inch. The LEM, however, only represents t h e mass, center of gravity, and i n e r t i a of t h e prototype. The attachment of t h e LEM t o t h e r i n g frame i n t h e LEM adapter, although not duplicating t h e f u l l - s c a l e s t r u c t u r e , i s designed t o have t h e proper s t i f f n e s s . A r e p l i c a model based on t h e l a t e s t LEN design could be constructed t o obtain a b e t t e r representation of i t s s t r u c t u r a l dynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and i t s response i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e launch vehicle. Although t h e presentation thus f a r has considered primarily body-response chara c t e r i s t i c s o r mainly low-frequency response, t h e l a r g e r model can be used i n a higher frequency range with i t s d e t a i l replica features. Examples of other p o t e n t i a l model uses that can be undertaken can include, but w i l l not be limited t o , t h e s t u d i e s indicated i n f i g u r e 10. Although f i g u r e 10 i n d i c a t e s use of t h e l a r g e r model, t h e 1/40-scale model can be equally valuable i n some areas. A r e p l i c a Apollo spacecraft can be fabricated f o r s t u d i e s where t h e r e could be l o c a l responses t h a t would couple with some v i b r a t o r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of higher frequency. For example, the Manned Spacecraft Center i s building a l / l 0 - s c a l e r e p l i c a model of t h e service module t h a t can be mated t o t h e LEM adapter f o r ground v i b r a t i o n t e s t i n g . Other s t r u c t u r e s t h a t would be used on t h e Saturn V vehicle, such a s a possible space s t a t i o n , could be designed and investigated with t h e e x i s t i n g models. I n l i n e with other spacecraft, model strap-on s o l i d boosters could be scaled properly and studied. Other upper-stage configurations could be f a b r i c a t e d and t e s t e d by t h e use of scaled models designed t o match t h e e x i s t i n g hardware. Both t h e 1/10- and the 1/40-scale models would be p r a c t i c a l f o r these and other p o t e n t i a l programs and should be considered.

CONCLUDING REMARKS
Models have been u s e f u l instruments i n t h e study and solution of engineering problems f o r many years. Advancements i n f a b r i c a t i o n procedures, instrumentat i o n , and t h e technology of dynamic modeling have added t o t h e v e r s a t i l i t y and value of models t o t h e designers of present-day launch vehicles. The Langley Research Center has a broad and comprehensive Apollo-Saturn V dynamic-models program underway that i s yielding i n t e r e s t i n g i n f o g a t i o n t o be analyzed and w i l l a i d t h e work being conducted on t h e f u l l - s c a l e vehicle. A l l experimental and a n a l y t i c a l studies a r e proceeding and a r e contributing t o our understanding of t h e s t r u c t u r a l dynamic properties of complex s t r u c t u r e s . I n addition, t h e e x i s t i n g model hardware can go well beyond t h e current Apollo program and can be used t o study vibratory c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of other configurations.

1 Mixson, John S.; Catherine, John J.; and Arman, A l i : I n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e . Lateral Vibration C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a 1/5-Scale Model of Saturn SA-1. NASA TN D-1593, 1963. 2. Mixson, John S.; and Catherine, John J.: Experimental L a t e r a l Vibration Characteristics of a l/?-Scale Model of Saturn SA-1 With an Eight-Cable Suspension System. NASA TN D-2214,1964.

3. Mixson, John S.; and Catherine, John J.:

Comparison of Experimental Vibrat i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Obtained From a 1/5-Scale Model and From a Full-Scale Saturn SA-1. NASA TN D-2215, 1964.

4. Catherine, John

J.: Torsional Vibration C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a l/5-Scale Model of Saturn SA-1. N S TN D-2745, 1965. AA

5. Herr, Robert W.; and Carden, Huey D.: Support Systems and Excitation Techniques f o r Dynamic Models of Space Vehicle Structures. Proceedings of Symposium on Aeroelastic & Dynamic Modeling Technology, RTD-TDR-63-4197, P t . I, Aerospace Ind. ASSOC., Mar. 1964, pp. 249-277.

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APOLLO-SATURN P DYNAMIC MODELS

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LATERAL BENDING FREQUENCIES

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N F , 17. COMPARISON OF FULL-SCALE A D MODEL BUFFET RESPONSE O

AF'OUO B I E T m SERVICE MOWL;E OL R U

By Robert V Doggett, Jr. .

SUMMARY
Some preliminary results are presented to compare the high-frequency local buffet responses obtained in the actual flight of the Saturn-Apollo 7 with the responses predicted by an aeroelastic-model technique for the boilerplate Apollo service module. Data are presented in the Mach number range from 0.30 to 1.30. Although some disparities are noted in the data, the general results indicate that the use of aeroelastic models as tools to predict high-frequency local buffet response of full-scale structures is a promising technique. INTRODUCTION
For the past several years a concerted research effort at the Langley Research Center has been directed toward the development of techniques to be used to predict the buffet response of launch-vehicle structures. Launch/vehiclebuffet response may be divided into two general categories; namely, low-frequency gross bending response and high-frequency local response. These two types of response are illustrated in figure 1 Most of the emphasis has . thus far been placed on the low-frequency g r o s s bending response of the entire vehicle. One technique which appears quite promising is the aeroelastic-model approach. (See refs. 1 and 2 ) This method may be summarized as follows: . A dynamically scaled aeroelastic model is constructed; the model is tested in a suitable wind tunnel; and the buffet response is measured. The model data a r e then scaled to full-scale values by use of the appropriate scaling laws.

Recently, attention has been turning from low-frequency bending response to the more complicated problem of high-frequency local response. On the basis of experience gained by using the aeroelastic-model approach in studying lowfrequency buffet, an extension of this same type of procedure to the highfrequency problem seemed only natural. The purpose of this study is to present some preliminary results from an application of this model approach to the highfrequency local buffet response of the boilerplate version of the Apollo serv- / ice module in the Mach number range from about 0.30 to 1.30. Data are presented in terms of the response of the actual Saturn-Apollo 7 (SA-7) and the response predicted on the basis of the aeroelastic-model technique. For this application a special aeroelastic model was used, namely, a l/lO-scale structural replica. A true structural replica is identical to the full-scale structure in all respects except that linear dimensions have been reduced by the scale factor.

CONFIGURATION

The part of the structure of interest in the present investigation is representative of the connecter section that joins the Apollo command module to the Saturn upper stage. Figure 3 is a photograph of the model configuration mounted in convenient$y divided the Langley 16-foot transonic tunnel. The model *be. .into three sections, a rigid command module and launch-escapeY$y&tem, a rigid booster upper stage, and the structural replica of the connecter section. The structural replica portion was composed of three sections as is shown in fig. ure 4 These sections, the service module, the insert, and the adapter, are of semimonocoque construction. The rigid parts of the model were attached to the wind-tunnel sting. The service module was connected to the command module in a fashion similar to that used on the full-scale structure. The downstream end of the structural replica portion was attached to the sting through the instrumentation unit, which simulated the proper end restraint.
A photograph of the SA-7 launch configuration is shown in figure 2 .

The location of the model instrumentation is a l s o shown in figure 4. This instrumentation consisted of four lightweight crystal accelerometers and one miniature foil strain-gage bridge. The locations of these sensors were dictated by the placement of corresponding sensors on the actual flight structure. The accelerometers were sensitive to radial response, and the strain gage was sensitive to circumferential strain in a ring frame. The degree to which it was possible to make the model an exact structural I replica is illustrated in figure 7, which shows photographs of the structure at the upstream end of the service module for both the model and the full-scale vehicle. In the construction of the structural replica a f e w compromises were necessary. The major compromises were the use of formed parts in place of extrusions and variances in the rivet size and pattern. Another measure of the shilitude between the model and full-scale structure is shown in figure 6, where the cumulative number of modes is plotted as a function of the full-scale frequency f o r both the model and full-scale structures. The slope of these curves is the modal density which is a significant parameter in the study of the response of complex structures to random inputs. (See ref. 3 for a discussion of the modal density concept.) The modal density is somewhat analogous to the normal mode concept used in low-frequency bending buffet response. Although the two sets of data differ somewhat in local detail, the general agreement in terms of the increase in number of natural resonances with increasing frequency is good.
W I N D TUNNEL

The Langley 1.6-foot transonic tunnel was used in the present investigation.
A comparison of the variation of flight and wind-tunnel dynamic pressure with

Mach number is presented in figure 7. In general, the flight dynamic pressure was about 20 percent lower than the corresponding wind-tunnel value. the wind-tunnel dynamic pressure should be exactly equal to the flightIdeally, dynamic pressure. However, from a practical point of view it is often difficult to

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find an available wind tunnel which provides exactly the required dynamic pressure and which has a test section sufficiently large to permit selection of a reasonable geometric scale factor of the model. Differences in dynamic pressure can be accounted for by using the appropriate scaling law.
R?3SULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results of the model investigation are presented in terms of a comparison of model data scaled to full-scale values with data obtained from the SA-7 flight. For the purposes of scaling the model data, it was necessary to take into account the effects of geometric scale factor, dynamic pressure, structural damping, and accelerometer loading. Accelerometer loading is the effect of the nonscaled accelerometer mass on the local structural response of the model. It was assumed that aerodynamic damping effects were negligible. The comparison is made both in terms of distribution of response with frequency (power spectral density) and in terms of the variation of root-mean-square response with Mach number. Presented in figure 8 is a comparison of model and full-scale strain power spectral densities (PSD). The power spectral densities have been normalized by the overall mearbsquare strain. A s is shown by the data in the figure, the general agreement between the two densities is good. Figure 9 provides data for a comparison of the variation with Mach number of the root-mean-square ( r m s ) strain. These two variations do not show ,the same good agreement that was found in the comparison of the power spectral densities. In general the variations of r m s strain with Mach number show similar trends; that is, they increase in value up to a maximum at a Mach number of about 0 8 and then decrease with increasing Mach number. This discrepancy .5 between the magnitudes of the full-scale and model data might be very disconcerting except that these strains are at a very low level. The maximum rootmean-square strain measured in flight would correspond to a root-mean-square stress of only about 300 pounds per square inch. The maximum model root-meansquare stress would be about 1 0 pounds per square inch. I is indeed difficult 2 t to measure such small strains accurately under flight and wind-tunnel test conditions. In both cases the level of the maximum root-mean-square data was only about 5 percent of the instrumentation range. It is believed that a large part of the difference in magnitude between the root-mean-square strain data may be due to experimental error. Presented in figure 1 are two typical accelerometer power spectral den0 sities, one from model data and one from flight data. These power spectral densities have also been normalized by the overall mean-square values. A s is seen frm the data in figure 1 , most of the energy for both sets of data is 0 0 concentrated in a relatively narrow band of frequency about 1 0 cps wide. However, this band for the model is centered at a different frequency from that of the SA-7 flight vehicle. The data in figure 1 show the variation with Mach number of the service1 module root-mean-square acceleration. The data are presented in terms of bands

155

which encompass the accelerations of the three service-module accelerometers. The agreement between the two sets of data is good. They both exhibit essentially the same variation with Mach number and have for all practical purposes the same level. Had the adapter acceleration data (at a different longitudinal station, see fig. 4) been included in these data, it would have essentially resulted in a sli@;ht decrease in the lower values of both bands. CONCLUDING R M R S E AK Some preliminary results have been presented to compare actual flight Saturn-Apollo 7 high-frequency local buffet responses with aeroelastic-modelpredicted responses of the boilerplate version of the Apollo service module. Although there are some disparities in the data, the general results indicate that the use of structural-replica models as tools to predict high-frequency local buffet response of full-scale structures is a promising technique.

REFERENCES

1 Doggett, Robert V., Jr.; and Hanson, Perry W.: An Aeroelastic Model Approach . for the Prediction of Buffet Bending Loads on Launch Vehicles. NASA TN D-2022, 1963.
2 Hanson, Perry W.; and Doggett, Robert .

V., Jr.: Aerodynamic Damping and Buffet Response of an Aeroelastic Model of the Saturn I Block 11 Launch Vehicle. NASA TN D-2713, 1965.

3. Dyer, Ira: Response of Space Vehicle Structures to Rocket Engine Noise. Random Vibration, vol. 2 Stephen H. Crandall, ed., The M.I.T. Press, ,

1963, PP. 177-1940

TYPES OF LAUNCH VEHICLE SYRUCTURAL RESPONSE

A

FREOUE

NSE

Figure 1

Figure 2

L-2473-1

ACCELEROMETER S T R m GaGE

Figure 3

L-2473-2

Figure 4

MODE COUNT
Nu

1-2473-4

t
COMPARISON OF WIND TUNNEL AND FLIGHT DYNAMIC PRESSURE

GAGE

POWER

OT

1,-5&-7

FLIGHT

Figure 7

Figure 8

TYPICAL NORMALIZED ACCELEROMETER POWER SPECTRAL DENSITIES

MACH NUMBER = 0.80

VARIATION OF RMS STRAIN WITH MACH NUMBER

RMS STRAIN. +IN./IN. 32

OI4r

2 4 L m s E m
ENGINE NOISE

1 6

MACH NUMBER

Figure 9

Figure 10

VARIATION OF RMS ACCELERATION WITH MACH NUMBER

RMS ACCEL , g UNITS

ENGINE W E S

MACH NUMBER

12

1 6

Figure 11

159

18. WIIYC-TUNNEL INVESTIGATIONS OF EFFECTS OF GROUND WINDS

ON SATcrRnl-APOLLO LAUNCH VEHICLES
I3y George W. Jones, Jr., and Moses G. Farmer
d

m i

Investigations i n t h e Langley transonic dynamics tunnel were made by using a e r o e l a s t i c models of Saturn I, Block IS, Saturn IB, and Saturn V vehicles with Apollo payloads. Variations of bending moments imposed by ground winds with wind velocity, azimuth angle, and s t r u c t u r a l damping were investigated f o r fueled and unfueled configurations. The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e unfueled Saturn IB and Saturn V vehicles a t certain wind v e l o c i t i e s and azimuth angles have loads which exceed t h e design bending moments. INTRODUCTION Ground-wind loads on f l e x i b l e slender bodies a r e not a new problem. For years c i v i l engineers have wrestled with t h i s problem i n t h e design of smokestacks, suspension bridges, and t a l l masts. More recently, aerospace engineers have found t h a t ground winds blowing over vehicles erected p r i o r t o launch can cause problems i n s t r u c t u r a l strength, guidance alinement, and clearance with adjacent s t r u c t u r e s .
The b a s i c aspects of t h e ground-winds problem a r e shown i n f i g u r e 1. A launch vehicle i s shown erected f o r launch i n t h e presence of a nearby umbilical tower. A steady ground wind shown i n p r o f i l e causes both steady and o s c i l l a t o r y loads on t h e vehicle. The steady load acts i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e mean wind unless t h e f l o w i s d e f l e c t e d by t h e umbilical tower or asymmetries on t h e vehic l e a c t t o give a steady l i f t component. Flow separation around t h e vehicle i n t h e form of v o r t i c e s shedding a l t e r n a t e l y from t h e vehicle s i d e s gives r i s e t o o s c i l l a t o r y forces i n t h e l i f t and drag d i r e c t i o n s . For c e r t a i n conditions t h e loads caused by t h e o s c i l l a t o r y l i f t force may be s e v e r a l times t h e steady drag load. Blockage by t h e umbilical tower and impingement of i t s turbulent wake on t h e vehicle may a f f e c t t h e loads. Also atmospheric gusts and turbulence may add t o t h e unsteady loads. This paper presents t h e results of wind-tunnel i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n which atmospheric turbulence and t h e exact steady wind p r o f i l e are not simulated. Therefore, such e f f e c t s are not considered i n t h i s paper; however, t h e major loads which are caused by vortex shedding and steady drag are simulated i n these i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . A t t h e present time the best method (other than f u l l - s c a i e atmospheric t e s t s ) of accounting f o r atmospheric turbulence and gusts i s by a n a l y t i c a l means such as those discussed i n references 1 and 2.

161

SYMBOLS

structural damping coefficient critical value of structural damping coefficient

d
'f

reference length (diameter), ft frequency, cps bending moments caused by loads, in-lb velocity, f p s coordinate system for measurement of bending moments and accelerations
AI?PARATuS AND TESTS

MB
V
X Y ,

In this paper, the results of wind-tunnel investigations of models of three Saturn launch vehicles with Apollo are considered. The models shown in figu r e s 2 to 5 are aeroelastically scaled; that is, both aerodynamic and structural ( dynamic parameters are simulated. Shown in figures 2 to 5 are models of.the , Saturn I Block 11, Saturn IB, and Saturn V vehicles with associated umbilical towers mounted in the Langley transonic dynamics tunnel. The umbilical towers shown were approximately geometrically scaled but were not aeroelastic models. The vehicle and tower models are mounted in the tunnel test section on a massive turntable which can be remotely rotated so as to simulate any desired wind azimuth angle. A variable-stiffness base tiedown support which permits simulation of the actual tiedown stiffness connects the model base to the turntable.
Although not shown in figures 2 to 5, the Saturn IB and Saturn V models were equipped with a small internally mounted viscous damper (ref. 3 ) . The dampers could be used to vary the structural damping of the models.
INSTRUMENTATION

The oscillatory response of the vehicle is primarily in the fundamental mode. The principal response measurements made for the investigation were the static and dynamic bending moments in two perpendicular planes at the base of the model and corresponding accelerations at the nose. Although time histories of these quantities are recorded, the most useful readout system employs a twoaxis oscilloscope and a camera and is explained with the use of figure 6. A top view of a model and associated wind direction is shown schematically in figure 6. The strain-gage sensors whose outputs are proportional to the base bending moment are mounted in such a manner as to indicate bending moments due 162

t o response i n t h e X- and Y-planes. The output of each s t r a i n gage is put on one axis of a two-axis oscilloscope, t h e model i s exposed t o t h e air flow, and a time-exposure photograph i s made of t h e osciiloscope during a data sample period. The r e s u l t i s shown i n t h e right-hand s i d e of figure 6. The wind-off o r i g i n of t h e bending moments MB,x and MB,Y i s shown i n t h e bottom l e f t corner. A s wind i s applied t o t h e model, t h e oscilloscope l i g h t beam s h i f t s t o t h e center of the e l l i p s e due t o s t a t i c drag ( i n d i c a t e d by t h e s h o r t vector). The o s c i l l a t o r y l i f t and drag moments trace out t h e rough e l l i p s e as shown and this e:-&lq? indizztzd t h e z s b a oscillzt9ry bPEdiI?g EGEent.a &Xing t.he data sample period. One-half the length of the major axis of t h e e l l i p s e i s t h e maximum l a t e r a l ( l i f t ) dynamic bending moment and one-half the minor a x i s i s t h e maximum o s c i l l a t o r y drag bending moment. The longest vector which can be drawn from t h e wind-off point t o a point on the envelope of t h e rough e l l i p s e i s t h e maximum r e s u l t a n t bending moment on t h e model f o r t h i s data sample. This readout technique properly accounts f o r correlation e f f e c t s without e x p l i c i t measurements of c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s o r assumptions regarding such values. Correlation e f f e c t s can be l a r g e inasmuch as t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of l i f t and drag o s c i l l a t o r y bending moments reaching maximum values a t t h e same t i m e i s low. The oscillograph photographs a r e made over a range of wind v e l o c i t i e s and wind azimuth angles f o r a l l configurations and the d a t a sample t i m e represents one o r more hours of f u l l - s c a l e sample time.
FSSULTS AX?D DISCUSSION

As m i g h t be expected, t h e response of a given launch vehicle t o ground-wind loads i s a f f e c t e d by such parameters as wind azimuth angle, wind velocity, and s t r u c t u r a l damping. The influence of each of these parameters i s discussed i n t h e following paragraphs.
Effect of Wind Direction Figure 7 shows t h e e f f e c t of wind direction r e l a t i v e t o model-umbilicaltower o r i e n t a t i o n on t h e response of a launch vehicle. A top view of t h e vehic l e and umbilical tower i s shown; t h e arrows represent a constant-velocity wind along t h e d i r e c t i o n of each arrow. Opposite each arrow i s a the-exposure photograph of t h e bending-moment response. Each photograph has t h e same gain setting; thus, t h e differences i n t h e size of t h e e l l i p s e s and vectors represent differences with wind azimuth angle. These differences a r e caused by asymmet r i e s of t h e model and umbilical tower and by blockage from t h e tower. The maxh u m o s c i l l a t o r y response of t h i s configuration seems t o be caused by t h e wake of t h e umbilical tower impinging on the vehicle. The e f f e c t s of the tower, i n general, are not symmetrical because the towers and vehicles a r e not symmetrical. Effect of Wind Velocity
I t h e azimuth angle i s held constant and t h e v e l o c i t y varied, t h e vehicle f responds t y p i c a l l y as shown i n figure 8. In t h i s figure, base bending-moment data measured on a Saturn IB model at the wind d i r e c t i o n shown a r e used t o

present a typical load v a r i a t i o n w i t h velocity. The d a t a f o r t h e curves were obtained from tfme-history photogrzphs. A s m i g h t be expected, the s t a t i c drag bending moment increases approximately as t h e square of the wind velocity. The maximum dynamic drag i s shown t o be small throughout t h e velocity range. The maximum dynamic l a t e r a l bending moment, on t h e other hand, i s l a r g e and has a peak a t a velocity of about 37 s t a t u t e miles per hour. This peak i n t h e maxi m u m dynamic l a t e r a l bending moment i s t y p i c a l and occurs on each model a t a v e l o c i t y which, when combined with the maximum diameter of the vehicle and i t s fundamental frequency, gives a Strouhal number f d of approximately 0.2. It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t a Strouhal number of 0.2 i s normally associated w i t h t h e formation of a Von Karman vortex s t r e e t a t s u b c r i t i c a l Reynolds numbers. However, i n these studies t h e Reynolds number f o r conditions of peak response w a s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of 4 x lo6 which i s considerably above the c r i t i c a l value and may be i n the t r a n s c r i t i c a l range suggested by Roshko i n reference 4. The peak i n the l a t e r a l bending moment i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e vector addition t o give a peak i n t h e maximum r e s u l t a n t bending moment. Although the d a t a i n f i g ure 8 a r e f o r the Saturn I B model a t the o r i e n t a t i o n shown, these d a t a a r e ty-pi c a l of the v a r i a t i o n of response w i t h v e l o c i t y f o r most of t h e data of these investigations. Effect of S t r u c t u r a l Damping Under c e r t a i n conditions which a r e governed by t h e damping of t h e system, 1 t h e peaks such as shown i n the maximum dynamic l a t e r a l bending moment of f i g ure 8 can become high and sharp and t h u s represent a very l a r g e bending-moment response. Figure 9 shows, f o r t h e Saturn V model, j u s t such a v a r i a t i o n of t h i s peak f o r three values of s t r u c t u r a l damping expressed as a f r a c t i o n of c r i t i c a l damping. It i s seen t h a t f o r c/cc of 0.004, t h e peak i n t h e maximum dynamic l a t e r a l bending moment becomes very high and sharp. T h e h i s t o r i e s of t h e data points i n t h i s peak, as shown by the sample f o r the highest peak point, indicate an almost constant-amplitude sinusoidal response which i s very s i m i l a r t o a single-degree-of-freedom f l u t t e r condition; t h a t is, negative aerodynamic damping influences the motion and the aerodynamic forces a r e dependent on t h e motion of the vehicle. Increasing t h e s t r u c t u r a l damping t o a value of C/Cc of 0.008 removes t h e peak and a value of c/c, of 0.013 decreases t h e response s t i l l more. Although t h e model responds i n t h e fundamental mode f o r a l l groundwind models, t h e character of t h e response, at areas other than t h e sharp peak, i s completely changed. This change i n response i s shown by t h e lower timeh i s t o r y curve of f i g u r e 9 which i s t y p i c a l of a l l t h e p o i n t s not i n the sharp peak. For t h i s case t h e response becomes random i n amplitude but o s c i l l a t e s a t t h e fundamental frequency. This type of response i s t y p i c a l of t h e response of a l i g h t l y damped mechanical system t o a random input. Although damping values of of 0.004 may seem u n r e a l i s t i c a l l y low f o r t h e vehicle ( a value of c/Cc C/Cc of 0.01 would be more r e a l i s t i c ) , t h i s " f l u t t e r type" response has been obtained f o r C/C, 2 0.01.

164

Load-Alleviation Devices

In an attempt t o reduce t h e high peaks i n t h e response of t h e Saturn V model by some means other than increasing s t r u c t u r a l damping, about ten loada l l e v i a t i o n devices were t r i e d experimentally. Three of the more successful devices are shown i n f i g u r e 10. The left-hand sketch shows t h e model with an umbilical tower. Near t h e center of t h e model, a s p l i t t e r p l a t e i s attached t o the umbilical tower and extends u n t i l it almost touches t h e model. This device whp~ the i i m h i l i c a l tower W&S success3-d in a l l e > % a t i xt h e large leads &taiced w a s d i r e c t l y downwind of t h e vehicle.
Note that t h e load-alleviation devices concentrate on t h e constat-diameter center section of t h e model (between t h e arrows of f i g u r e 10). For t h e Saturn vehicles with Apollo, the high responses a r e apparently generated by aerodynamic forces i n t h i s area. O other launch vehicles, small changes i n shape n near t h e nose c r e a t e l a r g e changes i n the response, but during t h e course of these investigations a number of changes i n shape were made near the nose of t h e models and only minor changes occurred i n t h e response. Another load-alleviation device t r i e d w a s t h e use of h e l i c a l strakes which Scruton ( r e f . 5 ) found t o be very effective i n a l l e v i a t i n g t h e load on some t a l l c y l i n d r i c a l smokestacks i n England. Since tuft s t u d i e s showed a strong upflow i n t h i s c y l i n d r i c a l portion of t h e model rearward of t h e separation point, a s e r i e s of disks were t r i e d . All of these devices were successful i n reducing the response f o r some wind v e l o c i t i e s and azimuth conditions but none were found t o be e f f e c t i v e f o r a l l conditions of high response.
Summary of C r i t i c a l Loads

To present t h e d e t a i l e d r e s u l t s obtained f o r a l l configurations i n v e s t i 1 gated i s beyond t h e scope of t h i s paper. Figures 1 and 1 2 show a summary of t h e c r i t i c a l bending-moment loads expressed i n terms of t h e design loads f o r each vehicle. In f i g u r e 1 , t h e maximum r e s u l t a n t base bending moment obtained a t t h e 1 most c r i t i c a l wind azimuth angle f o r each of t h e t h r e e Saturn vehicle models has been normalized by t h e design bending moment and i s p l o t t e d against wind velocity. The d a t a included i n t h i s figure are f o r values of C/Cc 2 0.01 ( t h a t i s d a t a f o r u n r e a l i s t i c a l l y ' l o w values of s t r u c t u r a l damping have been excludedj. A s shown, t h e Saturn I, Block I1 vehicle had no ground-wind-load B problems over t h e range of steady wind v e l o c i t i e s of t h e t e s t s . The Saturn I and Saturn V vehicles, on t h e other hand, d i d have undefined peaks which exceed the design bending moment ( t h e models had inadequate load c a p a b i l i t y t o define t h e peaks). In each case, t h e maximum bending moments occurred f o r a simulated unfueled condition. Z'or t h e fueled condition, t h e bending-moment response was l e s s and d i d not exceed t h e design values. On t h e Saturn I B model, the design bending moment a t t h e base w a s exceeded only when t h e vehicle was t e s t e d i n t h e presence of t h e complex-37B umbilical tower. With the complex 34 umbilical tower, the bending moments did not exceed t h e design value. The umbilical tower f o r complex 34 i s smaller than t h a t f o r complex-37B although similar i n shape. (Compare f i g s . 3 and 4.)

165

The data of figure 1 show t h e c r i t i c a l loads f o r t h e worst aximuth angle; 1 however, there i s considerable v a r i a t i o n of these loads with azimuth angle. This variation i s shown i n f i g u r e 1 2 which presents the areas of wind v e l o c i t y a and direction f o r which t h e design bending moment w s exceeded. The concentric c i r c l e s indicate constant values of wind v e l o c i t y and t h e r a d i a l l i n e s indicate wind direction. A t each azimuth t h e wind d i r e c t i o n i s considered t o be coming along a r a d i d l i n e from outside t h e c i r c l e i n toward t h e model and umbilical tower oriented as shown i n the center of t h e figure. The shaded areas show, i n topographical form, approximate conditions of velocity and wind o r i e n t a t i o n f o r which t h e design bending moments were exceeded f o r the Saturn I B and Saturn V vehicles. Again, these data a r e f o r s t r u c t u r a l damping values of C/Cc 2 0.01. It should be noted i n f i g u r e 1 2 t h a t a wind azimuth angle of zero does not r e f e r t o a compass north o r south direction, but only t o an o r i e n t a t i o n r e l a t i v e t o an a r b i t r a r y a x i s through a plane connecting the model and umbilical tower. It w a s not practicable t o present a compass o r i e n t a t i o n for t h e Saturn V since t h e vehicle changes d i r e c t i o n as it maneuvers from t h e assembly shed t o t h e launch pad. I n f a c t , t h i s change i n d i r e c t i o n adds t o i t s operational problems since it increases t h e chances of exposure t o a wind d i r e c t i o n from which winds with v e l o c i t i e s (such as shown i n f i g . 1 2 ) can cause excessive loads.
CONCLUDING REMARKS

Wind-tunnel investigations of the e f f e c t s of ground-wind loads on t h e s t r u c t u r e of launch vehicles w i t h Apollo have pointed out p o t e n t i a l operational problem areas. The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t the unfueled Saturn I B and Saturn V vehicles, with r e a l i s t i c values of s t r u c t u r a l damping, could be subjected t o loads which exceed the design bending moments. I n order t o evaluate these data, plans a r e being made f o r f u l l - s c a l e ground-wind t e s t s on these and other f u l l s c a l e vehicles.

16 6

1 Reed, Wilmer H , 1 1 Models for Obtaining Effects of Ground Winds on Space . . 1: Vehicles Erected on the Launch Pad. NASA paper presented at Conference on the Role of Simulation in Space Technology (Blacksburg, V . , a) Aug. 17-21,1964.
2 . Rnhne,

Q ! ~ t n n e : Power Spectral Considerations on the Launch Pad. ProR ceedings of the National Symposium on Winds for Aerospace Vehicle Design. Volume I Air Force Surv. in Geophys. No. 140 (AFCRL-62-273(1)), . U.S. Air Force, M a r . 1 6 , pp. 81-108. 92

3. Hanson, Perry W; and Jones, George W., Jr.: .

On the Use of Dynamic Models for Studying Launch Vehicle Buffet and Ground-Wind Loads. Proceedings of Symposium on Aeroelastic & Dynamic Modeling Technology, RTD-TDR-63-4197, Pt. I U.S. Air Force, Mar. 1964, pp. 333-387. ,

4 Roshko, Anatol: Ekperiments on the Flow Past a Circular Cylinder at Very . 0 , High Reynolds Number. J. Fluid Mech., vol. 1 , pt. 3 May 1961, PP. 345-356.
5. Scruton, C : On the Wind-Excited Oscillations of Stacks, Towers, and Masts. . Paper 16, Brit. Natl. phys. Lab., June 1963.

LOAD CONDITIONS CAUSED BY GROUND WINDS

TEADY GROUND-WIND PROFILE OSCILLATING DRAG-\

VORTEX SHEDDING4

ATMOSPHERIC GUSTS AND TURBULENCE

Figure 1

168

Figure 2

L-2474-9

Frgure 3

L-2474- 10

AEROELASTIC GAouN1-WIND LOAD Moou OF L$U%H VEHICLE WITH APOUO MOUNTEO iN LANccEy
0055-SCILE SATURN IB WITH COIARW-378UABIUW TOffER TRANSONIC CmwdICs TUMNR

AEROELASTIC GROUND-WIND LOAD WDEL OF LAUNCH VEHICLE W l f u A W U O MWMTEO I N W N

ao3-sc

-12

EFFECT OF WIND DIRECTION ON RESPONSE OF VEHICLE TIME EXPOSURE OF BENDING MOMENTS

--(]
/\
WODt L

.N N?

M0 X OSCILLOSCOPE

TOWER-\

LVEHICLE
WIND

C0NSTANT;VELOCITY

Figure 6

1-2474- 2

Figure 7

TYPICAL LOAD VARIATION WITH VELOCITY

SATURN 1 6

EFFECT OF DAMPING ON MAXIMUM

DYNAMIC LATERAL LOADS

SNURW 4 6105

lil

Figure 8

Figure 9

ATTEMPTED LOAD-ALLEVIATION DEVICES

MAXIMUM GROUND-WIND LOADS IN TERMS OF DESIGN LOADS

1.5

.UNruCLC
.L.

r_

( C q I.c

z 0.01

SATURN 183

rSATURN

SPLITTER PLATE

MAX. RES. Mg DESIGN Mg

\

\ \

L HELICAL STRAKES

C
DISKS

IO

20

30

40

50

60

70

WIND VELOCITY (FULL SCALE), MPH

Figure 10

Figure 1 1

AREAS IN WHICH GROUND-WIND LOADS EXCEED DESIGN LOADS

0

VELOCITY, MPH

Figure 12

19. EFFECT O F

ASTRONAUT CONTROL ON

umm-VMICLE W: Im

LWS

By Robert K. Sleeper

A simulator study i s made of t h e loads which would occur during p i l o t e d control of t h e f i r s t - s t a g e burning of a large launch vehicle of a type s u i t a b l e f o r t h e Apollo mission. The simulation used c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a f l e x i b l e launch vehicle with propellant-sloshing dynamics i n planar nonlinear equations of motion u t i l i z i n g time-varying coefficients and Mach number dependent aerodynamics. The vehicle was disturbed by randomly selected measured wind p r o f i l e s and was controlled by t e s t p i l o t s . The loads which t h e p i l o t w a s required t o minimize were compared with loads produced by a reference autopilot. The r e s u l t s show t h a t a p i l o t can reduce the load of t h e vehicle below t h a t produced by t h e autopilot, i f t h e control augmentation contains a t t i t u d e r a t e feedback; otherwise, t h e vehicle load may be s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher than t h e load produced when t h e a u t o p i l o t controls t h e vehicle.

INTRODUCTION

Astronauts have guided spacevehicles while i n space and during reentry. The value of t h e p i l o t ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n during these f l i g h t phases has been well demonstrated. Their success has r a i s e d t h e question as t o whether t h e p i l o t ' s influence might be extended i n t o t h e launch phase where only automatic control systems have been used. The redundancy afforded by a p i l o t i n a backup posit i o n could increase t h e chances f o r a successful mission. Studies, such as one ms conducted by The Boeing Company (ref. 1)and another by t h e NASA A e and Marshall Research Centers ( r e f . 2), have shown t h a t p i l o t control of a launch vehicle i s f e a s i b l e . These previous studies have concentrated on t h e control and s t a b i l i t y aspects of p i l o t e d launch vehicles, with only cursory a t t e n t i o n t o t h e problem of f l i g h t loads. The present i n v e s t i g a t i o n has been conducted, therefore, t o provide a simulator study of t h e loads induced on a launch vehicle as it ascends through atmospheric winds under astronaut control. The objective of t h i s study was t o determine t h e a b i l i t y of t h e astronaut t o hold vehicle loads within t h e autopilot-designed s t r u c t u r a l l i m i t s of t h e vehicle and a t t h e same time t o maintain a predetermined t r a j e c t o r y . SIMULATION DESCRIFTION Essential Features of Simulation The simulation featured c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a l a r g e launch vehicle similar t o t h e Saturn V as i t s mathematical model. F l e x i b i l i t y and sloshing dynamics

173

were incorporated i n t o nonlinear equations of motion with time-varying c o e f f i c i e n t s and Maoh number dependent aerodynamics. Randomly selected wind p r o f i l e s which were measured a t t h e NASA Wallops Station were used t o d i s t u r b t h e vehic l e during t h e simulated f l i g h t s , and t h e controlling t a s k w a s performed by Langley t e s t p i l o t s . The loads were examined i n t h e p i t c h plane only; however, f o r t h e purpose of presenting a more r e a l i s t i c work load, t h e p i l o t w a s a l s o ontinuously t o control a disturbance i n t h e r o l l plane. The p i l o t ' s ob j e c t i d require%h 'prkuarKQto.rpinimize loads i n t h e high-dynamic-pressure region but a l s o t o achieve minimum a t t i t u d e e r r o r a t f i r s t - s t a g e burnout. Simulator Cockpit Figure 1 shows a photograph of t h e simplified fixed-base cockpit used i n t h e simulation. It consists of a chair, a two-axis proportional controller, and a display. The display can be b e t t e r described with t h e sketch shown i n f i g u r e 2. The basic components of t h e display were a r a t e indicator, an a t t i tude indicator, and a clock. The rate i n d i c a t o r presented t h e p i t c h accelerat i o n on the v e r t i c a l axis and t h e r o l l r a t e along t h e upper, horizontal a x i s . The a t t i t u d e i n d i c a t o r presented t h e p i t c h a t t i t u d e and a preprogramed nominal a t t i t u d e , as well a s t h e r o l l variable. A clock was used t o indicate s i g n i f i cant events during f i r s t - s t a g e f l i g h t , such as pitch-over, maximum dynamic pressure (max Q), and burnout. Control Modes Three control modes were evaluated t o determine t h e l i m i t s of the a s t r o n a u t ' s a b i l i t y t o keep down t h e s t r u c t u r a l l o a d s . These t h r e e control modes are t h e stability-augmented, t h e rate-augmented, and t h e no-augmentation modes. For each mode, t h e loads produced w i t h t h e vehicle under astronaut control were autopilot. t o be compared with t h e loads produced by an attitude-ttitude-rate The stability-augmented mode introduced t h e astronaut ' s commands upstream of t h e autopilot; t h a t i s , the p i l o t was a c t i n g as a guidance system by sending guidance commands t o a s t a b l e vehicle. For such a system, i f t h e p i l o t takes h i s hand off t h e control, t h e vehicle continues i n t h e same direction, responding stably, much l i k e t h e s t a b l e behavior of a rod held a t i t s upper end. The rate-augmented control mode had only a t t i t u d e rate feedback i n t h e autop i l o t , while t h e no-augmentation mode was a completely open loop. Both these l a t t e r control modes required t h e astronaut t o control a s t a t i c a l l y unstable vehicle which, i f t h e p i l o t takes h i s hand from the control, veers from i t s o r i g i n a l course, much l i k e t h e unstable behavior of a rod balanced a t i t s lower end. However, t h e vehicle with rate-augmented control gave some help t o t h e p i l o t and diverged much more slowly than t h e vehicle with no augmentation, where t h e p i l o t had no help a t a l l . Winds Langley t e s t p i l o t s made a t o t a l of over 150 simulator f l i g h t s using t h e t h r e e control modes previously described. The disturbances i n these f l i g h t s

were one of the s i x wind p r o f i l e s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 3 . Each p r o f i l e i s p l o t t e d as horizontal wind velocity as a function of a l t i t u d e . The p r o f i l e t o be used i n a given simulator f l i g h t w a s randomly selected and unknown t o t h e p i l o t . Five of these p r o f i l e s were measured, whereas t h e sixth w a s a t y p i c a l synthetic design wind ( r e f . 3 ) of t h e type used i n previous s t u d i e s . The winds a r e ranked here according t o t h e i r s e v e r i t y . Note t h a t t h e peak wind v e l o c i t y v a r i e s from a l i t t l e over 200 f e e t per second t o over 300 f e e t per second. The s i g n i f i c a n t point t o be noted i s t h a t although one wind i s a t y p i c a l design wind, f i v e are real, measured winds, and a l l a r e r e l a t i v e l y severe.
TYPICAL BENDING-MOMENT TIME HISTORIES

--

Some t y p i c a l examples of r e s u l t s of a simulation of t h e vehicle ascending through t h e wind 2 p r o f i l e of f i g u r e 3 a r e shown i n f i g u r e 4. The wind p r o f i l e v e l o c i t y i s shown i n t h e upper t r a c e as a function of time f o r c o r r e l a t i o n with t h e bending-moment time h i s t o r i e s shown i n t h e lower t r a c e s . The bendingmoment t i m e h i s t o r i e s f o r a s t a t i o n near t h e center of t h e vehicle are shown f o r t h e three control modes previously discussed. The dashed t r a c e s are bending-moment time h i s t o r i e s of t h e vehicle ascending through t h e same wind p r o f i l e but under autopilot control and a r e t h e same i n a l l t h r e e p l o t s . A glance a t the time h i s t o r i e s reveals t h a t t h e maximum loads occur a t t h e peak wind velocity. This s e t of time h i s t o r i e s suggests t h a t , as t h e augmentation i s removed, t h e maximum load induced on t h e vehicle increases. Indeed, i n t h e modes which contain r a t e augmentation ( s t a b i l i t y and rate-augmented modes), t h e p i l o t holds the maximum load below t h e load w i t h a u t o p i l o t control. Without augmentation, however, t h e l o a d s produced a c t u a l l y exceed t h e load produced by t h e autopilot

MAXIMUM-BENDING-MOMENT S M A Y U MR

The r e s u l t s of t h i s analysis have been condensed i n f i g u r e 5, where a l l of t h e m a x i m u m loads produced by t h e p i l o t s during each run f o r each control m o d e and wind p r o f i l e have been summarized. This f i g u r e i s e s s e n t i a l l y a b a r graph i n which t h e maximum bending moment r e s u l t i n g from each of over 150 f l i g h t s has been presented f o r each wind p r o f i l e . The wind designation s p e c i f i e s t h e wind disturbance according t o t h e wind number i d e n t i f i e d i n f i g u r e 3 . The no-wind condition i s denoted by WO, and t h e o t h e r winds a r e denoted i n ascending order according t o t h e s e v e r i t y of t h e maximum load produced by t h e a u t o p i l o t . The maximum autopilot load f o r each wind i s indicated,by t h e h o r i z o n t a l l i n e . The t r i a n g l e , square, and dark c i r c l e s denote maximum loads r e s u l t i n g from p i l o t e d f l i g h t s f o r the stability-augmented, rate-augmented, and no-augmentation control modes, respectively. Appreciable reductions i n bending momente, as compared w i t h those developed w i t h t h e a u t o p i l o t control, were obtained i n t h e s t a b i l i t y augmented and rate2augmented modes. There was a l s o l i t t l e s c a t t e r i n t h e r e s u l t s f r o m t h e s e two control modes, both of which contain rate augmentation, as i s shown by t h e square and triangular symbols i n t h i s f i g u r e . However, without control augmentation, t h e bending moments (represented by t h e s o l i d c i r c l e s )

a r e seen t o be noticeably higher and more scattered. However, many of t h e r e s u l t i n g loads s t i l l d i d not exceed the equivalent allowable load f o r t h e Saturn V vehicle, w h i c h i s indicated by a mark on t h e bending-moment scale. The s c a t t e r i s more pronounced i n t h e mode without augmentation because of t h e s e v e r i t y of t h e s t a t i c i n s t a b i l i t y . These results i n d i c a t e t h a t an astronaut could probably take control of a launch vehicle and complete a mission i n t h e event of a control-system f a i l u r e , without exceeding t h e load designed f o r an a u t o p i l o t control, as long as some r a t e augmentation i s s t i l l i n t h e system. However, under a rate-augmentation failure, t h e lo& dz-velopzd by t h e p i l c t could be c r i t i c a l .
CONCLUDING REMARKS
A simulation study has been made t o categorize t h e loads t h a t a p i l o t may develop while controlling a l a r g e launch vehicle. Loads generated while under p i l o t control were compared with loads while under a u t o p i l o t control. The r e s u l t s show t h a t a p i l o t can serve as an adequate backup f o r a guiding and controlling t a s k without load penalties when s u f f i c i e n t r a t e augmentation i s a v a i l a b l e . Lacking rate augmentation, however, a p i l o t generally w i l l develop loads s u b s t a n t i a l l y higher than those anticipated f o r autopilot control.

REFERENCES Final 1 Boeing Pibol Working Group: P i l o t Booster Control Loop Study . Report (vol. I ) . Doc. No. D2-80762 (Contract No. AF 33(657)-7132), The Boeing Co., Dec. 1962. 2. Hardy, Gordon H.; West, James V.; and Gunderson, Robert W.: Evaluation of P i l o t ' s A b i l i t y t o S t a b i l i z e a Flexible Launch Vehicle During First-Stage Boost. NASA TN D-2807, 1965.

3. Sissenwine, N.:

Revised 18 Synthetic Wind P r o f i l e . Geophysics Research Directorate, A i r Force Cambridge Res. Center, June~ 1959. [Revision t o A i r Force Surveys i n Geophysics No. 57 (AF'CRC-TN-54-22), 1954.1

SiMULATOR DISPLAY

E ~ ~ I N G - M O M E NC O M ~ R I ~ O N PILOT CONTROL MODES T BY

WIND PROFILES USEDIN SIMULATION

WIND,FPS

A
0

ALTITUDE,
WIND2

WIND 3

Figure 3

Figure 4

Figure 5

20.

SOME INITIAL RESJLTS O LOW-FREQUENCY NOISE IIESEARCH F

By ? h i l i p M. Edge, Jr., and W i l l i a m H. Mayes

SUMMARY
c -

This paper describes a f a c i l i t y designed t o provide unique research capab i l i t y f o r large-scale acoustic t e s t i n g related t o t h e Apollo mission. I n i t i a l applications of the f a c i l i t y t o extend man's howledge of h i s own behavior i n low-frequency noise a r e described. These t e s t s included whole-body exposure pressures of two orders of magnitude greater than man's previous experience i n laboratory exposure i n the subaudible frequency range. Results obtained i n d i c a t e d t h a t man can withstand short-time exposures a t spectrum l e v e l s i n t h e range from 135 dB t o 130 dB; however, there were annoyance e f f e c t s which a r e detrimental t o man's performance of assigned t a s k s .

INTRODUCTION I n support of t h e manned spacecraft program, a t t e n t i o n has been d i r e c t e d toward problems r e s u l t i n g from noise during vehicle la-mching. O s p e c i a l conf cern a r e high l e v e l s of noise i n t h e near-subaudible and subaudible frequency )ranges ( r e f . 1). A t t h e Langley Research Center a new f a c i l i t y has been put i n t o operation f o r research i n t h e frequency range from 1 t o 50 cps. This f a c i l i t y provides a unique c a p a b i l i t y for laboratory research s t u d i e s i n an acoustic environment previously not available. The purpose of t h i s paper i s t o i n d i c a t e t h e nature of and i n i t i a l r e s u l t s from some research studies and t e s t s t o determine the e f f e c t s of low-frequency noise on man. NATURE O LAUNCH LIFT-OFF NOISE F Some of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e launch noise associated with t h e l a r g e launch vehicles used i n our manned space f l i g h t program can be indicated with t h e use of f i g u r e 1. I l l u s t r a t e d i s a launch vehicle of the multimillion-pound t h r u s t c l a s s a t t h e time of launch l i f t - o f f . During launch l i f t - o f f , t h e dominant noise source i s t h e rocket-engine exhaust. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e engineexhaust noise a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e variations shown i n t h e small p l o t s of f i g ure 1. The point of these v a r i a t i o n s i s t h a t a s t h e s i z e of t h e launch vehicle increases t o higher t h r u s t , t h e acoustic power generated becomes g r e a t e r and t h e predominant frequency of the noise becomes lower. Therefore f o r l a r g e launch vehicles, high l e v e l s of acoustic energy extend t o g r e a t e r distances i n t h e c o m i t y surrounding t h e launch s i t e . Also f o r l a r g e launch vehicles of t h e multimillion-pound t h r u s t c l a s s , t h e predominant frequencies a r e i n the nearsubaudible and subaudible ranges of frequencies. It i s f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t e d t h a t f o r these frequencies, t h e wavelengths h of g r e a t e r than 20 f e e t a r e long r e l a t i v e t o t h e space vehicle s i z e . The resulting acoustic environmental cond i t i o n i s a pressure squeezing of t h e vehicle.

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i . 1 l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 1 r e s u l t i n a need f o r research t o study the e f f e c t s of low-frequency noise on buildings, f l i g h t s t r u c t u r e s , equipment, and humans. The Langley low-frequency noise f a c i l i t y i s a unique f a c i l i t y designed t o fill a need f o r means of conducting research i n noise environments a t t h e s e low frequencies.

The Langley low-frequency noise f a c i l i t y i s shown i n t h e photograph of f i g u r e 2 and i n the sketch of f i g u r e 3 . The main features of t h i s f a c i l i t y are a c y l i n d r i c a l t e s t chamber, a l a r g e speaker i n one end of t h e chamber, and a movable tuning wall which can be positioned t o close t h e opposite end of t h e t e s t chamber. The t e s t chamber i s 24 f e e t i n diameter by 21 feet i n length and may be operated e i t h e r i n a tuned- ( f i g . 3 ) o r i n an open-chamber condition ( f i g . 2 ) . The speaker i s of double-cone construction with a 14-foot diameter and a 2-foot depth through t h e core. The speaker i s driven as a p i s t o n by a hydraulic d r i v e r l o c a t e d i n a chamber behind t h e speaker. The design m a x i m double amplitude of t h e speaker system i s 9 inches; v e l o c i t y and acceleration l i m i t s r e s u l t 1 i n smaller amplitudes a t frequencies above 3- cps. The hydraulic d r i v e i s 2 operated on command of an e l e c t r i c a l system so t h a t t h e operation and t h e r e s u l t i n g environment may be controlled by t h e desired e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l put i n t o t h e system.
The movable wall i s mounted on a p a i r of railroad-type r a i l s and may be secured a t desired p o s i t i o n s i n t h e t e s t chamber by r a i l - l o c k i n g devices and by jacking pads a c t i n g on t h e chamber w a l l . The f a c i l i t y i s manrated and may be accurately controlled f o r a v a r i e t y of environmental research operations.

Some of t h e environmental c a p a b i l i t y and research a p p l i c a t i o n s of t h e lowfrequency noise f a c i l i t y are i n d i c a t e d i n figure 4. The f a c i l i t y i s designed t o operate i n t h e frequency ( f ) range from 1 t o 50 cps and t o provide sound pressure l e v e l s (SPL) i n t h e range from 110 dB t o 160 dB. (The sound pressure l e v e l s a r e referenced t o 0.0002 dynes/cm2.) The c a p a b i l i t y i s a v a i l a b l e f o r producing random or discrete frequency ( sinusoidal o r o t h e r ) environments. Also a v a i l a b l e i s t h e c a p a b i l i t y f o r generating impulse-type loading such as r e s u l t s from sonic booms. This sonic-boom type of loading i s of s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t t o t h e supersonic t r a n s p o r t program. I l l u s t r a t e d i n figure 4 are a p p l i c a t i o n s of t h e f a c i l i t y t o community noise problems and t o f l i g h t vehicle noise problems. I n regard t o t h e community, t h e r e i s the c a p a b i l i t y f o r t e s t i n g of b u i l d i n g w a l l s , windows, walls equipped with windows, e t c . There i s a l s o t h e c a p a b i l i t y f o r t e s t i n g of a s m a l l building which can be f u l l y equipped and occupied. Applications of t h e f a c i l i t y f o r f l i g h t v e h i c l e s include environmental, s t u d i e s of t h e response of t h e vehicle s t r u c t u r e , s t u d i e s of t h e transmission

180

of t h e noise through t h e s t r u c t u r e t o t h e i n t e r i o r , and s t u d i e s u f t h e e f f e c t s of t h e noise on t h e equipment and people onboard. O f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i s t h e Capability for t e s t i n g of complete manned vehicles -rith a l l systems operational I n i t i a l p r o j e c t s i n t h e f a c i l i t y have been concerned with studies t o determine t h e f a c i l i t y ' s c a p a b i l i t y and with t h e e f f e c t s of noise on humans. A d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e f a c i l i t y ' s c a p a b i l i t y and operations i s presented i n reference 2. rp 'Fa ,#
.*.I

TESTS OF HUMANS

"'i* <

Response Experience
The general concern f o r man i n low-frequency n o i s e a s s o c i a t e d with manned space f l i g h t i s indicated i n f i g u r e 5 . T h i s concern includes man's a b i l i t y t o comunicate, h i s a b i l i t y t o perform assigned t a s k s , and h i s physiological and psychological w e l l being during exposure t o low-frequency noise a t i n t e n s e l e v e l s . From t h e standpoint of acoustics, there i s concern not only f o r t h e e f f e c t of noise on t h e e a r s but a l s o fer the e f f e c t on man's e n t i r e body.

Attention t o whole-body exposure t o low-frequency noise i s importarit because t h e n a t u r a l frequencies of many parts of t h e body a r e i n t h e frequency range of i n t e n s e noise associated d t h the l i f t - o f f of l i r g e manned spacecraft. I n figure 6, some of t h e n a t u r a l frequencies of t h e body a r e i n d i c a t e d ( r e f . 3 ) . The n a t u r a l frequencies of t h e body a r e dependent upon t h e p o s i t i o n support and a r e i n t h e range from 3 t o 12 cps. Frequencies of the head range from 2 t o 3 cps i n t h e transverse d i r e c t i o n t o 20 t o 30 cps r e l a t i v e t o t h e body. Frequencies of t h e arm a r e i n t h e range from 30 t o 40 cps. These n a t u r a l body frequencies are i n the near-subaudible and subaudible frequencies where man's whole-body exposure experience i s limited. For purposes of evaluating p o t e n t i a l hazards of n o i s e exposure, t h e l e v e l s a t which ear pain occurs have been used as a guide. However, f o r exposure a t frequencies near and i n t h e subaudible range, t h e r e i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of o t h e r body components being more s e n s i t i v e t o adverse e f f e c t s of noise a t lower l e v e l s of i n t e n s i t y . Man's experience i n laboratory exposure of h i s whole body i s compared i n figure 7 with t h e l e v e l s a t which ear pain has been indicated by exposure of t h e ears alone (refs. 4 and 5 ) . It i s shown t h a t e a r pain occurs a t l e v e l s on t h e order of 170 dB a t 2 cps t o 140 dB a t 50 cps. However, laboratory B experience with whole-body exposure i s limited t o l e v e l s on t h e order of 110 d a t 2 cps t o 120 d a t 50 cps. The comparison shown i s of s p e c i a l concern t o B Apollo and t o f u t u r e manned space flights because t h e f l i g h t crews might receive exposures w e l l above t h e l e v e l s of man's previous laboratory experience. The purpose of t h e f i r s t t e s t i n t h e Langley low-frequency noise f a c i l i t y was t o obtain informatior? on yhele-body exposure a t higher noise l e v e l s .

181

Test Setup and Procedure

An experimental study i n t h e Langley low-frequency noise f a c i l i t y w s a undertaken t o obtain information on t h e e f f e c t s of low-frequency noise on humans. The study was a cooperative e f f o r t of t h e Manned Spacecraft Center and t h e Langley Research Center. Medical service& f o r t h e study were obtained from the Aerospace Mz-ReFearch Laboratories a t Wright-Patterson A i r Force Base.
The study involved t e s t i n g of a team of f i v e people from t h e Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories i n a s e r i e s of short-duration exposures t o narrow bands of random noise over a range of sound pressure l e v e l s . The f i v e team members were m i l i t a r y people and included one female. They had a background i n t h e f i e l d s of both medical and engineering a c t i v i t i e s . Their experiences i n t h e f i e l d of vibrations and acoustics included exposures t o j e t - and rocketengine noise environments and may be considered t o be similar t o those of astronauts. The members of t h e team ranged i n age from 25 t o 4 3years, i n height from 68 t o 76 inches, and i n weight from 130 t o 200 pounds. The t e s t setup used i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 8. I n t h e t e s t chamber t h e t e s t subjects were located on a balcony attached t o t h e movable wall which was positioned i n t h e t e s t chamber f o r closed-chamber operation. Available on t h e balcony were l i g h t lawn-type c h a i r s f o r t e s t i n g i n a seated position. The subj e c t s were dressed i n l i g h t clothing and were t e s t e d two a t a time. The team members were equipped with f i t t e d ear protection devices (plugs and muffs) which they could remove during t h e exposure. The other t h r e e members of t h e medical team served a s medical monitors on t h e outside of t h e t e s t chamber. procedure followed i n carrying out t h e t e s t s was t o expose each p a i r of subjects t o random noise (one-third octave bands) a t sound pressure spectrum l e v e l s from 110 dB t o 130 d f o r periods of 2 t o 3 minutes. During t h e periods of exposure, B observations were made r e l a t i v e t o human performance and well being.

1 .

The f a c t o r s monitored during t h e noise exposure t e s t s and t h e corresponding measure were :

Factors monitored Vision Motor function Spatial orientation Cardiac rhythm Speech i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y Subject response Tolerance

1
l

Measure Snellen E Circle tracing P a s t pointing t a r g e t Pulse r a t e s (EKG) Rhyme Acceleration and reaction SubSect opinion

The factors and measures shown r e l a t e t o both t h e physiological and psychological well being of t h e t e s t subjects. The f a c t o r s monitored and t h e techniques employed i n measuring these f a c t o r s were taken from standard c l i n i c a l t e s t procedures; however, because of t h e nature of t h e t e s t setup, some improvised t e niques were necessary. These techniques were devised by Dr. George Mohr who headed the aeromedical team.

12 8

The monitoring of v i s i o n w a s accomplished by modified uses of Snellen E tests. I n these t e s t s t h e c h a r t s were located outside t h e t e s t i n g chamber and were viewed through t h e observation p o r t s by t h e t e s t subjects.
A s a measure of motor function t h e subjects were assigned t h e t a s k of drawing c i r c l e s between adjacent concentric c i r c l e s p r i n t e d on a piece of paper h e l d on a board i n t h e s u b j e c t ' s l a p . The number of c i r c l e crossovers were taken as a measure of motor function.

The same type of concentric c i r c l e t a r g e t w a s a l s o used a s a measure of t h e e f f e c t s on s p a t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n . The concern here w a s f o r p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s on t h e inner e a r function i n c o n t r o l l i n g orientation. With t h e t a r g e t i n a posit i o n known t o t h e subject, t h e subject was required t o seek t h e center of t h e c i r c l e s with h i s eyes closed. Electrocardiogram (EKG) measurements of pulse r a t e were taken during t h e exposure t o obtain a measure of t h e general physical well being. E f f e c t s of the environment on speech i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y were measured by having t h e t e s t subjects read prepared l i s t i n g s of "rhyme" words i n t o a noisecanceling microphone so t h a t they could be recorded on tape. A few measurements were a l s o made of chest vibrations.
O f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t were t h e reactions of t h e s u b j e c t s and t h e opinicns expressed by t h e s u b j e c t s during and following t h e exposure periods.

T e s t Results
The general r e s u l t s obtained during noise-exposure t e s t s of f i v e medical s u b j e c t s i n t h e Langley low-frequency noise f a c i l i t y are i n d i c a t e d i n f i g u r e 9. Shown i n t h i s figure are t h e sound spectrum l e v e l s of t h e present t e s t s along with those of previous experience of man i n laboratory exposure. A l s o shown are l e v e l s of ear pain f o r t h i s frequency range. The l i s t i n g s on t h e f i g u r e a r e a sr -y of t h e general findings. The present tests extend man's previous noise exposure range by 40 dB (sound spectrum l e v e l ) a t t h e low frequencies of 1 t o 2 cps, by 35 d B over t h e frequency range t o 10 cps, and by about 15 dB a t t h e higher frequencies t o 50 cps. These t e s t s c l o s e l y approached the l e v e l s a t which e a r pain i s known t o occur. The r e s u l t s obtained i n d i c a t e t h a t man can withstand low-frequency noise exposures a t t h e s e l e v e l s without physical damage. However, t h e r e s u l t s do i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e are e f f e c t s r e l a t i n g t o t h e annoyance of man and t o h i s a b i l i t y t o perform assigned t a s k s . Over t h e full frequency range from 1 t o 50 cps t h e r e were i n d i c a t i o n s of f a t i g u e and of increased time required i n performing assigned t a s k s . Other e f f e c t s over the f u l l frequency range were considered t o be normal within t h e experiences associated with astronaut t r a i n i n g . For example, pulse rate increases of within 20 percent were observed and were considered t o be normal.

Below 25 cps t h e r e w a s a touch pressure sensation within t h e e a r . This sensation has been described as an annoying t i c k l i n g within t h e e a r and has been compared with t h e e f f e c t one experiences undergoing a l t i t u d e changes assoc i a t e d with motoring i n t h e mountains. The pressures involved were of an order of magnitude comparable t o a l t i t u d e cycling through TOO f e e t .
Below 25 cps t h e r e were modulations of speech; however, speech i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y was considered t o be acceptable. A l s o i n t h i s frequency range t h e r e were moderate vibrations of t h e chest and a f u l l n e s s i n t h e hypopharynx with an annoying gag sensation.

I n regard t o t h e opinions of those t e s t e d , it w a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e sens a t i o n s involved were impressive. Some of those t e s t e d expressed t h e opinion t h a t p r i o r t o exposure during launch, an a s t r o n a u t should be preconditioned t o such exposures during h i s t r a i n i n g period.
The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d here a r e general and represent findings i n i n i t i a l t e s t s i n t h i s range of a c o u s t i c t e s t i n g . Detailed a n a l y s i s of medical findings a r e being made by D r . Mohr and h i s a s s o c i a t e s and some r e s u l t s a r e presented i n reference 6.

CONCLUDING FEMAFKS
The Langley low-frequency noise f a c i l i t y , which has research c a p a b i l i t y unique i n acoustic environmental t e s t i n g , has been e f f e c t i v e l y used t o o b t a i n i n i t i a l laboratory exposure experience r e l a t i n g t o man's environment during space f l i g h t launchings. I n i n i t i a l t e s t s i n t h i s f a c i l i t y , a t e a m of f i v e B medical subjects were exposed t o random noise environments t o 150 d sound spectrum l e v e l i n t h e low-frequency range below 50 cps. General r e s u l t s from t h e s e t e s t s i n d i c a t e t h a t man can withstand environments of t h i s type; however, t h e r e were evidences of annoyance f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g man's performance. A need i s i n d i c a t e d f o r f u r t h e r study t o provide information necessary f o r man t o p r o t e c t himself o r t o condition himself properly f o r exposure t o t h e s e low-frequency a c o u s t i c environments a s s o c i a t e d with space f l i g h t launchings.

184

r
RF;FEIIENCES
1. Regier, Arthur A.; Mayes, W i l l i a m H.; and Edge, P h i l i p M., Jr.: Noise Problems Associated With Launching Large Space Vehicles. Sound, v o l . 1, no. 6, Nov.-&c. 1962, pp. 7-12.

2. Edge, P h i l i p M., Jr.; and Mayes, W i l l i a m H.: Description and Research Capabilities of the Langley Lc?~.r-FreqxncyNoise Facility. Preseritzd at Sixty-Ninth Meeting of Acoustical Society of America (Washington, D. C. ), June 2-5, 1965.

3 . Rathbone, Thomas C.: Human S e n s i t i v i t y t o Product Vibration. Eng., vol. 34, Aug. 5 , 1-963, PP. 73-77.

Product

4. Von Gierke, H. E.; Davis, H.; Eldredge, D. H.; and Hardy, J. D.:

Aural Pain n Produced by Sound. A Exploratory Study of t h e Biological Effects of Noise. BENOX Rept. (Contract N6 ori-020), Univ. of Chicago, Dec. 1, 1953, PP. 29-36.

5.

Cole, John N.; Mohr, George C.; Guild, Elizabeth; and Von Gierke, Henning E.: The E f f e c t s of Low Frequency Noise on Man a s Related t o t h e Apollo Space Program. AMRL Mem. B-66, U.S. A i r Force, Mar. 1964.
C. ; Cole, John N. ; Guild, Elizabeth; and Von Gierke, Henning E. : Effects of Low Frequency and Infrasonic Noise on Man. Aerospace Med., VOL 36, no. 9 , Sept. 1965, pp. 817-824.

6. Mohr, George

LAUNCH NOISE C H ~ I ~ I C S
MPSiNEa SPACE FLIGHT

Figure I

Figure 2

L-2476-2

LANGLEY LOW-FREQUENCY NOISE FACILITY

LMOVABLE
TUNING WALL

Figure 3

1 %

NOISE_SEtURCE

ACOUSTIC ESrS
HUMAN FACXORS

Figure 4

Figure 5

NATURAL FREQUENCIES FOR PARTS OF HUMAN BODY

WHOLE _ - BODY

3 TO 4 iFS 4 TO 6 CPS STANDING 5 TO I2 CPS

?RON

SEATED

Figure 6

HUMAN EXPOSURE TO NOISE

HUMAN
EAR PAIN

SUBJECTS IN TEST POSlTlON

I7O/150L

ACOUSTIC CHAMBER

LMOVAbLE TUNtNG WALL

Figure 7

Figure 8

NOISE EXPOSURE RESULTS

#HOLE BOOY

SPECTRUM
LEVEL d 8

SSURE SEN

Figure 9

21.

RESEARCH APPROACH TO REENTRY C M Z NC TO S BLACKOUT; O MT IAI N

By Paul W. Huber

..

SUMMARY
c -

It i s expected t h a t t h e communications l o s s during r e e n t r y of t h e Apollo command module w i l l be extensive. I n order t o reduce s i g n i f i c a n t l y t h e cons t r a i n t s on t h e earth-based radio-link systems, p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e blackout extent and, preferably, ways t o reduce t h e extent a r e d e s i r a b l e . Much refinement i n knowledge of chemical-kinetics plasma processes, of separated plasma flows with a b l a t i o n contamination, and of electromagnetic-wave propag a t i o n from plasma-covered antennas is, however, required before t h e problem can be p r e c i s e l y delineated.
Research e f f o r t s d i r e c t e d toward t h e improved understanding of fundamental plasma processes are described. It is shown t h a t c e r t a i n aspects of t h e probl e m s a r e not a c c e s s i b l e t o ground f a c i l i t i e s and t h a t small-scale f l i g h t experiments and piggyback experiments can be very productive i n t h e s e areas. Based on projected research e f f o r t s , it i s expected t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t improvement i n such plasma knowledge can occur i n a t i m e s c a l e f o r Apollo mission input. The i n d i c a t i o n s from present assessment of Apollo r e e n t r y communications a r e that, through t h e employment of c e r t a i n physical modifications, considerable reduct i o n i n t h e blackout extent can be obtained. It i s t h e r e f o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y recommended t h a t i n a d d i t i o n t o a rearward antenna location, consideration be given t o employment of a material-addition system and/or an X-band communicat i o n s system f o r t h i s purpose.
INTRODUCTION

Almost everyone is f a m i l i a r with t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e e n t r y communications problem i s caused by t h e high concentration of f r e e e l e c t r o n s which a r e genera t e d i n t h e flow regions around reentry vehicles. It i s a l s o generally understood t h a t , f o r a l a r g e r e e n t r y vehicle, a communications blackout t y p i c a l l y occurs when t h e e l e c t r o n concentration i n t h e plasma near an antenna reaches o r exceeds a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l number which corresponds t o t h e given s i g n a l t h a t is, when Ne = Ne,,, where Ne,cr frequency f2. (See r e f . 1.) Based s o l e l y on t h i s c r i t e r i o n , therefore, two obvious d i r e c t i o n s f o r t h e reduction 1 o r circumvention of t h e problem a r e indicated: ( ) increase t h e s i g n a l f r e quency t o a point where i t s c r i t i c a l electron value w i l l c l e a r l y be higher than t h e plasma value, and/or ( 2 ) lower t h e plasma e l e c t r o n concentration by m o d i fying t h e plasma ( f o r example, by injecting a m a t e r i a l which a c c e l e r a t e s elect r o n d e p l e t i o n ) . These two d i r e c t i o n s are, i n f a c t , t h e most usable ones within t h e present s t a t e of t h e a r t even though t h e r e a r e o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s / ( r e f s . 2, 3, and 4 ) .

---\
:
189

s i g n a l B i l l b e l o s t , o r can evaluate t h e magnitude of a l l e v i a t i o n required t o (1)speavo&d t h e signal l o s s , two p a r t s of t h e problem must be understood: c i f i c a t i o n of t h e plasma electron concentration (based on flow-field knowledge), and ( 2 ) determination of t h e electron concentration which can be t o l e r a t e d f o r based on electromagnetic-wave-propagation knowlarts of t h e problem must be resolved quantitaof t h e difference between these p a r t s which ti v e l y determines t h e extent of t h e problem.

I n any case, before mission designers can compute t h e magnitude of s i g n a l l o s s capsed by t h e plasnia, can define t h e points i n t h e reentry a t which t h e

I n t h i s paper, research and state of knowledge regarding t h e properties of t h e f l u i d s around an Apollo type reentry body a r e discussed, and t h e implicat i o n s of these fluids on t h e communications problem a r e indicated and include suggested means f o r reduction of reentry blackout f o r use i f such reduction i s required o r i s s u f f i c i e n t l y desirable.
SYMBOLS

C P db
f

pressure coefficient
body diameter, f t

signal frequency, cps f l u i d enthalpy recombination rate constant any t h i r d body (see eqs. ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) ) electron concentration, cm-3 c r i t i c a l electron concentration, vehicle stagnation pressure distance along streamline distance along streamline t o point where f l u i d velocity, f p s any n e u t r a l species ( s e e eq. shock-wave standoff distance N = Ne,eq e f2 cm-3

kr

M
N e Ne, c r

8.06 x 107

Ps
S
S*

X
4 6

(4))

f l u i d density

Subscripts : eq
S
m

equilibrium stagnation point

free &rem
APOLLO REENTRY PLASMA CONFIGURATION

Figure 1 i s a schematic representation of t h e flow-field regions near t h e Apollo reentry module and i l l u s t r a t e s the f a c t t h a t t h e flow includes two dist i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t types of plasma. The o u t e r plasma region (between t h e shock wave and f r e e shear l a y e r ) consists of inviscid a i r which i s f i r s t compressed and heated by a strong bow shock wave, a t which t i m e f r e e electrons are produced. When t h i s f l u i d expands around the vehicle, some of t h e e l e c t r o n s and ions recombine, but, i n general, t h e flow i s never i n complete thermodynamic and chemical equilibrium.
.

The inner p l a s m region (between the f r e e shear l a y e r and t h e r e a r body surfaces) i s one of separated f l u i d which i s composed of boundary-layer a i r "contaminated" with a b l a t i o n material from t h e heat shield. This separated mixture r e c i r c u l a t e s i n t h e base flow region and i s f i n a l l y scavenged i n t o t h e wake. Depending upon t h e aspect angle, attitude, and roll o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e module during reentry, t h e s i g n a l propagation from an antenna on t h e body w i l l be e i t h e r through the i n v i s c i d plasma region o r through both the i n v i s c i d and sepayated regions. It w i l l never be through only t h e separated region. Since t h e general problem involves propagation through both types of plasma, it i s t h e r e f o r e necessary t o determine t h e electron concentration i n each plasma type. Inviscid Plasma Properties For determination of t h e inviscid-flow plasma properties, it i s necessary t o consider t h e f i n i t e r a t e s at which changes i n chemical composition occur with respect t o flow r a t e s . Figure 2 i s a reentry chemical-kinetics map which helps t o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s necessity. The shaded areas represent boundaries of i o n i c chemical-kinetics regimes f o r blunt bodies of from 1 foot t o 1 2 f e e t i n diameter, where t h e upper edge of an area (high-altitude edge) i s t h e boundary f o r t h e l a r g e s t (12-foot-diameter) body. Only a t a l t i t u d e s above or below those within t h e reentry map i s it permissible t o ignore t h e r a t e s at which ionic reactions occur. For example, a t very high a l t i t u d e s where t h e f l u i d density i s very low and reaction rates are

.-

very slow, there i s negligible production of electrons during the flow dwell e t i m e over the veliicie ("negllglble" herein meaLiS N 5 lo9 cm-3, which value i s t h e highest t o l e r a b l e value f o r VHF transmission frequencies) and therefore t h e rate values a r e not important. A t a l t i t u d e s below t h e lowest shaded area, reaction rates are very fast i n r e l a t i o n t o flow rates because of t h e high f l u i d d e n s i t i e s and, again, t h e a c t u a l values of t h e r a t e s may be ignored since complete equilibrium may be assumed.
For the major portions of r e e n t r i e s , however, t h e values of t h e reaction r a t e s cannot be ignored. I n t h e upper a l t i t u d e regime within t h e map, t h e reaction rates, although somewhat slow, a r e by no means negligible, and both t h e production processes and recombination processes a r e nonequilibrium. The lower a l t i t u d e regime within the map i s a region wherein t h e production chemistry i s i n equilibrium, due t o high f l u i d density a t t h e nose, but wherein t h e expanded, lower density, flow recombination processes about t h e body are nonequilibrium.

+ 2.77
e 2NO+ V

The map i s a l s o divided i n t o v e l o c i t y regimes because t h e number and types of i o n i c reactions which can occur i n t h e flow f i e l d a r e a function of t h e flow enthalpy. I n the lowest v e l o c i t y regime i n f i g u r e 2, A, 90 percent o r more of t h e ions produced i n t h e flow f i e l d a r e molecular ions; the ionlproduction processes are atom-atom and t h e recombination processes a r e of t h e two-body dissociative type. Both processes a r e considered f i n i t e r a t e . The p r i n c i p a l i o n i c reaction i n t h i s regime i s
N

e'

(1)

I n t h e highest velocity regime of t h e map, B, a completely d i f f e r e n t i o n i c situation exists e s s e n t i a l l y a l l t h e ions produced a r e atomic ions and recombinations occur only by slow three-body processes, namely

O+

e' e'

+ M +0 + +M
+N

M M

+ 13.61
+ 14.54

eV

(2)

N+

e V

(3)

where M is a t h i r d body, u&ally another electron. Two-body recombination processes are l a r g e l y excluded i n t h i s regime (even considering charge t r a n s f e r ) since, t o the right of t h e shaded area, t h e appropriate molecular species NO, 02, NO+, N2+, 0 ' represent l e s s than 10 percent of t h e i o n i c species. Because 2 t h e three-body processes a r e very slow a t reentry fluid-density levels, it i s t h e r e f o r e usually correct t o assume t h a t very few of t h e ions produced a t t h e nose of t h e vehicle recombine i n t h e subsequent expanded body flow (i.e., frozen i o n i c recombination). Hence, t h e e l e c t r o n concentrations w i l l be very high i n t h i s regime. The production processes a r e a l s o d i f f e r e n t i n t h i s regime due t o t h e importance of the d i r e c t e l e c t r o n impact ionizations at high enthalpy. These ionizations are e-

+x +

ZX+ +

e-

eE

(4)
i s the

where X is any of t h e n e u t r a l species (atomic o r molecular) and required energy.

192

I n t h e middle velocity: regime, C, both molecular and atomic ions are present i n t h e plasma, and a c l a s s of reactions c a l l e d charge t r a n s f e r s becomes very important i n both t h e production and recombination aspects of t h e flow, even though these reactions d i r e c t l y produce no net change i n t h e i o n i z a t i o n l e v e l . Their importance l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e charge t r a n s f e r s a r e fast r e l a t i v e t o other i o n i c processes and provide an i n d i r e c t path f o r t h e product i o n and depletion of atomic ions, which i s more rapid than d i r e c t i o n i z a t i o n and recombination of atomic species at these v e l o c i t i e s . For example, t h e d m i c m k ienizekicc md recmbin&.inn pmcesses ir? t h i s r e g i m e w e

N N

+ 2.77

e V e V

2 NO+ + e'
ZN$ + e'

(1)

+ 5.84

(5)

By t h e t r a n s f e r of charge from these molecular ions t o t h e atoms 0 and N, sign i f i c a n t "production" of atomic ions can take place within t y p i c a l nose-flow dwell times. Perhaps even more important i s t h e reverse of t h i s process (charge t r a n s f e r from atomic ions t o molecular species), since a path i s provided f o r t h e f i n i t e - r a t e depletion of electrons i n t h e expanded flow by means of twobody d i s s o c i a t i v e recombination. Without t h i s path, t h e atomic ions would be frozen because of slow three-body recombination. Since t h e dominant two-body recombination i s NO+ + e' i n t h i s velocity regime, as well as i n regime A, t h e low-velocity edge of t h e shaded area represents t h e point a t w h i c h t h e NO conc e n t r a t i o n i n t h e equilibrium nose flow equals t h e atomic ion concentration 0 + N+. This i s another way of saying t h a t two-body recombination i s a v a i l ' able f o r a l l t h e ions produced. The charge t r a n s f e r path r e f e r r e d t o a c t u a l l y c o n s i s t s of a l a r g e group of reactions (20 o r more), i n some only charge i s t r a n s f e r r e d and i n others a simultaneous t r a n s f e r of charge and exchange of atoms occurs ( r e f . 6).
The real problem i n regard t o t h e reentry chemical-kinetics p i c t u r e i s t h a t many of t h e important reaction-rate constants and t h e i r temperature dependencies are not well known. I n f a c t , t h e currently estimated u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n r a t e s a r e so l a r g e i n t h e medium- and high-velocity regimes t h a t t h e o v e r a l l u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n t h e flow-field electron concentrations amount t o f a c t o r s of from 10 t o 30. It i s obvious t h a t much improvement i n t h i s knowledge i s required i f plasma computations a r e t o be made with confidence i n these regimes. Inviscid Plasma Simulation
A l o g i c a l place t o study plasma processes i s i n ground f a c i l i t i e s , where attempts can be made t o simulate t h e reentry flow ( o r a t l e a s t t o i s o l a t e some of t h e s i g n i f i c a n t processes of t h e reentry flow) and t o measure changes i n i o n i c concentration. One of t h e most useful c l a s s e s of f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h i s purpose i s t h e shock tube and shock tunnel. I n figure 3, t h e reentry simulat i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s of present shock tunnels a r e shown superimposed on t h e reentry w chemical-kinetics map of f i g u r e 2. T o methods i n current use are i l l u s t r a t e d : complete simulation and stagnation streamline simulation. The upper shaded

area represents t h e complete simulation method i n which t h e r e f l e c t e d shock flow of a shock tube i s expanded through a hypersonic nozzle t o ambient f l i g h t , , The high stagnation enthalpy conditions i n the shock conditions u and p. tube permit such a n expansion. A model can be mounted i n t h i s flow and measurements can be made. There are, however, several l i m i t a t i o n s t o t h i s method. Because extremely high shock-tube pressures are required, t h e r e i s a s t r u c t u r a l l i m i t t o the operating range as indicated by t h e l i n e labeled "high-pressure Furthermore, t h e expanded nozzle flow does not duplicate t h e ambient limit." a i r composition due t o nonequilibrium recombination i n t h e nozzle. Because of t h i s nonequilibrium, t h e c l e a r l y v a l i d simulation range i s i n t h e lower a l t i tude regime wherein t h e nose flow can reach equilibrium as i n t h e f l i g h t s i t u a t i o n . The complete simulation method i s indeed useful, however, f o r s t u d i e s i n t h e low-velocity reentry regime, and such studies a r e currently i n progress a t (See a l s o t h e Polytechnic I n s t i t u t e of Brooklyn under Grant No. N s G - 4 0 9 . r e f s . 7 and 8.) Stagnation streamline simulation, as shown by t h e lower shaded area, i s accomplished by expanding t h e r e f l e c t e d shock-tube flow through a nozzle which i s shaped t o duplicate t h e expansion of a vehicle flow-field streamline ( t o a Mach number of approximately 4 ) which o r i g i n a t e s at, o r near, t h e stagnation p o i n t . The f l i g h t t o t a l enthalpy Hs and vehicle stagnation pressure ps (not free-stream stagnation pressure) must be duplicated i n order t o permit t h e simulation. The change i n f l u i d properties along t h e "streamline" i s studied by use of tunnel instrumentation. The primary constraint on t h i s scheme i s t h e l a r g e w a l l boundary l a y e r which develops a t t h e low d e n s i t i e s (low Reynolds numbers) required t o simulate a flow streamline a t t h e higher reentry a l t i t u d e s . The l i n e i n f i g u r e 3 labeled "low-pressure l i m i t " i n d i c a t e s t h e approximate a l t i t u d e simulation l i m i t due t o t h i s constraint. If a l l t h e s i g n i f i c a n t react i o n s were binary (two-body), then t h e results could be applied a l s o a t t h e higher a l t i t u d e s by using t h e binary scaling c r i t e r i o n ( r e f . 9 ) wherein non, s = Constant equilibrium e f f e c t s a r e duplicated a t d i f f e r e n t a l t i t u d e s f o r p

a t a given f l i g h t velocity ( s = distance along streamline t o a given value of CP/Cp,s). Unfortunately, t h i s i s not t h e case f o r t h e high-velocity atomic ion regime, or f o r t h e low-altitude portions of t h e other regimes (high f l u i d dens i t y ) . I n s p i t e of t h i s limitation, however, t h e method i s a very u s e f u l one f o r reentry chemical-kinetics study, since many of t h e important recombination reactions are thus made accessible. Investigations using t h i s simulation a r e c u r r e n t l y being carried out a t t h e Cornel1 Aeronautical Laboratory under A Contract No. N S 3-3976.
Also shown i n f i g u r e 3 a r e t h e v e l o c i t y - a l t i t u d e paths of some small-scale f l i g h t research vehicles (Langley Project RAM). These paths i l l u s t r a t e t h e c a p a b i l i t y f o r plasma simulation throughout t h e complete reentry map with t h i s approach. The incident shock-wave flow of a shock tube i s very u s e f u l f o r study of nonequilibrium production processes. Results of t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have application t o high-altitude reentry flow i n t h e bow shock region. (Note t h a t normal shocks can be used t o simulate t h e vehicle oblique-shock flow a s w e l l . ) I n f i g u r e 4 some generalized r e s u l t s of such s t u d i e s a r e shown and it w i l l be

i l l u s t r a t e d how implications regarding the r e e n t r y blackout point can be m a d e by a p p l i c a t i o n of such knowledge. Consider f i r s t (sketch i n f i g . 4) the f i n i t e d i s t a n c e s* which i s required f o r t h e flow behind t h e shock t o f i r s t reach t h e equilibrium value of e l e c t r o n concentration. (This i s not necessarily complete equilibrium s i n c e t h e n e u t r a l species a r e generally not i n equilibrium d i s s o c i a t i o n a t t h i s point The overshoot which u s u a l l y occurs i n Ne beyond t h i s point is, i n f a c t , due t o such a condition.) The increase, w i t h distance, of e l e c t r o n conceniraiioii due t o f i n i t e - r a t e production behind t h e shock i s shown, i n normalized form, i n t h e p l o t . For t h i s discussion, t h e overshoot and t h e r e t u r n t o complete equilibrium can be ignored. The curve f o r 23,000-fps f l i g h t v e l o c i t y i s based on r e s u l t s given i n reference 6, and t h e curve f o r high f l i g h t v e l o c i t y ( u > 35,000 f p s ) i s assumed on t h e b a s i s t h a t e l e c t r o n impact i o n i z a t i o n w i l l y i e l d about a 50-percent increase i n production r a t e i n t h e l a t e r s t a g e s of product ion. I f a t y p i c a l flow d i s t a n c e ( s e e a l s o f i g . 5 f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n ) i n t h e bow shock region - say bo, h e shock standoff d i s t a n c e - i s much longer than s*, t t h e required equilibrium i o n i z a t i o n distance, then t h e flow w i l l c e r t a i n l y come t o i o n i c equilibrium before expanding around t h e body. However, i f t h e ionizat i o n d i s t a n c e becomes very l a r g e r e l a t i v e t o t h e standoff distance, as a t high a l t i t u d e s where r a t e s are slow, then t h e f l u i d may be f a r s h o r t of i o n i c equilibrium a t t h e start of t h e expansion. Since a l l t h e production processes are two-body, and t h e competing three-body recombination processes ( f o r example, n e u t r a l atom recombination) can be neglected under conditions s h o r t of e q u i l i b rium production ( s e e r e f . 9 and again note t h a t , even a t t h e point N = Ne,eq> e t h e f l u i d i s g e n e r a l l y s h o r t of f u l l equilibrium and t h e f i n a l thermal and i o n i c equilibrium point i s reached much l a t e r ( f i g . 4 ) it i s permissible ), t o use t h e b i n a r y s c a l i n g c r i t e r i o n previously mentioned ( r e f . 9) f o r higha l t i t u d e s c a l i n g of t h e nonequilibrium shock-wave r e s u l t s a t a given v e l o c i t y . This c r i t e r i o n , along with p l o t s such as f i g u r e 4, was used t o e s t a b l i s h t h e boundary f o r "equilibrium" nose ionization given i n f i g u r e 2 - t h a t i s , t h e point where Ans = s*. By making an a d d i t i o n a l assumption, it i s possible t o use t h e foregoing nonequilibrium production results t o approximately determine some of t h e i n i t i a l r e e n t r y blackout p o i n t s without m a k i n g a complete f i n i t e - r a t e c a l c u l a t i o n (which can be extremely l a b o r i o u s ) . The assumption i s made t h a t , i n t h e flowexpansion regions, i o n i c recombination i s frozen i n a l t i t u d e regimes above t h e nose equilibrium boundary shown i n f i g u r e 2. This assumption cannot be applied, however, t o blackout determination i n t h e m e d i u m - and low-velocity regimes wherein t h e value of N e becomes high enough a t t h e start of t h e expansion t o allow s i g n i f i c a n t two-body recombination t o occur. This r e s t r i c t i o n i s seen from t h e following r e l a t i o n f o r two-body e l e c t r o n depletion:

as

(7)

195

where k r is t h e reverse rate ( f o r example, eq. (1))and u i s t h e l o c a l f l u i d velocity. For t y p i c a l values of k r and U, t h e highest allowable N e cm-3. By using these c r i t e r i a , t h e electron f o r these purposes i s about concentration a t t h e antenna location (flow expansion from t h e nose, where CP/Cp,s = 1.0, t o a specified value of $/Cp,s) a t a given a l t i t u d e can be found from binary scaling of t h e antenna value a t t h e "equilibrium" nose a l t i tude boundary i n f i g u r e 2. This method can be used t o define t h e i n i t i a l higha l t i t u d e , reentry blackout boundaries f o r l a r g e vehicles. For example, f o r H Mercury-Atlas o r Gemini-Titan o r b i t a l reentry, t h e V F blackout a l t i t u d e i s computed t o be about 313,000 f e e t using t h i s method, as compared with experimental values of 3lO,OOO t o 315,000 f e e t . For t h e F i r e vehicle reentry a t higher velocity, t h e VEF and C-band blackout a l t i t u d e s a r e computed t o be 333,000 feet and 292,000 f e e t , respectively, and t h e experimental values (ref. 10) a r e about 336,000 f e e t and 278,000 f e e t , respectively. For l a r g e r vehicles such as Apollo, the blackout a l t i t u d e s are somewhat higher than t h e s e a l t i t u d e s as discussed i n a subsequent section. Experimental studies of nonequilibrium production chemistry behind shock waves are being continued by several research groups, including those a t AvcoEverett Research Laboratory and Cornel1 Aeronautical Laboratory. Improved production rate knowledge i n t h e high-velocity regime ( electron impact production) is, of course, needed for proper assessment of t h e Apollo reentry plasma properties. Separated Flow Plasma Current knowledge regarding separated flow plasma p r o p e r t i e s i s not very refined, although great s t r i d e s are being made (see, f o r example, ref. 11). I n order t o determine, a t l e a s t grossly, t h e possible importance of t h i s plasma region i n reentry communications, electromagnetic-wave-propagation results from f l i g h t s involving separated regions have been studied. For t h i s purpose, r e s u l t s from t h e Mercury-Atlas r e e n t r i e s have been used, because t h e separated region completely surrounds t h e antennas. Shown i n f i g u r e 6 are t h e e f f e c t i v e values of reentry e l e c t r o n concentrat i o n a8 deduced from t h e propagation r e s u l t s , along w i t h computed values based on several assumed plasma models. The symbols represent t h e e l e c t r o n concent r a t i o n s required t o produce t h e observed attenuations when using a plane-wave, s l a b model of t h e propagation. The s i z e of t h e symbols i s i n d i c a t i v e of t h e uncertainty involved due t o t h e d a t a u n c e r t a i n t i e s and t h e use of t h e slab model. Note, f i r s t of a l l , t h a t t h e f i n i t e - r a t e inviscid-flow t h e o r e t i c a l model (plasma properties along a streamline expanded from t h e nose region t o t h e antenna region) does not provide a reasonable c o r r e l a t i o n i n t h e peak N e part of t h e reentry, although it appears t o be good otherwise. This lack of correlat i o n cannot be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e rate-knowledge uncertainty, so t h a t one must conclude t h a t t h i s plasma was not t h e s i g n i f i c a n t one f o r attenuation during t h e peak N period. A 25 reaction system w a s used i n t h i s m o d e l . It i s e i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t t h e peak N region appears t o be f l a t t e n e d ; t h i s i s e r e s u l t of increased two-body recombination a t t h e higher values of Ne (see eq. ( 7 ) ) , since t h e r e is a s u f f i c i e n t l y long dwell t i m e along t h e streamline

( t o t h e rearward antenna location) f o r t h i s a c t i o n t o be very e f f e c t i v e . For t h i s same reason, a rea,-ward antenna location i s p r e f e r r e d over a more forward. within certain l i m i t a t i o n s - a r e preferred over location, and l a r g e r bodies s m a l l e r bodies.

The r e s u l t s obtained from a separated plasma model are, however, seen t o be much c l o s e r t o t h e experimental results. Two p r i n c i p a l assumptions are used (1)t h e separated f l u i d is i n complete equilibrium, and ( 2 ) i n t h i s model: t h e e f f e c t i v e enthalpy of t h e f l u i d is 0.70 of t h e stagnation f i u i d en-t'naipy. By using these assumptions and an assumed pressure f o r the separated flow, t h e e l e c t r o n concentrations are readily calculated. The f i r s t assumption should be a reasonable one since t h e f l u i d dwell time i n t h i s low-velocity, r e c i r c u l a t i n g region i s long; whereas t h e second assumption i s r a t h e r a r b i t r a r y . It should be noted, however, t h a t the assumed value of 0.70Hs f o r t h e e f f e c t i v e f l u i d enthalpy i s not unreasonable i n t h e l i g h t of current knowledge, and t h e corr e l a t i o n shown i n f i g u r e 6 i s not obtained when using higher o r lower assumed values. I n order t o obtain good correlation a l s o with t h e d a t a near t h e peak heating period of t h e reentry, t h e additional assumption i s made t h a t a b l a t i o n impurities are present i n t h e separated f l u i d during t h i s period. It i s assumed t h a t a l k a l i impurities (sodium o r potassium) are present i n t h e separated f l u i d a t a peak mole f r a c t i o n of a l i t t l e more t h a n 10-5 during peak heating. These impurities would be present, of course, due t o impurities i n t h e o r i g i n a l ablat i o n heat s h i e l d before it i s vaporized and dissociated. Because t h e temperat u r e i n t h i s f l u i d region i s high, t h e a l k a l i p a r t i c l e s ( i . e . , t h e ionizable p a r t i c l e s ) are assumed t o be i n atomic form (unreacted). Again, t h e a b i a t i o n impurity assumptions a r e a r b i t r a r y but are i n l i n e with current knowledge on t h e subject. It can be concluded from t h e comparisons shown i n f i g u r e 6 t h a t , although other combinations of assumed enthalpy and impurity l e v e l might a l s o c o r r e l a t e t h e results, t h e r e a r e strong indications t h a t t h e separated flow plasma is t h e s i g n i f i c a n t one f o r attenuation during the peak N e p a r t of t h e reentry.
APOLLO REENTRY BLACKOUT

It i s possible t o make some gross estimates of t h e extent of reentry blackout f o r a blunt vehicle t h e s i z e of t h e Apollo reentry module, based on t h e concepts discussed. Such estimates a r e shown i n f i g u r e 7 f o r a body of approximately 12 f e e t i n diameter with a rearward antenna location. The Apollo reentry corridor i s a l s o shown i n t h e figure. Finite-rate, nonequilibrium inviscidflow concepts were used, and t h e separated flow model w a s t h a t previously given. Estimated bounds due t o both the inviscid and separated plasmas are shown f o r t h r e e d i f f e r e n t communications frequencies, although t h e VHF and X-band bounds a r e given only f o r comparison. The separated plasma bounds a r e shown only where they a r e t h e higher of t h e two bounds (higher N e than t h e i n v i s c i d ) , f o r example, the VRF calculations but it should be noted t h a t i n some cases t h e bounds f o r separated and f o r inviscid plasma are very close (as i n f i g . 6).

The c r i t e r i o n f o r determination of t h e bounds i s t h a t blackout and recovery w i l l occur a t a point. where t h e e l e c t r o n concentration ( i n t h e f l u i d i n t h e a f t regions through which t h e s i g n a l must propagate) equals t h e c r i t i c a l concent r a t i o n (Ne,cr) f o r t h e given s i g n a l frequency. When t h e s i g n a l must propagate through both types of plasma (depending on aspect angle, roll, and a t t i t u d e ) , then, of course, t h e higher of t h e two bounds a p p l i e s . This blackout c r i t e r i o n involves the "large body'' or "thick plasma" condition, which means t h e plasma t h i c k n e s s must be an appreciable f r a c t i o n of t h e s i g n a l wavelength. It can be seen from t h e r e s u l t s shown i n f i g u r e 7 t h a t Apollo S-band i s blacked out over a l a r g e portion of t h e t o t a l r e e n t r y i f both plasmas a r e involved, and over t h e e n t i r e f i r s t p o r t i o n o r f i r s t r e e n t r y i f only i n v i s c i d plasma i s involved. The s i g n a l is, of course, recovered during skipout. O t h e n o t h e r hand, if X-band were t o be used, only' part of t h e f i r s t r e e n t r y would be blacked out, even when both plasmas a r e considered. "his reduction i n r e e n t r y blackout extent could be s i g n i f i c a n t w i t h regard t o t h e number of radio-link s i t e s required f o r tracking and telemetxy (would be b e t t e r i l l u s t r a t e d on an altitude-range p l o t ) , as well as t o a p o s s i b l e reduced requirement f o r onboard navigational and guidance equipment. It i s well t o emphasize t h a t t h e i n v i s c i d plasma bounds shown f o r Apollo communications are based on a rearward antenna l o c a t i o n s i n c e t h i s i s more favorable than a forward l o c a t i o n . This d e s i r a b i l i t y a r i s e s from t h e f a c t t h a t two-body i o n i c recombination i s much more e f f e c t i v e , due t o t h e longer flow length, i n reducing N along t h e i n v i s c i d flow streamlines i n t h e medium- and, e low-velocity regimes. The e f f e c t i v e n e s s is seen from t h e marked d i p s icn t h e S- and X-band bounds i n t h e s e regimes. Such a d i p is not seen f o r VHF, because t h e electron concentration i n t h e high a l t i t u d e regime i s t o o low t o be effect i v e - t h a t is, below lou (see eq. (7) and r e l a t e d d i s c u s s i o n ) . Therefore, although t h e S-band and X-band bounds i n t h e high-velocity regime and t h e VHF bounds would be l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t from those shown, use of a more forward antenna would reduce t h e d i p s i n t h e s e bounds. I n f a c t , f o r a l o c a t i o n r a t h e r far forward on t h e afterbody, t h e S- and X-band bounds i n t h i s d i p region would be even higher than t h e separated plasma bounds. The rearward l o c a t i o n i s t h e r e f o r e t h e more desirable, even when separated plasma i s involved. I n any case, although t h e r e s u l t s shown here are c e r t a i n l y based on oversimplified concepts (with respect t o a complicated flow s i t u a t i o n such as t h a t f o r Apollo), they probably represent as reasonable an assessment of t h e blackout bounds as can be presently m a d e f o r Apollo. I n order t o improve on estimates such as these, three-dimensional flowf i e l d calculations coupled with improved chemical-kinetics knowledge i s necess a r y f o r the i n v i s c i d flow. Much improvement i s a l s o needed i n knowledge of t h e f l u i d mechanics and chemistry of separated airflows with contamination. Even w i t h the improved plasma knowledge (which may be a v a i l a b l e within 18 months o r so) t h e electromagnetic-wave-propagation problem must a l s o be b e t t e r understood for antenna configurations i n close proximity t o plasmas and f o r propagat i o n involving unsymmetrical plasma configurations.

CONTINUING RFSEARCH EFFORT I n order t o provide a more r e l i a b l e b a s i s f o r t h e design and planning of r e e n t r y communications of spacecraft i n the higher v e l o c i t y e a r t h regimes, as well as f o r planetary entry, t h e Langley Research Center (LRC) i s continuing i t s research i n t h e s e problem areas. The program ( P r o j e c t RAM) has a l r e a d y cont r i b u t e d much t o t h e understanding and reduction of blackout as a r e s u l t of fundamental research i n t h e a r e a s of plasma processes and electromagnetic-wave propagation ( r e f . 5 ) .
The e f f o r t involves t h e use of ground f a c i l i t i e s and small-scale f l i g h t experiments, supplemented by outside contracts, and t h i s research has, and w i l l have, a d i r e c t bearing on Apollo reentry communications. For example, diagn o s t i c instrumentation on RAM C-B w i l l provide b a s i c plasma data i n a regime which i s p e r t i n e n t t o Apollo and which cannot be simulated i n ground f a c i l i t i e s . Furthermore, t h e most promising method f o r reduction of t h e blackout f o r a mission such as Apollo - t h a t of material a d d i t i o n was conceived and f l i g h t demonstrated i n t h e RAM program ( r e f . 3 ) , and w i l l be f u r t h e r r e f i n e d i n t h e current e f f o r t . Demonstration of t h i s scheme for a manned r e e n t r y was accomp l i s h e d i n t h e GT-3 mission, and t h i s experiment i s discussed i n paper no. 22 by Shroeder and paper no. 23 by Beckwith, Bushnell, and Huffman. It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t , although t h i s experiment involved i n j e c t i o n of material i n t o t h e i n v i s c i d flow, t h e r e s u l t s a l s o suggest t h e importance of t h e separ a t e d plasma.

Research i n t h e areas of wave propagation through plasmas and of t h e e f f e c t s of plasmas on antenna performance has r e s u l t e d i n s i g n i f i c a n t advances i n knowledge ( r e f . 5 ) . The r e s u l t s are, i n f a c t , unique i n having provided q u a n t i t a t i v e propagation d a t a under s p e c i f i a b l e f l i g h t plasma conditions.
A s a result of t h i s program and of work contributed by o t h e r research organizations i n t h e s e categories, it i s believed that t h e Apollo r e e n t r y communications blackout can be more closely d e l i n e a t e d and by t h e employment of c e r t a i n p h y s i c a l modifications can indeed be g r e a t l y reduced.

EO MN AI N CONCLUSIONS AND R C M E D TO S

The following p o i n t s are believed t o represent a reasonable assessment of t h e r e e n t r y communications blackout p i c t u r e i n regard t o t h e Apollo mission, as based on c u r r e n t knowledge and projected research:
1 The f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s i n both t h e i n v i s c i d - and separated-flow regions . about t h e Apollo r e e n t r y module must be defined i n order t o determine quantit a t i v e l y t h e e x t e n t of o r t o design means t o a l l e v i a t e t h e r e e n t r y comunicat i o n s blackout. 2. Improved chemical-kinetics knowledge i s required t o properly d e f i n e . t h e i n v i s c i d plasma.

3 . An improved understanding of t h e separated plasma f l o w and of t h e e f f e c t s of a b l a t i o n impurities i n t h i s flow i s a l s o required.

4. A s a r e s u l t of continuing research i n ground f a c i l i t i e s and with s m a l l s c a l e f l i g h t experiments, where required f o r f l i g h t plasma simulation, it i s expected t h a t t h e more important refinements needed i n i n v i s c i d and separated plasma knowledge w i l l be a v a i l a b l e within a time s c a l e applicable t o t h e Apollo mission.
5 . I n order t o v e r i f y and supplement and of blackout a l l e v i a t i o n techniques a t mended t h a t consideration be given t o t h e instrumentation and m a t e r i a l i n j e c t i o n on flight.
knowledge of the plasma p r o p e r t i e s a c t u a l Apollo conditions, it i s recomemployment of d i a g n o s t i c plasma an e a r l y Apollo r e e n t r y v e l o c i t y

6. Estimates based on t h e b e s t present knowledge i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e S-band r e e n t r y blackout w i l l start a t . a n a l t i t u d e between 325,000 and 330,000 f e e t , and s i g n a l recovery w i l l occur a t a v e l o c i t y as low as 14,000 f p s , depending upon aspect angle, a t t i t u d e , and r o l l o r i e n t a t i o n . Recovery during skipout i s a l s o t o be expected. These estimates a r e based on a rearward antenna location; f o r a more forward location, t h e blackout i s more severe. A rearward antenna l o c a t i o n i s t h e r e f o r e recommended. 7. The blackout extent can be s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced through t h e use of an X-band communications system, and it i s recommended that consideration be given t o t h e use of t h i s system i n f u t u r e mission planning.
8. The material-addition scheme f o r e l e c t r o n d e p l e t i o n i s a promising one f o r reduction of Apollo reentry blackout, and it i s recommended t h a t considerat i o n be given t o i t s use, possibly i n combination with t h e X-band system b u t not r e s t r i c t e d t o such, i n f u t u r e mission planning.

200

REFERENCES
1. Huber, Paul W.; and Sims, The0 E.: The Entry-Communications Problem. Astrcnaut. Aeron., 7x01. 2, no. 10, Oct. 1964, pp. 30-38. (Available a l s o a s NASA RP-384.) 2. Bnunmer, E. A.: X-Band Telemetry Systems f o r Reentry Research. No. C 63-663, I n s t . Elec. Electron. E n g r . , Apr. 1963. P

Paper

3 . Cuddihy, W i l l i a m F.; Beckwith, Ivan E.; and Schroeder, Lyle C. : RAM B2

F l i g h t Test of a Method f o r Reducing Radio Attenuation During Hypersonic Reentry. N S T X-902, 1963. AA M

4. Spencer, Dwain F.:

A n Evaluation of the Communication Blackout Problem f o r a Blunt Mars-Entry Capsule and a Potential Method f o r t h e Elimination of A Blackout. Tech. R e p t . No. 32-594 (Contract No. N S T-lOO), Jet Propulsion Lab., C.I.T., Apr. 15, 1964.

3 . Anon.:

Proceedings of t h e NASA Conference on Communicating Through Plasmas of Atmospheric ktry and Rocket Exhaust. N S SP-52, 1964. AA

6. Lin, Shao-Chi; and Teare, J. Derek:

Rate of Ionization Behind Shock Waves in Air. 1 . Theoretical Interpretations. Phys. Fluids, vol. 6, no. 3, 1 M r 1963, PP. 355-375. a.
Q.; Daiber, J. W.; Golian, T. C.; and Hertzberg, A. : Shock Tunnel Studies of High-Enthalpy Ionized Airflows. Rept. No. AF-1500-A-l (AFOSR 3O*), Cornel1 Aeron. Lab., Inc., J u l y 1962.

7. Eschenroeder, A.

8. Lederman, Samuel; Visich, Marian, Jr.; and Abele, Manlio:

Preliminary Results of an Experimental Investigation of t h e Properties of t h e Plasma Sheath Around a Hypersonic Reentry Body. PIBAL Rept. No. 856, Polytech. I n s t . Brooklyn, Dec. 1964.

9. Gibson, Walter E. : Dissociation Scaling f o r Nonequilibrium Blunt Nose Flows.

ARS J. (Tech. Notes), vol. 32, no. 2, Feb. 1962, pp. 283-287.

Flight Measurements of Reentry Heating a t Hy-per10. Dingeldein, Richard C.: b o l i c Velocity (Project F i r e ) . NASA 'I'M X-1033, 1965. 1 . Reeves, B a r r y L.; and Lees, Lester: Theory of t h e Laminar Near Wake of 1 Blunt Bodies i n Hypersonic Flow. Paper No. 63-52, Am. I n s t . Aeron. Astronaut. Jan. 1965.

201

BLUNT-BODY REENTRY IONIZATION CHEM ICAL-KI NET1CS REGIMES APOLLO NEAR-FLOW-FIELD REGIONS
A -MOLECULAR IONS ONLY ( A T O M - A T O M S 2 BODY F I N ITE-RATE RECOMB INAT ION) B - A T O M I C IONS ONLY (ELECTRON I M P A C T 3 3 BODY SLOW RECOMBINATION) c - FAST CHARGE TRANSFER REACTIONS 400

dION

lo3

PRODUCTION NEGLl GI BLE PRODUCTION AND RECOMBINATION NONEQUI L I BR I U M PRODUCTION EQUl L l BR I U M RECOMBINATION NONEQU IL I BR I U M COMPLETE EQUILIBRIUM

ALTITUDE, FT

10

20 30 VELOCITY, FPS

40

SOx

3 1

Figure 1

Figure 2

SHOCK -WAVE SHOCK-TUNNEL FLOW-FIELD SIMULATION

NONEQUILl BRl UM IONIZATION

iu = 2 . FPS) 3W
ALTITUDE, FI SSURE L I M I T STAGNATION STREAMLINE SIMULATION

I
0

PS

psl

Io

o ;

io

.lo

;ox

1 3

-4 10 -3 10

10-2

10-1
5/5*

10

102

VELOCITY, FPS

Figure 3

Figure 4

COMPARISON OF FLOW DISTANCE WITH IONIZATION DISTANCE

ELECTRON DENSITIES FOR MERCURY-ATLAS FLIGHTS

TSHOCK

0 SIGNAL BARELY AFFECTED 1

0 BLACKOUT

VHF

0 SIGNAL BARELY AFFECTED

= H I G H ATTENUATION

INVISCID SEPARATED

LOWALT:TUDE,

4 >>LO 1
I.

H i G H \ A t T i T U D EI*s .

c < 1.0

EQUILIBRIUM PRODUCTION

NONEQUlLlBRlUM PRODUCTION

Figure 5

Figure 6

ESTIMATED SIGNAL BLACKOUT BOUNDS FOR LARGE BLUNT BODY

d -12FT

-INVISCID

300 ALTITUDE, F l

ABLATION

200*,.

100 NOTE: A GIVEN SIGNAL BAND I S BLACKED OUT BELOW ITS DESIGNATED CURVE

Figure 1

2 . FLIGET RESULTS OF GEMINI REENTziy 2

COMMZTNICATIONS EXpERIME2XC By Lyle C. Schroeder

P

SUlvlMARY

r
I

A method of overcoming reentry blackout by injecting water into the flow field was demonstrated during the Gemini-Titan 3 mission. Significant levels of signal-strength increase corresponding to the early portion ofthe water injection sequence were received on UHF telemetry (230.4 Me) and UHF voice ( 9 . Mc) frequencies. Enhancement of C-band beacon (5690 Mc) signal was 268 observed corresponding to latter portions of the water-injection sequence. UHF signal recovered during water injection exhibited an antenna pattern beamed in the radial direction of injection from the spacecraft.

INTRODUCTION The comnmications blackout problem has been studied for several years by Project RAM at the Langley Research Center. Early work was devoted to attempts to understand the problem and to arrive at a method of predicting radio-signal attenuation levels (refs. 1 to 5 ; whereas much of the more recent work has ) been directed toward development of methods of alleviating communications blackout and measurement of attenuation-sensitive parameters under simulated and actual-flight conditions (refs. 6 to 1 ) A summary of Project RAM work to 2. date is available in references 5 and 13. One of the most promising communications-blackout alleviation techniques tested has been that of material addition to the ionized flow field. The additive reduces the concentration of electrons in the ionized media through droplet recombination, cooling, and electrophilic mechanisms to cause a reduction in signal attenuation. Tests conducted on a 1-inch-nose-radius model immersed in a rocket-exhaust plasma have shown that water addition causes complete restoration of the attenuates signal (ref. 1 ) Similar results were found 0. during a flight test of a 4-inch-nose-radlusmodel (ref. l ) In the tests l. cited, water injected in a sector of the flow field caused complete omnidirectional signal recovery for very moderate flow rates. This signal restoration in the tests led to the conclusion that the material-addition technique was feasible for a spacecraft of the shape and size of Gemini. Some of the advantages in testing the material-addition,technique on a Gemini spacecraft are as follows: Gemini is a practical vehicle in that it is a manned, blunt spacecraft with an ablative heat shield; the size of Gemini is ten times that of the last RAM flight test vehicle; the reentry velocity of Gemini is about 7000 ft/sec faster than that of the last RAM flight test vehicle; and the information is timely for application to future space reentries.

However, many conditions were not favorable f o r conducting t h e experiment on t h e GT-3 spacecraft. The most important Of these were (1)t h e UHF antenna was located far:from t h e i n j e c t i o n nozzles i n t h e aft end of t h e spacecraft i n a separated f l o h region, and ( 2 ) spacecraft f l i g h t parameters, p a r t i c u l a r l y roll a t t i t u d e (upon which signal recovery l e v e l i s q u i t e dependent), were such t h a t t h e water-injection window w a s not pointed toward ground receiving s t a t i o n s .

n ent i s a evaluation of t h e technique as applied to th e body. It i s believed t h a t t h e r e s u l t s obtained under such unfavorable conditions a r e q u i t e s i g n i f i c a n t .
EXPERlMENT DESCRIPTION
System Geometry Normally, t h e Gemini spacecraft begins r e e n t r y oriented upside down, with t h e heat shield forward. ( A l l d i r e c t i o n s a r e with respect t o t h e astronauts.) The GT-3 spacecraft w a s banked 45O t o the a s t r o n a u t ' s l e f t from t h i s position. This orientation of t h e spacecraft, viewed from t h e south s i d e of t h e r e e n t r y f l i g h t path, i s shown i n f i g u r e 1. The r e e n t r y UHF antenna w a s on t h e a f t end of the spacecraft and t h e C-band antennas were on t h e conical portion. The experiment compartment ( t h e right main landing-gear door) i s outlined by dashed l i n e s . It can be seen from t h i s f i g u r e t h a t t h e i n j e c t i o n nozzles were on t h e circumference of t h e conical portion about 15O above t h e southern horizontal. Also shown i n this figure i s t h e anticipated d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e water injected. Figure 2, which i l l u s t r a t e s these locations i n more d e t a i l , shows t h a t t h e i n j e c t i o n nozzles are about 30 t o the right of the bottom or windward side. (Since t h e spacecraft f l i e s at angle of a t t a c k , it w a s determined t h a t water requirements would be l e s s i f the i n j e c t i o n took place from t h e windward s i d e . ) From t h i s detailed i l l u s t r a t i o n it can be seen t h a t t h e i n j e c t i o n nozzles were pointed forward so t h a t t h e d i r e c t i o n of i n j e c t i o n w a s about 20 off t h e spacec r a f t cone generator ray. Window Size The "window" i s defined as t h e volume d i s t r i b u t i o n of w a t e r i n t h e flow f i e l d . It i s assumed t h a t t h e attenuating mechanisms are relieved i n t h e window, and hence t h e window might be considered a "hole" i n t h e plasma with f r e e space properties. The s i z e of t h e window created by w a t e r i n j e c t i o n w a s a t f i r s t assumed and l a t e r examined i n wind-tunnel t e s t s which a r e discussed i n paper no. 23 by Beckwith, Bushnell, and Huffman. Since the spacecraft and plasma sheath i s l a r g e with respect t o a UHF wavelength, it w a s suspected t h a t t h e major r a d i a t i o n from t h e spacecraft would be beamed through the window created by water addition. Studies were performed t o determine t h e pattern-beamwidth c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and s i g n a l recovery expected with various assumed window s i z e s . The r e s u l t s confirming that beaming would 1 occur are presented i n a subsequent section.
206

The onboard experiment consisted of a water-injection system which was designed into the right main landing-gear door. Figure 3 illustrates the installation of the experiment equipment on the inside of this door. The . electrical details of the system are presented in figure 4 The system was completely independent of other spacecraft interfaces except for the electrical actuation switch and leads to the astronauts' cabin. This gas pressurized water-injection system is shown schematically in figure 5. The system was designed to be actuated by the right astronaut, simultaneously supplying water expulsion pressure through the regulator to the water tank and starting the mechanical timer. Once every 15 seconds the timer opens and closes contacts to each of three solenoid valves from which water is injected. This system was designed to produce pulses alternately of low, medium, and high flow rates with /0 durations of 1/2, 1/4, and 1 1 second. Figure 6 is a plot of flow rate against time for one injection cycle. The water supply is depleted after about 12 cycles. The planned experiment actuation time for the GT-3 mission was 45 seconds after the beginning of UEI? blackout. It was possible to update predictions for the beginning of UHF blackout after retrofire. Frequencies Transmitted Three frequencies are in operation during reentry: UHF telemetry at

230.4 Mc, UBF voice at 296.8 Mc, and C-band at 5690 Mc. On the UHF telemetry
system, a power of 2 watts is transmitted into a quarter-wave stub antenna with a gain of 2.5 over isotropic and a VSWR of about 2.1:l. On the UHF voice system, a power of 3 watts is transmitted into the same stub antenna with about the same gain and a VSWR of about 2.85:~ The C-band radar transponder operates at 1-kilowatt peak power which is fed to three helical antennas to form a circular roll pattern. Ground Stations During the experiment operation period, ground stations located near the reentry flight path were requested t o monitor signal strength on UHF telemetry, UHF voice, and C-band frequencies. Stations requested to monitor signal strength are given in the following table:

Station

UHF telemetry
E g l i n A i r Force Base Mission Control Center a t Cape Kennedy Telemetry S i t e I1 a t Cape Kennedy Mila at Cape Kennedy Patrick A i r Force Base Grand Bahama Island Grand Turk Island Anclote Point (Eglin Air Force Base) Key West (Langley Research Center van) Homestead (Langley Research Center van) Aircraft (4)

UBF v o i c e
X X X

C-band
X

X X X X

X X X X X

The locations of t h e s t a t i o n s with respect t o t h e spacecraft during blackout and experiment are shown i n figure 7.

GROUND

GuppoRT

STUDIES

Penetration and Flow R a t e Studies

A study w a s made t o determine f l o w rate requirements and t o optimize penet r a t i o n parameters involved. This work i s similar t o that reported i n r e f e r ence 14 and i s not discussed except t o present applicable r e s u l t s .
The estimated water-injection flow r a t e s are given i n f i g u r e 8. The bottom curve i s t h e i n j e c t i o n flow rate required t o lower t h e temperature T of t h e a i r i n t h e flow f i e l d t o 2600O K and the electron concentration N t o lo8 cm-3 e (assuming c m p l e t e evaporation and i d e a l conditions). This curve i s assumed t o represent a lower l i m i t t o the flow rate required. The top curve represents t h e flow rate required t o provide an air-water mixture with a r a t i o of coolant mass t o a i r mass me/% of 3 a t a temperature of 18000 K. It i s believed t h a t t h i s curve represents a good upper l i m i t t o flow r a t e required, since ~ / m ,for t h e minimum flow r a t e on t h e RAM B2 flight varied from 0.5 a t t h e lowest a l t i tudes t o 3 at t h e highest a l t i t u d e s and since t h e r e w a s s i g n a l recovery throughout t h e f l i g h t ( r e f . 11). Flow rates selected f o r t h i s mission are shown a l s o i n t h i s figure. Since penetration could not be optimized throughout t h e a l t i t u d e range, design" a l t i t u d e s were chosen f o r each flow rate. Penetration w a s chosen -to extend t o t h e shock a t these a l t i t u d e s . Lateral and longitudinal penet r a t i o n s were measured a l s o t o determine t h e approximate s i z e of the FU? window.
I1

Antenna Pattern Studies

A s e r i e s of t e s t s w a s conducted t o determine t h e degree of recovery and antenna p a t t e r n produced when a s l o t i s opened i n t h e ionized flow f i e l d . I n these t e s t s a transmitting s c a l e model w a s immersed i n a lossy medium t o simul a t e t h e Gemini i n a plasma sheath. Slots of varying aperture s i z e were cut i n t h e shrouds t o determine the r e s u l t i n g antenna patterns. Figure 9 shows t h e antenna p a t t e r n f o r a s l o t s i z e corresponding t o t h e anticipated d i s t r i b u t i o n of droplets as determined by wind-tunnel tests. It w a s noted, however, t h a t t h e beamwidth c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s did not depend strongly on s l o t size, so long as t h e window extended lengthwise beyond t h e UIIF antenna. It can be seen from t h e r o l l p l o t s that a beaming occurs i n the d i r e c t i o n of i n j e c t i o n . Therefore, f o r t h e GT-3 mission, receivers tracking the spacecraft a t g r e a t e r than approxi0 mately 5 i n r o l l aspect angle around from t h e RF window would not have been expected t o receive much signal.

208

Thermal Studies Calculaticns and t e s t s veye mde t o insixre t h a t t h e w a t e r i n t h e tanks and tubes would not freeze i n o r b i t . It w a s determined that t h e system could withstand six o r b i t s of t h e worst possible conditions without freezing. Spacecraft S t a b i l i t y Calculations were made t o insure that t h e f o r c e moments due t o i n j e c t i o n would not cause any spacecraft i n s t a b i l i t y . These calculations confirmed that any vehicle motions would be so minor that they would be unnoticed on t h e spacecraft. RESULTS Reentry Events The v a r i a t i o n of a l t i t u d e with time i s s h a m i n figure 10; t h e r e e n t r y f l i g h t path w a s previously shown i n f i g u r e 7. I n both figures, s p e c i a l r e f e r ence i s made t o times important t o the experiment. UHF blackout began a t 4:39:59 (hr:min:sec elapsed from l i f t - o f f ) a t an a l t i t u d e of about 318,000 feet. A t about 4: $:26 ( 3 min 33 sec before blackout), t h e spacecraft banked 45' t o t h e l e f t , placing t h e i n j e c t i o n nozzles about 750 south of s t r a i g h t up o r about 150 above t h e horizontal. The experiment w a s actuated a t 4:41:16 (1min 17 sec a f t e r blackout began) a t an a l t i t u d e o f &bout 272,000 f e e t , and it ended a f t e r 3 minutes a t an a l t i t u d e of 160,000 f e e t . Blackout ended a t 4:45:00 a t an a l t i t u d e of about 134,000 f e e t

'
'

Water Flow Rates The flow rate of the water-injection system w a s determined by p r e f l i g h t c a l i b r a t i o n and w a s not monitored i n real t i m e . Twelve cycles of t h r e e d i f f e r e n t flow r a t e s from 0.3 lb/sec t o 7.25 lb/sec were employed over t h e d a t a period. The flow-rate sequence was shown previously as f i g u r e 6. Signal-Strength Measurements Signal-strength records from a l l s t a t i o n s have been analyzed. The signalstrength records fromKey West, Homestead, a i r c r a f t 3, a i r c r a f t 4, and Grand Bahama I s l a n d show that s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l s of s i g n a l recovery w e r e observed on U" telemetry and UHF voice frequencies corresponding t o t h e e a r l y portion of t h e water-injection sequence. The l a t i t u d e and longitude and a l t i t u d e when pulses were noted are shown i n figures 7 and 10, respectively. I n figure ll, p l o t s of signal. strength against time f o r t h e Key West s t a t i o n show two welldefined signal-recovery pulses plus a t h i r d less d e f i n i t i v e one. Each pulse corresponds t o t h e high water flow r a t e . A i r c r a f t 3, a i r c r a f t 4, and Grand

Bahama Island s t a t i o n s did not receive t h e t h i r d signal-recovery gulse. s i g n a l recovery was received from t h e low and medium flow r a t e s .

NO

Function records from Mila (Cape Kennedy) and Grand Bahama Island C-band radars show signal-strength enhancement pulses corresponding t o t h e l a t t e r port i o n of the i n j e c t i o n sequence. I n f i g u r e 12, a t r a c i n g of t h e C-band signalstrength oscillograph record a t t h e Grand Bahama Island s t a t i o n i s shown. The record i s broken s o that each l i n e i s one i n j e c t i o n period long. The time during which i n j e c t i o n occurs i s indicated. Pulses of s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l can be seen corresponding t o t h e medium and high water flow rates. The s t a t i o n s a t Mila and Grand Bahama I s l a n d were tracking i n beacon mode. The other Cape Kennedy C-band radar w a s tracking i n t h e skin-track mode and, consequently, did not record any enhancement pulses. C-band radar records a t Eglin A i r Force Base d i d not show these enhancement pulses. Anclote Point data are inconclusive. DISCUSSION

UHF Results

It has been reported that t h e Gemini URF s i g n a l which had been completely blacked out was increased up t o 20 dB above receiver noise by water addition. The significance of these results i s t h a t t h e material-addition technique of radio-signal attenuation a l l e v i a t i o n has been shown t o work f o r a body of t h e s i z e and shape of Gemini. O f added significance a r e t h e f a c t s t h a t s i g n a l recovery was noted even though aspect angles t o t h e ground s t a t i o n s were far from optimum and that t h e predictions are based on a flow f i e l d which i s not well known. It i s indicated t h a t much improvement can be made i n applying t h e technique if the experiment can be performed under more s u i t a b l e conditions.

Recovery w a s noticed f o r the f i r s t three high flow-rate pulses only, between a l t i t u d e s of 275,000 f e e t and 245,000 f e e t . Recovered s i g n a l w a s very strong, but became marginal on t h e l a s t pulse. This aspect of signal recovery i s further a s c u s s e d i n paper no. 23, b u t it appears that several f a c t o r s could be involved i n t h e reduced effectiveness during t h e l a t t e r p a r t of t h e data period: (1) The long distance from t h e i n j e c t i o n sites t o t h e UHF antenna, (2) unbowns of t h e Gemini flow f i e l d , and (3) penetration less than predicted.

No stations north of t h e f l i g h t path received any UBF signal-recovery pulses except Grand Bahama, Island, where t h e aspect angle a t t h e time of s i g n a l recovery was almost d i r e c t l y forward. On t h e south s i d e of t h e f l i g h t path, four stations (not including Grand Bahama I s l a n d ) received t h e URF signalrecovery pulses. These r e s u l t s are i n agreement with Langley pattern-beamwidth s t u d i e s which predicted that t h e signal would be beamed toward t h e south s i d e of t h e f l i g h t path.
C-Band Results Signal recovery on C-band frequency w a s not r e a l l y anticipated since t h e onboard antenna locations were not favorable. However, pulses of l 5 - B increa

210

i n s i g n a l strength were noted f o r both medium and high w a t e r flow r a t e s on Cape Kennedy and Grand Bahama I s l a n d radars for the portion of t h e experiment from 100 seconds t o 175 seconds a f t e r experiment i n i t i a t i o n . These pulses w e r e not received a t t h e Eglin s t a t i o n which beacon tracked t h e e a r l y portion of t h e f l i g h t , and Anclote Point data a r e inconclusive. A t t e m p t s are being made t o l i n k these C-band r e s u l t s with p a t t e r n and penetration parameters.

An experiment w a s conducted during the Gemini-Titan 3 mission t o determine whether water addition i s e f f e c t i v e i n establishing communications l i n k s during t h e r e e n t r y portion of the flight. Attenuation l e v e l s w e r e measured with and without water i n j e c t i o n a t UHF frequencies of 230.4 M and 296.8 M and t h e c c C-band frequency of 5690 Mc. UHF signals which had been blacked out were r e s t o r e d t o s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l s during early portions of t h e water-injection sequence by t h e high flow rate i n j e c t i o n . C-band s i g n a l w a s enhanced during t h e l a t t e r portion of t h e i n j e c t i o n p e r i o d b y medium and high flow rate i n j e c H' t i o n s . U E s i g n a l recovered during water i n j e c t i o n exhibited an antenna p a t t e r n beamed i n t h e radial d i r e c t i o n of i n j e c t i o n from t h e spacecraft.

Although t h e experimental r e s u l t s which were obtained during the GT-3 f l i g h t a r e q u i t e s i g n i f i c a n t , it i s believed t h a t f u t u r e e x p e r b e n t s u t i l i z i n g a more i d e a l antenna location and vehicle orientation would r e s u l t i n more e f f i c i e n t use of t h e water.

211

1 Sims, Theo E.; and Jones, Robert F.: Rocket Exhaust Effects on Radio Fre. quency Propagation From a Scout Vehicle and Signal Recovery During the Injection of Decomposed Hydrogen Peroxide. NASA TM X-529, 1961.
2 Huber, Paul W.; and Evans, John S.: Theoretical Shock-Layer Plasma Flow . Properties for the Slender Probe and Comparison With the Flight Results. NASA paper presented at Second Symposium on the Plasma Sheath (Boston, Mass.), Apr. 10-12, 1962.

3. Brummer, E. A.j and Harrington, R. F.: A Unique Approach ta an X-Band

Telemetry Receiving System. Proc. 1962 Nat. Telemetering Conf., Vol. 1 , May 1962. (Sponsored by American Rocket Soc., American Inst. Electrical Eng., Inst. Aerospace Sci., Instrument SOC. of America, Inst. Radio Eng.)

4 Huber, Paul W.; and Nelson, Clifford H.: Plasma Frequency and Radio Attenu.
ation. Proceedings of the NASA-University Conference on the Science and Technology of Space Exploration, Vol. 2 NASA SP-11, 1962, pp. 347-360. , (Also available as NASA SP-25.)

5. Anon.: Proceedings of the NASA Conference on Communicating Through Plasmas of Atmospheric Entry and Rocket Exhaust. NASA SP-52, 1964.
6. Sims, The0 E.J and Jones, Robert F.: Flight Measurements of VHF Signal
Attenuation and Antenna Impedance for the RAM A1 Slender Probe at Velocities up to 1 , 0 Feet Per Second. NASA TM x-760, 1963. 780

7. McIver,

Duncan E., Jr.: Study of the Effects of a Rocket Exhaust on Radio Frequency Signal Attenuation by the Use of a Recoverable Camera on the NASA Scout Vehicle. NASA TM X-888, 1963.

8. McIver, Duncan E., Jr.; Jones, W. Linwood; and Cuddihy, William F. : Effects of External Material Injection on Radio-Signal Transmission Through a Rocket Exhaust. NASA TM X-1049, 1965

9. Russo, F. P.; and Hughes, J. K.: Measurements of the Effects of Static Magnetic Fields on VHF Transmission in Ionized Flow Fields. NASA TM X-907, 1964.
1 . Cuddihy, W. F.; and Hughes, J. Kenrick: Simulated Reentry Tests of a Method 0 for Reducing Radio Blackout by Material Addition to Ionized Flow Field. NASA TM X-988, 1 6 . 94 1 . Cuddihy, William F.; Beckwith, Ivan E.; and Schroeder, Lyle C.: RAM B2 1 Flight Test of a Method for Reducing Radio Attenuation During Hypersonic Reentry. NASA TM X-902, 1963.

12. Grantham, William L.: Preliminary Analysis of Plasma-Sheath Electron Densitk Measurements at Entry Velocities. NASA TM X-1035, 1964.

" _-

13. Sims, Theo E.: Reentry Communications Research at Langley Research Center. EZE In%em. Conv. Eecord, vol. 13, pt. 4 1965, pp. 99-104. ,

14. Beckwith, Ivan E.; and H u f f m a n , J a r r e t t K. : Injection and Distribution of

Liquids in the Flow Fields of Blunt Shapes at Hypersonic Speeds.
NASA

TM X-989, 1964.

LOCATION OF REENTRY COMMUNICATIONS EXPERIMENT ON GEMINI SPACECRAFT

GEMINI EXPERIMENT LOCATION ON SPACECRAFT

VECTOR

OF ATTACK

EXPERIMENT COMPARTMENT

Figure 1

Figure 2

REENTRY COMMUNICATIONS EXPERIMENT EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION ON INSIDE OF RIGHT MAIN LANDING GEAR DOOR
H I G H FLOW RATE SOLENOID WATER CHARGING VALVE RIGHT M A I N LANDINGWATER PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE MEDIUM FLOW RATE SOLENOID LOW FLOW RATE SOLENOID NITROGEN PRESSURE TANK NITROGEN H RELIEF VALV NITROGEN PRESSURE REG & SOLENOID SHUTOFF VA NITROGEN CHARGING VALVE ARMING RECEPTACLE LECTRICAL COMPONENT ASSEMBLY NITROGEN PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

REENTRY COMMUNICATIONS EXPERIMENT WIRING DIAGYh

NITROGEN LOW PRESSURE INJECTION SEQUENCE ELECTRICAL EATERY

WATER STORAGE TANK

WATER CHARGING BLEED VALVE

Figure 3

Figure 4

214

FLOW-RATE CYCLE

FOR GEMINI REENTRY COMMUNICATIONS EXPERIMENT

SCHEMATIC OF GEMINI REENTRY COMMUNICATIONS EXPERIMENT
PRESSURE REGULATOR AND SOLENOID SHUTOFF VALVE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER NITROGEN PRESSURE TAN

FLOW RATE.

, iao

t - 0 CORRESPONDS TO ACTUATION TIME; EXPERIMENT DURATION I S ABOUT 12 COMPETE CYCLES

L", l C C P D 2LLI

7.25 LB/SEC

1.0
RELIEF VALVE

.I
(TYPICAL 3 PLACES)

LOW

MEDIUM

HIGH

O N + E

COMPLETE

CYCLE-^

Figure 5

Figure 6

GROUND STATIONS FOR GEMINI REENTRY COMMUNICATIONS EXPERIMENl

ESTIMATED WATER-INJECTION FLOW RATES

''7
WATER FLOW RATE, LB/SEC

DESIGN ALTITUDES FOR:

Figure 7

Figure 8

GEMINI ANTENNA PATTERNS

Y & HEAT SHIELD 8' AT 1 0

REENTRY ALTITUDE PLOTTED AGAINST TIME

400
270'
3w BLACKOUT ENDS

SIGNAL L M L PLOTTED AGAINST VEHICLE ROLL ANGLE

m
100

RANGE = 100 MILES RECEIVER ANTENNA G A I N = 8 dB POWER = 2 WATTS WINDOW AT 00

r80

-40

40

80

0 4:39:40

4:41:w

ROLL ANGLE, DEG

4:42:20 4:43:40 TIME FROM LIFT-OFF. HR:MIN:SEC

4:45:w

Figure 9

figure 10

SIGNAL STRENGTH, dB

SIGNAL STRENGTH PLOTTED AGAINST TIME

LRC STATION AT KEY WEST. FLORIDA

-20

I
0

TIME HISTORY OF C-BAND SIGNAL STRENGTH

GRAND BAHAMA ISLAND STATION

w FLOW RATE
1 1 1

MEDIUM FLOW RATE

I I

HIGH FLOW RAE

I

I1

-35 -40 -45 START OF EX PER IMEN1

SIGNAL
0 4018.4
I

M
4:43:M

22

-I
-, .

6 8 10 TYPICAL INJECTION CYCLE CYCU 9

I

12

14

15.3

24

26

28

RELATIVE SIGNAL STRENGTH,

CYCLE 10

40c
; :3

dB

;5

'
51

7 ;

4
I

4,
CYCLE 11
I 1

30

32

33.7

d3
-*v

45

4 1

d9

-25
-35 4:41:14

/I
I

SIGNAL NOISE LEVEL

I

Ow 4 0 1
49
I. I I
l L I

I1

53

55

57 CYCLE12
*
I I

59

01

03

W.3

I , ,

4:41:20 4:41:24 4:41:26 4:41:38 4:41:42 4:41:54 T I M FROM LIFT-OFF. HR:MIN:SEC

4:41:58

4c 0
MI3
06

4:44:w
I 1

1 1
19.6

08 10 12 14 18 ELAPSED TIME FROM LAUNCH. HR:MIN:SEC

18

Figure 11

Figure 12

216

23.

FLUID MECHANICS ASPECTS OF THE GEMINI

REENTRY COMMUNICATIONS EXPERIMENT

By Ivan E. Beckwith, Dennis M. Bushnell, and J a r r e t t K. Huffman
S r n Y
. .

The Gemini-Titan 3 (GT-3) reentry-communications experiment i s analyzed i n terms of t h e f l u i d mechanics of water injection and t h e b a s i c mechanisms f o r e l e c t r o n depletion due t o water i n j e c t i o n . Factors t h a t would cause a reduct i o n i n t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of w a t e r spray with increasing downstream d i s t a n c e s from t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e are discussed. It i s indicated t h a t an antenna placed c l o s e r t o t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e may have given b e t t e r s i g n a l recovery on VHF. The quasi-one-dimensional equation used f o r q u a n t i t a t i v e estimates of e l e c t r o n concentration i s derived. This equation i s f i r s t applied t o t h e RAM B2 f l i g h t experiment (NASA Technical Memorandum X-902) t o evaluate an empirical f a c t o r which characterizes i o n i c or attachment processes t h a t occur on or near t h e surface of t h e water d r o p l e t s . Values of t h e empirical f a c t o r determined ' n t h i s manner together with t h e results of a one-dimensional d r o p l e t motion id evaporation theory are then used t o compute t h e peak e l e c t r o n concentraions f o r t h e Gemini experiment. Good agreement with observed signal r e t u r n s w a s obtained. P r e d i c t i o n s f o r t h e m a x i m cross-stream p e n e t r a t i o n of t h e water spray during t h e experiment period w e r e based on wind-tunnel t e s t s on s c a l e models of t h e Gemini r e e n t r y vehicle. It i s shown that t h e l a r g e r shock-layer thickness due t o t h e reduction i n t h e "design" angle of a t t a c k from 13O t o t h e approximately go experienced during r e e n t r y could have r e s u l t e d i n i n s u f f i c i e n t spray penetration from about t h e f o u r t h or f i f t h i n j e c t i o n cycle on. Flow conditions i n t h e separated region where t h e VHF antenna w a s located are a l s o discussed. It i s concluded t h a t the separated flow e f f e c t s would probably not account f o r t h e l o s s of s i g n a l t h a t occurred a f t e r t h e t h i r d i n j e c t i o n cycle.
INTRODUCTION

The water-injection flow r a t e s for t h e Gemini communications experiment ( s e e paper no. 22 by Schroeder) vere o r i g i n a l l y chosen ( i n November of 1963) t o bracket t h e estimated requirements f o r VKF signal recovery. The lower l i m i t of t h e s e estimated requirements w a s based on the assumption of a simple cooling f e c t . Even t h e most o p t i m i s t i c calculations indicated t h a t t h e minimum flow e of 0.3 l b / s e c wodd not be e f f e c t i v e below an a l t i t u d e of about 60,000 feet. The s e l e c t e d maximum flow r a t e of 7.2 l b / s e c w a s about 25 times t h e minimum value and c a l c u l a t i o n s based on the RAM B2 f l i g h t t e s t results
217

( r e f . 1) in9catFcl t h a t under optimum conditions t h i s l a r g e flow r a t e would be e f f e c t i v e during t h e Gemini r e e n t r y down t o about 220,000 f e e t . The r e s u l t s presented i n paper no. 22 by Schroeder, however, show t h a t t h e l a r g e i n j e c t i o n r a t e was not e f f e c t i v e f o r VBF s i g n a l recovery below an a l t i t u d e of about 246,000 f e e t . No recovery on VXF w a s obtained with the intermediate or H' small flow rates. ( I n t h e present paper, V F i s synonymous with UHF as used i n paper no- 22.) .-I '
-. .*

M r . Schr86der d i s c u s s w e f f e c t s of vehicle o r i e n t a t i o n and antenna patt e r n s . The present paper i s concerned with c e r t a i n f l u i d mechanics e f f e c t s , by which i s meant t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of t h e water spray with t h e flow f i e l d and t h e penetration and d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e spray i n the shock layer. The e f f e c t of these fluidmechanical f a c t o r s on the electron concentration w i l l be estimated. Understanding of t h e flow problems and t h e mechanisms responsible f o r reduction i n f r e e e l e c t r o n s has come a long way since the o r i g i n a l estimates were made. However, there i s a continuing e f f o r t t o improve these analyticalmethods, and as additional information becomes available, t h e current predictions may change accordingly

SYMBOLS
a,b, c
AS

constants i n spray-area equation cross-sectional area of spray

dimet e r

d e'
YE

electron capture e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r o r e f f e c t i v e cross-se tion f a t o r for c o l l i s i o n between droplets and electrons stagnation enthalpy reverse-reaction-rate c o e f f i c i e n t s ( s e e eq. ( 5 )) equilibrium constants f o r charge exchange reactions ( see eqs and (7))
m s flow r a t e as

H
k

. (6)

i l

moles p e r u n i t volume

M" n
N
218

correlation parameter f o r spray penetration number of electrons removed per drop i n t h e c o n t r o l volume
number concentration

N
Ne, c Ne, I P

Avogadro number c r i t i c a l value of N e f o r transmission a t VHF

number of electrons per cm3 removed i n t h e control volume by homogeneous recombination with ions pres sure droplet radius r a t i o of droplet radius t o t h e i n i t i a l value,

r
R

r/rl

t
T

time
absolute temperature velocity Cartesian coordinates with origin a t i n j e c t i o n site; and X - a x i s p a r a l l e l t o free-stream velocity vector mole f r a c t i o n

v
X,Y
X
ymax
U
P

maximum spray penetration i n y-direction

angle of a t t a c k of vehicle mass density

Subscripts:

a
b
C

air
body i n j e c t e d coolant (water) droplet electron l i q u i d a t i n j e c t i o n o r i f i c e exit mixture of a i r and water vapor injection orifice stagnation w a l l o r surface of vehicle

d e
2

m
0

t
W

x-direction evaluated a t i n j e c t i o n s i t e f r e e stream

1
00

Chemical notation:

K
N

potassium nitrogen sodium oxygen

Na
0

FLUID MECHANICAL FACTORS AND FLOW FIELD WITH INJECTION

The f l u i d mechanical f a c t o r s discussed i n t h e present paper a r e shown i n t h e following l i s t i n t h e i r approximate order of importance:
1 Reduced effectiveness of water spray with increasing distance from . injection site

Growth of viscous mixing region which forms due t o reduced v e l o c i t y i n spray area Cross-stream v e l o c i t y components (convection) and reduction i n droplet concentration Cross-stream d i f f u s i o n of e l e c t r o n s
2. Increase i n shock-layer thickness due t o reduction i n angle of a t t a c k from nominal 150 t o 9 '

3. Penetration of water spray i n t o shock l a y e r

4. Conditions
products

i n separated flow region where VHF antenna w a s located

5. Increase i n e l e c t r o n concentration due t o alkali metals i n a b l a t i o n

The f i r s t f o u r f a c t o r s are best explained with t h e a i d of figure 1 which shows top- and side-view sketches of t h e flow f i e l d about t h e Gemini r e e n t r y configur a t i o n with water i n j e c t i o n . The water-injection s i t e w a s l o c a t e d on t h e conic a l portion of t h e vehicle about 50 inches downstream of t h e heat-shield corner. A s indicated i n figure 1, t h e vehicle w a s trimmed t o f l y a t an angle of a t t a c k and t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e w a s about 30 t o t h e r i g h t of t h e windward streamline o r I plane of symmetry of t h e flow. The nozzles were a l i n e d so as t o i n j e c t t h e water forward a t an angle of 20 with r e s p e c t t o t h e conical surface. (Further

220

d e t a i l s on t h e location and configuration of t h e i n j e c t i o n nozzles are given i n paper no. 22.) The sketches i n figure 1 are based on wind-tunnel s t u d i e s of w a t e r i n j e c t i o n with scale models of t h e vehicle, and represent an optimum o r design condition where t h e spray j u s t penetrates out t o the shock m d causes a r e l a t i v e l y small disturbance t o t h e shock. The first item shown i n t h e preceding l i s t i s t h e reduced effectiveness of the water spray at increasing downstream distances from t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e . This phenomenon was observed i n t h e HAM & f l i g h t t e s t (ref. 1) where t h r e e antennas f o r VKF and Ewere used t h a t were located from about 2 f e e t up t o 10 f e e t downstream of t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e . E s s e n t i a l l y complete s i g n a l recovery was obtained from t h e forward antenna, even f o r t h e smallest water-injection r a t e s , whereas t h e s i g n a l recovery f r o m the downstream antennas w a s much l e s s . Since only one VHF antenna was available on t h e Gemini vehicle, it i s not known whether t h e same phenomenon occurred i n the present experiment; however, due t o t h e l a r g e r i n j e c t i o n r a t e s and t h i c k e r shock l a y e r , these e f f e c t s would be more severe than those on t h e RAM B2 experiment. Actually, t h e d i r e c t i o n a l charact e r i s t i c s of t h e recovery pulses, a s evidenced by t h e s i g n a l s received a t Grand Bahama I s l a n d well forward and t o t h e north of t h e f l i g h t path and t h e lack of observed s i g n a l s t o t h e r e a r (see paper no. 22), tend t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e spray was more e f f e c t i v e i n opening a s l o t o r "window" i n t h e plasma well f o r ward on t h e v e h i c l e than t o r e a r o f t h e vehicle. This loss of effectiveness of t h e water spray a t l a r g e downstream distances would generally be expected because of interactions between the gas flow within the spray region and t h e flow along t h e boundaries of t h e spray region. A s t h e spray i s accelerated, t h e l o c a l gas-flow v e l o c i t i e s are reduced so t h a t a viscous mixing or shear l a y e r w o u l d develop along t h e boundaries of t h e spray region as indicated i n t h e top view of figure 1 This shear l a y e r increases i n . thickness downstream of i n j e c t i o n u n t i l , a t some distance, it has engulfed t h e e n t i r e spray region and t h e difference (Va - Vm) would approach zero. The gradient i n e l e c t r o n concentration across t h e shear l a y e r would presumably a l s o approach zero so that t h e "window" i n i t i a l l y present i n t h e plasma near t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e would no longer e x i s t a t large downstream distances. Mechanisms t h a t would result i n a net flux of electrons i n t o t h e spray region a r e d i f f u s i o n due t o t h e concentration gradients of e l e c t r o n s and i o n s and convection due t o cross-stream velocity components. This l a t t e r mechanism may be s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e Gemini experiment since t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e was not i n the plane of symmetry. A l l t h e aforementioned e f f e c t s are enhanced by t h e reduced concentration of t h e spray as it spreads outward and l a t e r a l l y i n t o t h e shock layer. The second and t h i r d i t e m s i n t h e l i s t are i n t e r r e l a t e d since an increase i n shock-layer thickness would generally require greater penetration due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e plasma l a y e r (that is, t h e portion of the shock l a y e r where t h e electron concentration exceeds t h e c r i t i c a l value of about lo9 per cm3 f o r VHF) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y extends out t o about 80 percent of t h e t o t a l shock-layer thickness on blunt bodies of t h i s type. The e f f e c t of angle of a t t a c k on spray I penetration and t h e method used f o r predicting t h e v a r i a t i o n of sprsy penetrat i o n with a l t i t u d e and flow r a t e a r e discussed subsequently herein.

221

Since the VHF antenna i s located a t t h e base of t h e vehicle i n a separated flow region ( f i g . I), it i s necessary t o consider t h e e f f e c t of water i n j e c t i o n on t h e flow conditions i n t h i s region. I t e m 4 i n t h e list i s concerned with these separated flow conditions and i s discussed subsequently. The method used f o r estimating t h e e f f e c t of a l k a l i metals ( i t e m 5 i n t h e l i s t ) present i n t h e ablation products i s a l s o discussed.
EI;ECTRON DEPLETION I N ATTACHED FLOW

Conservation of Free Electrons

The effect of water i n j e c t i o n on t h e peak electron concentration i n t h e attached f l o w region i s estimated by means of a quasi-one-dimensional analysis. The b a s i c equation used i n t h i s analysis i s described as follows and requires that t h e number of free electrons entering t h e prescribed control volume w i l l be conserved.
Flux of f r e e (electrons enterin.) c o n t r o l volume

Flux of f r e e
= (electrons

leaving

)+(

Electrons removed per drop

)(
X

Number of drops leaving per second

)+

Number of recombined with ons i n gas flow

The control volume i s bounded by t h e gas flow streamlines t h a t pass through t h e periphery of t h e spray cross-sectional a r e a a t t h e downstream s t a t i o n , x f e e t from t h e injection site. This equation, with t h e terms written i n t h e same order as just shown, i s

where a l l flow o r droplet q u a n t i t i e s a r e considered mean values a t any stat i o n x, but Ne i s considered t h e peak value. Heterogeneous Reactions The second term on t h e right i n equation (1) accounts f o r a l l possible i o n i c o r attachment processes t h a t occur on o r near t h e surface of droplets. These processes are known as heterogeneous reactions, since t h e i r occurrence depends on the presence of an i n t e r f a c e (between t h e droplet surface and t h e gas), and they are believed t o be t h e domizznt mechanisms for electron removal. The quantity (NdVd,&) i s t h e number of' droplets t h a t leave t h e control volume per second and i s evaluated as

222

which i s a constant f o r steady flow. The quantity i s t h e number of e l e c t r o n s removed p e r drop during t h e exposure t i m e of t h e d r o p l e t s i n t h e c o n t r o l volume. From simple kinetic-theory concepts (ref. 2, p. 137), E can be evalua t e d from t h e expression

where

ax )and V, (t h a t is,o be i n equilibrium with i s dVa, x t h e t h e m 1 v e l o c i t y of t h e e l e c t r o n s (here assumed t

td

i s t h e t i m e following t h e droplet

dtd =

t h e gas temperature) i n a s t a t i c system where t h e r e i s no r e l a t i v e mass motion between t h e e l e c t r o n s and t h e drops. Equation ( 3 ) may be applied d i r e c t l y t o t h e present s i t u a t i o n , however, since Ve i s much l a r g e r than any r e l a t i v e flow v e l o c i t y between t h e gas and t h e droplets. Homogeneous Reactions The l a s t term on t h e r i g h t i n equation (1) i s evaluated from t h e homogeneous c o n t i n u i t y equation f o r N e as,

where ( d / d h ) ( & ) i s t h e n e t rate of change of e l e c t r o n mole concentration due t o i o n i c processes i n t h e gas flow far f r o m d r o p l e t s where t h e r e i s no direct influence of t h e d r o p l e t i n t e r f a c e s . The most important i o n i c r e a c t i o n s i n t h e flow on t h e afterbody (see paper no. 2 1 by Huber) are t h e chemi-ionization reactions
N

+o

kN0

--

NO+

+
(5)

where it i s assumed t h a t t h e water adds no new species t h a t could take p a r t i n two-body recombinations of t h i s type. Also included i n t h e a n a l y s i s are t h e following charge exchange reactions ( a l l o f which are assumed t o be i n equilibrium):

When ablation products a r e present, t h e a d d i t i o n a l charge exchange reactions f o r potassium and sodium should be included. These reactions are:

The r a t e of e l e c t r o n depletion due t o r a t e reactions (eqs.

(5)) i s

where t h e forward reaction or production of ions i s neglected. Substitution of t h e l a s t of equations (6) f o r NO+ i n t o t h e preceding equation then gives

The homogeneous charge conservation equation i s

which, from the equilibrium charge exchange reactions (eqs. (6) and ( 7 ) ) , becomes

224

Me= (MN2.)

(w)

(Mo+)

(so+)

(%)

(%a+)

Elimination of

%2+

between equations

(8) and ( 9 ) then gives

F i n a l Equations Equation (1)i s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d with r e s p e c t t o td t o give

1 ) The introduction of equations ( 2 ) , ( 3 ) , (4), and (10) i n t o equation ( 1 then r e s u l t s i n the f i n a l equation used t o compute t h e v a r i a t i o n i n Ne.

where t h e r e l a t i o n s
dx -= d td

vd, x

have been used and t h e r a t i o s of mole concentrations have been replaced by r a t i o s of mole f r a c t i o n s X. Since equation (12) i s nonlinear i n Ne, it w a s programed f o r numerical s o l u t i o n on an IRM 7 0 9 e l e c t r o n i c data processing system. For a p p l i c a t i o n t o Gemini reentry conditions, t h e flow p r o p e r t i e s and n e u t r a l composition j u s t upstream of the i n j e c t i o n s i t e were computed by assuming t h e equilibrium compos i t i o n of t h e flow w a s frozen a t t h e stagnation p o i n t and then expanded isent r o p i c a l l y t o a pressure of 0.05 of t h e stagnation-point value. The mole f r a c t i o n s i n the l a s t terms of equation (12) were thus assumed t o be constant a t t h e values f o r t h e stagnation point. If t h e l a s t term i s n e g l i g i b l e , a general solution i s

DR0PL;ET EVAPORATION AND MOTION TREORY I n order t o solve equations (12) or ( 4 , it i s necessary t o determine 1) VdYx, r, and various flow q u a n t i t i e s within t h e spray region such as V,, Tm as functions of t d . Values f o r these q u a n t i t i e s were obtained from t h e droplet evaporation and motion theory described i n reference 3. The p r i n c i p a l assumptions used i n t h i s theory are:
1 Quasi-one-dimensional flow, constant pressure mixing, and steady flow . 2. Uniform p a r a l l e l flow upstream of i n j e c t i o n s i t e

3 . Uniform droplet size, velocity, and d i s t r i b u t i o n a t any streamwise

station

4. I n i t i a l droplet velocity i s t h e same as t h e mean e x i t v e l o c i t y of t h e

liquid j e t

5. Nusselt number for heat t r a n s f e r and drag c o e f f i c i e n t f o r t h e d r o p l e t s

( o r i c e p a r t i c l e s ) a r e t h e same a s f o r i s o l a t e d spheres and are expressed as general functions of t h e r e l a t i v e Mach number and Reynolds number of the droplets

6. Ratio of coolant mass flow t o air mass flow entrained i n t h e mixing

region i s constant

7. No chemical reactions between neutral species take place i n t h e spray

region Typical r e s u l t s obtained from t h i s theory f o r Gemini conditions a t The r a t i o (r/r1)3 i s the f r a c t i o n of i n j e c t e d water s t i l l i n l i q u i d form. Thus a t 10 f e e t from t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e there would be 80 t o 85 percent of t h e i n j e c t e d water s t i l l i n l i q u i d form, depending on t h e i n i t i a l droplet radius. The l a r g e r droplet radius of 63 microns w a s obtained from the c o r r e l a t i o n f o r t h e i n i t i a l mean droplet s i z e from reference 4. This correlation i s based on data a t much smaller airstream v e l o c i t i e s and higher a i r d e n s i t i e s than i n t h e present case. Hence, t h e r e i s some doubt as t o how r e a l i s t i c these l a r g e drop s i z e s may be. However, the assumption of an i n i t i a l drop s i z e of one-third t h i s value only r e s u l t s i n 5 percent more evaporation. Also calculations and data i n r e f e r ence 5 i n d i c a t e t h a t f o r RAM B2 conditions, i n i t i a l droplet s i z e s from t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s of reference 4 may be approximately correct.
256,000 f e e t of a l t i t u d e a r e shown i n figure 2.

226

The temperature decreases by only about 1000 R f o r t h e case shown i n f i g ure 2. Since it w a s assumed t h a t t h e water does not dissociate, t h i s temperat u r e decrease i s caused e n t i r e l y by t h e l a t e n t heat of vaporization of t h e w a t e r . The corresponding increase i n density i s about 30 percent a t x = 10 f e e t . decreases from t h e i n i t i a l value of The v e l o c i t y of t h e mixture V , 10,600 f t / s e c t o 4000 f t / s e c at x = 10 f e e t . This l a r g e decrease i n v e l o c i t y i n t h e spray region would cause t h e shear l a y e r t o develop along t h e edges of t h e region as depicted i n f i g u r e 1 . Note t h a t t h e q u a n t i t i e s shown i n figure 2 are double-valued f o r x < 0 . This r e s u l t i s caused by t h e forward injection of t h e water j e t and t h e onedimensional nature of t h e analysis. The physical meaning, i f any, of t h e double values i s not clear; however, the t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t s do i n d i c a t e t h a t forward i n j e c t i o n g r e a t l y increases t h e "dwell time" of t h e droplets. The heterogeneous reactions discussed i n t h e previous section should be more e f f e c t i v e f o r l a r g e dwell times.

SPRAY PENETRATION AND CROSS-SECTIONAL ARE24

Wind-Tunnel Correlations Another important quantity required i n t h e solution of equations (12) and This a r e a i s based on expermental s t u d i e s of w a t e r spray penetration and d i s t r i b u t i o n on s c a l e models of t h e Gemini reentry configuration. These s t u d i e s were made i n the Langley Mach 8 variable-density tunnel. Since t h e penetration, per se, i s of considerable i n t e r e s t , some t y p i c a l r e s u l t s a r e shown i n f i g u r e 3.

(14) i s t h e cross-sectional area of t h e spray As.

The s c a l e models used i n t h e t e s t s were 1.5 and 3.0 inches i n diameter. The t e s t s were made with t h e models a t the design angle of a t t a c k of l5O, and t h e l o c a t i o n and o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e s i n g l e i n j e c t i o n o r i f i c e e s s e n t i a l l y duplicated t h e f l i g h t configuration. Plotted i n f i g u r e 3 i s t h e r a t i o of t h e maximum cross-stream penetration of t h e spray t o t h e body diameter (y-/db) against t h e c o r r e l a t i o n parameter. Note t h a t t h i s parameter depends only on t h e free-stream flow conditions, t h e l i q u i d velocity at the nozzle e x i t , and t h e body and o r i , f i c e diameters. The r e s u l t s shown a r e a t x/db = 1 which i s t h e approximate l o c a t i o n of t h e VHJ? antenna. Data a r e also a v a i l a b l e a t other x s t a t i o n s . (y/db The equation of t h e c o r r e l a t i n g l i n e f o r data i n s i d e t h e undisturbed shock < 0.94 i n t h e wind-tunnel t e s t s i s

= 12.17(M~t

)0.706

where

The c o r r e l a t i n g l i n e f o r t h e wind-tunnel d a t a beyond t h e undisturbed shock l o c a t i o n (y/db > 0.94) i s

Flight P r e d i c t i o n s
Since the c o r r e l a t i o n changes a t t h e approximate l o c a t i o n of t h e undisturbed bow shock, it was assumed t h a t equation (15) would apply d i r e c t l y t o f l i g h t conditions when t h e p e n e t r a t i o n d i d n o t extend t o t h e estimated shock l o c a t i o n . For a = l 5 O , t h i s shock l o c a t i o n f o r f l i g h t conditions w a s estimated as y/db = 0.68, as i n d i c a t e d i n f i g u r e 3. For p e n e t r a t i o n beyond t h e estimated shock location, equation (16) i s used b u t w i t h t h e constant f a c t o r of 3.12 replaced by 2.66.

The r e s u l t s of t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n a p p l i e d t o t h e t r a j e c t o r y f o r t h e Gemini r e e n t r y are shown i n f i g u r e 4. The values of ymax a t x/db = 1 f o r t h e t h r e e flow rates and o r i f i c e diameters used (see paper no. 22) a r e p l o t t e d a g a i n s t a l t i t u d e . For a = l5O, t h e undisturbed shock l o c a t i o n w a s estimated as y = 6 1 i n c h e s . The change i n slope of t h e curves f o r y > 6 1 i n c h e s i s due t o t h e use of t h e d i f f e r e n t c o r r e l a t i o n as given by equation (16) and as explained previously

For a change i n angle of a t t a c k from t h e design value of 1 5 O t o 9O, which w a s t h e approximate value during t h e e a r l y p o r t i o n of t h e r e e n t r y , t h e shockl a y e r thickness i n c r e a s e s . According t o wind-tunnel tests a t Mach 8, t h i s i n c r e a s e i n shock-layer t h i c k n e s s i s aboPlt 25 percent. O t h i s b a s i s t h e bow n shock l o c a t i o n w a s increased from 6 1 i n c h e s t o 75 inches, as shown i n figure 4. I n e f f e c t , the body and t h e coordinate axes are r o t a t e d 6 O clockwise, so t h a t 75 inches i s t h e new shock-layer t h i c k n e s s with r e s p e c t t o t h e same body reference l i n e as a t a = l 5 O . The r e s u l t i n g p e n e t r a t i o n curve i s shown only f o r t h e l a r g e mass flow rate and i s l a b e l e d a = go.
The optimum penetration, as i n d i c a t e d i n f i g u r e 4, f o r b o t h angles of a t t a c k i s f r o m about 80 percent of t h e shock-layer t h i c k n e s s out t o t h e shock itself t h a t is, t h e Ne concentration i s t y p i c a l l y greater than t h e c r i t i c a l value Ne,c f o r VHF out t o a t least 80 p e r c e n t of t h e shock-layer thickness.

The main question i n regard t o p e n e t r a t i o n i s : Could i n s u f f i c i e n t penet r a t i o n contribute t o t h e l a c k of s i g n a l recovery f o r t h e l a r g e flow-rate i n j e c t i o n p u l s e s from t h e f o u r t h on and f o r a l l intermediate flow-rate pulses? The
228

a l t i t u d e s a t which t h e f i r s t three recovery pulses were observed a r e indicated i n figire 4. Since sigEa1 reczvery vas &tair?ed f o r these pulses, t h e penetrat i o n must have been adequate. The fourth l a r g e flow-rate pulse would have occurred a t an a l t i t u d e of aboct 237,000 f t which i s a l s o marked i n t h e f i g u r e . If t h e c o r r e l a t i o n and t h e estimated bow shock location a r e correct, t h e penet r a t i o n f o r t h e f o u r t h pulse would have been about r i g h t , although penetration on subsequent pulses would be a t o r below t h e lower l i m i t of t h e optimum range indicated f o r a = 90. Note, however, that combined e r r o r s of only 10 t o 15 percent i n t h e estimated shock-layer thickness and predicted penetration could account f o r i n s u f f i c i e n t penetration even f o r the f o u r t h pulse. Hence, it i s possible that i n s u f f i c i e n t penetration w a s a t l e a s t a contributing f a c t o r t o t h e lack of recovery on t h e f o u r t h pulse. O t h e other hand, i f t h e angle n of a t t a c k had been a t t h e design value of l ? O , signal. recovery may have occurred f o r t h e f o u r t h and f i f t h pulses.

The f i r s t intermediate flow-rate pulse would have occurred a t an a l t i t u d e of about 269,000 f e e t as indicated by t h e A t i c kmark on t h e curve f o r a = l 5 O . The penetration predicted f o r t h i s condition i s l a r g e r than t h e corresponding value f o r t h e t h i r d l a r g e flow-rate pulse, where s i g n a l recovery w a s observed. Hence, t h e penetration f o r a t l e a s t t h e first intermediate flow-rate pulse should have been s u f f i c i e n t .
Computation of Spray Area

As

The preceding discussion i n d i c a t e s that, since s i g n a l recovery w a s observed f o r t h e f i r s t t h r e e l a r g e flow-rate pulses, t h e c o r r e l a t i o n and prediction methods f o r penetration a r e v e r i f i e d t o within 10 t o 15 percent. Hence t h e spray area required i n t h e solution of equations (12) and (14) w a s based on t h e pred i c t e d values of penetration such as those i n f i g u r e 4. Examination of wind-tunnel data f o r t h e spray d i s t r i b u t i o n obtained by a technique s i m i l a r t o t h a t of reference 6 i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e spray crosss e c t i o n a l a r e a could be approximated as a h a l f - e l l i p s e with minor axis about equal t o one-half t h e major axis. Hence, t h e expression used t o compute t h e cross-sectional area of t h e spray i s A s = FYi0. . ax
I r 2

Wind-tunnel data a l s o showed that ymax varied l i n e a r l y with of t h e equation used w a s , i n general,

x; thus, t h e form

where t h e values of

a,

b, and

depend on a l t i t u d e and angle of attack.

DE;TERMINATION O F

EFFICIENCY FACTOR FE

A l l quantities required f o r the solution of equations (12) o r (14) can now be supplied except t h e e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r FE. D r . John S. Evans of t h e Langley Research Center has recently completed a t h e o r e t i c a l analysis of charge recombination on droplets i n a nonequilibrium plasma and he obtains values of t h a t a r e of t h e order of 0.01 a f t e r t h e i n i t i a l droplet charging process i s c m pleted. I n his analysis, several assumptions a r e made regarding the mechanisms f o r charge removal by water droplets. Since t h e a c t u a l mechanisms involved a r e not y e t well understood, t h e approach used i n t h e present analysis i s t o cons i d e r % as an empirical f a c t o r t o be evaluated from experimental data.

The data f o r t h i s purpose were obtained from t h e RAM B2 f l i g h t t e s t ( r e f . 1). In general, t h e equations used i n evaluating FE from these data are similar t o those i n t h e preceding sections. The value of Ne a t t h e antenna s t a t i o n i s now a known quantity; t h a t i s , s u b s t a n t i a l but not complete s i g n a l recovery was always obtained from t h e forward s l o t antenna ( 2 f e e t downstream of the injection s i t e ) f o r t h e smallest side i n j e c t i o n rates used. (See ref. 1). This r e s u l t implies t h a t the peak values of Ne i n the flow f i e l d a t t h e 2-foot s t a t i o n were a t o r s l i g h t l y higher than t h e c r i t i c a l value f o r VHF. The probl e m then consists of finding a value of FE t h a t w i l l give t h i s c r i t i c a l Ne a t x = 2 f e e t f o r t h e RAM B2 conditions. The r e s u l t s of t h i s calculation a r e shown i n figure 5 where FE i s p l o t t e d against t h e flow-field pressure f o r RAM B2 conditions. The l i n e w a s obtained by using r e s u l t s from t h e complete droplet solutions (as previously described) i n equation (12) f o r Ne. The spray area used i n t h i s calculation w a s based on t h e wind-tunnel data of reference 6 and w a s w r i t t e n a s
As =

1.IIy

2 -

The values of FE i n t h e upper portion of f i g u r e 5 were obtained by using equation (14) and assuming constant values of , , T r, Vm, As, and dVd,,/dtd. These assumptions a r e believed t o be applicable very near t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e where no appreciable evaporation o r acceleration of t h e water d r o p l e t s has occurred. A d e t a i l e d description of these latter calculations i s beyond t h e scope of the present paper. It w i l l s u f f i c e f o r t h e present purpose t o note t h a t t h e values of FE, as obtained from t h e a n a l y s i s described herein, depend strongly on the methods used f o r computing t h e two-phase flow conditions. Hence, it i s necessary when applying t h e FE values of f i g u r e 5 t o Gemini cond i t i o n s t o use consistent droplet equations and procedures f o r evaluating As.

ESTIMATED EL;ECTRON CONCENTRATIONS WITH WATER INJECTION

IN THE GEMINI FLOW FIELD The theoretical predictions for peak electron concentration are given in figures 6 and 7 In figure 6 the values o Ne a x = 7 5 feet for the large . f t . and intermediate flow rates and the two values of a are plotted against aititude. These values of Ne were computed from equation (12) where the complete droplet solutions were used, and As was obtained from equation ( 8 . The 1) values of % were obtained from the line of figure 5 at the flow-field pressures indicated for the various Gemini conditions. Calculations for the first two pulses at ljnc = 1.5 lb/sec and pulses 2 3, and 4 at 7.2 lb/sec are shown. , The value of Ne,l for these solutions was taken as 2 X lou which is slightly less than the critical value for C-band. This value of Ne,1 was used because it is the largest value consistent with the observation that C-band was not attenuated during this portion of the reentry. (See paper no. 22.) The value for V" is approximately 7 5 X 1 8 which is represented by a shaded . 0 of Ne,c band in the figure. The points show1 for a = 9 with alkali metals present are presumably ' the most realistic. (It should be noted that the addition of alkali metals, even in very small mole fractions, has the effect of making the last term in equation (12) negligible. Hence, the actual values of XK and XNa used are not critical.) These values of Ne (as well as those for the cases where no alkalai metals are present) are apparently in good agreement with the observed results in that no signal recovery was observed for the 1.5 lb/sec flow rate; whereas, for the large mass-flow rate, good recovery was observed on the first (not shown in fig. 6) and second pulses followed by marginal recovery on the third pulse and complete l o s s of signal on the fourth pulse. Unfortunately, these theoretical results have to be qualified, since it is not possible to include in the one-dimensional analysis the effect of the viscous shear layer and other complex three-dimensional phenomena. In particular, it is believed that the one-dimensional droplet and Ne equations are deficient for small x distances because of the assumptions of constant pressure and constant ratio of injection-flow rate to airflow rate. It is possible that the approximate method used to compute the larger values of FE for RAM B2 conditions as shown in the upper portion of figure 5 may be better than the complete solution for very s m a l l x. Because of this possibility, the approximate method was used to compute the values of Ne for Gemini conditions at x < 2 feet. Based on the results in figure 5, the value of FE used in this calculation was assumed constant at 0.3. The results of this calculation for the second and fourth pulse at the large flow rate with a = go are shown in figure 7 for x < 2 feet. Included for comparison are the results from the corresponding cases of figure 6. It is seen that the approximate solution predicts signal recovery for both cases at x distances of less than 1 0 foot, whereas the . complete solution would predict signal recovery for the second pulse only for x > 5 feet, and no recovery for the fourth pulse until x > 1 feet. The 0

> * -

231

complete solution apparently p r e d i c t s t h e c o r r e c t trends with a l t i t u d e and flow rate, however, t h e trends with x distance cannot be predicted with any c e r t a i n t y u n t i l more data become a v a i l a b l e .
SEPARATED F O CONDITIONS LW

The VHF antenna w a s located on t h e base of t h e vehicle (see f i g . 1) i n a separated f l o w region. The flow conditions i n a separated region a r e not w e l l known e i t h e r with o r without upstream water i n j e c t i o n ; however, f o r t h e present purposes, some reasonable estimates can be made. It i s generally recognized t h a t due t o t h e long residence t i m e , both t h e n e u t r a l and ionized gas species i n t h e separated region would be i n chemical equilibrium. Since t h e flow v e l o c i t i e s i n t h i s region a r e very small, the s t a t i c and stagnation enthalpies are almost equal, so t h a t t h e e l e c t r o n concent r a t i o n s can be calculated exactly f o r given values of stagnation enthalpy and pressure. Calculations made by Huber i n paper no. 2 1 i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r a t i o of enthalpy i n t h e separated flow t o t h e stagnation enthalpy would be approximately 0.7 f o r t h e Mercury vehicles. This enthalpy r a t i o f o r t h e Gemini vehicle should be about t h e same f o r t h e case of no water i n j e c t i o n . The e f f e c t of water i n j e c t i o n on t h e wake enthalpy i s not known; however, some cooling would be expected. Any such cooling e f f e c t would depend on d i f f u s i o n and mixing mechanisms since t h e streamwise momentum of t h e d r o p l e t s would prevent t h e i r entrance d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e wake region. I n order t o obtain an i n d i c a t i o n of possible cooling e f f e c t s with water i n j e c t i o n , some l i m i t e d measurements of stagnation temperature i n t h e separated flow were made i n t h e Langley Mach 8 variable-density tunnel. The 3-inchdiameter model w a s used f o r t h e s e t e s t s and t y p i c a l results are shown i n f i g ure 8. The thermocouple w a s supported i n t h e wake a t t h e l o c a t i o n i n d i c a t e d i n t h e sketch. The d a t a shown were obtained with t h e model a t l 5 O angle of a t t a c k a t stagnation conditions of 930 p s i g and 10000 F. A t these conditions, t h e a i r behaves e s s e n t i a l l y as an i d e a l gas with constant s p e c i f i c heats, so t h e t e m p e r a t u r e r a t i o i s equivalent t o an enthalpy r a t i o . It i s seen t h a t f o r t h e case of no injection, t h i s r a t i o i s approximately 0.78 which i s i n reasonable agreement w i t h results of paper no. 21 by Huber. For w a t e r i n j e c t i o n a t m &a = 0.03, t h e enthalpy r a t i o i s reduced t o about 0.55. It i s believed t h a t cl t h e wake enthalpy r a t i o with water i n j e c t i o n f o r t h e Gemini r e e n t r y would be considerably less than t h i s value since t h e values of kc/& ranged from about 2.5 up t o 6.0 during t h e e a r l y p o r t i o n of t h e experiment. It a l s o seems l i k e l y t h a t more of the i n j e c t e d water would evaporate under t h e high-temperature f l i g h t conditions than i n t h e low-temperature wind-tunnel t e s t s thereby providing a l a r g e r cooling e f f e c t . Hence, with water i n j e c t i o n a t f l i g h t conditions, it seems reasonable that %&e/Ht would be i n t h e range from 0.25 t o 0.50.

These values of enthalpy r a t i o were used t o compute t h e equilibrium values of N e f o r the GT-3 reentry. The pressure w a s determined by assuming t h a t pwake/pt w a s constant a t 0.012. The r e s u l t s of t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n are shown i n

232

-- s - 4

figure 9 f o r pure air and f o r a i r contaminated with sodium and potassium which would o r i g i n a t e i n t h e ablation products o f t h e heat shield. Water species were not included because previous calculations w i t h t h e a i d of t h e equilibrium c m puter program of reference 7' showed t h a t the e f f e c t on Ne would be s m a l l . The mole f r a c t i o n s of K and N used as inputs i n t h e calculation a r e shown a i n the figure. These values of XK and XNa a r e based on a b l a t i o n r a t e s furnished by George Strouhal of t h e NASA Manned Spacecraft Center and on estimates Of the &r W C Q flew in the t?nlLqdAry I q e r at t h e corner nf the hen_t. shiellA, Since t h e a i r mass flow i n t h e boundary layer increases from t h i s point downstream, t h e mole f r a c t i o n s shown should represent upper l i m i t s .

Figure 9 indicates, then, t h a t if there were no a b l a t i o n products i n t h e wake, VHF transmission would not be seriously affected above about 250,000 f e e t if HW&.IHt = 0.4 which i s a reasonable value f o r t h e case of water i n j e c t i o n according t o t h e previous discussion. With t h e assumed concentrations of a l k a l i metals, however, the values of N wovldbe t o o high t o allow VHF transmission. e Since s i g n a l recovery did occur with water i n j e c t i o n down t o about 245,000 f e e t , the assumed values of XK and X N ~ a r e too high, o r t h e r e a r e some other phenomena which would permit transmission i n s p i t e of t h e l a r g e values of Ne.

One such phenomenon i s t h e presence of a t h i n l a y e r of a i r next t o t h e base of t h e vehicle t h a t would behave l i k e a thermal boundary l a y e r and would thus be cooled by t h e vehicle i t s e l f since the surface temperature a t t h e base i s s t i l l q u i t e l o w a t these a l t i t u d e s . This thermal boundary l a y e r would presumably have smaller values of N than i n t h e remaining separated flow region, e so t h a t some leakage of radio waves would occur. Francis P. Russo of t h e Langley Research Center has i n v e s t i g a t e d t h i s e f f e c t i n antenna p a t t e r n s t u d i e s made on a s c a l e model of t h e Gemini vehicle where various d i e l e c t r i c materials were used t o simulate t h e plasma. He has shown that, even f o r t h e worst poss i b l e condition, t h e r e was always some leakage of r a d i o energy from t h e VHF stub antenna as long as a hole i n t h e simulated plasma was present i n t h e attached flow region. It i s thus apparent that, f o r t h e conditions of t h e present experiment, transmission of VHF' through a sepmated region during water i n j e c t i o n should have been possible a t a l t i t u d e s below the l a s t observed pulse.
CONCLUDING REMARKS

I has been shown t h a t f a c t o r s associated with t h e f l u i d mechanics of t water i n j e c t i o n may have contributed t o the reduced effectiveness of VHF a t t h e lower a l t i t u d e s . F i r s t , t h e plasma window t h a t i s opened by t h e spray near t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e would be gradually closed o r l o s t a t increasing distances from t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e as a result of t h e growth of a shear l a y e r on both sides of t h e window and other e f f e c t s t h a t bring i n free electrons from t h e surrounding flow.
Second, t h e l a r g e r shock-layer thickness due t o t h e reduction i n angle of a t t a c k from t h e 150 used i n design t o the approximately 9O experienced during r e e n t r y could r e s u l t i n i n s u f f i c i e n t spray penetration from about t h e f o u r t h o r

2133

Fifth injection cycle on. A n e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r t h a t characterizes t h e recombination o r attachment processes that occur n e a r . t h e droplets w a s evaluated from the RAM B2 f l i g h t t e s t . The use of this f a c t o r gave predictions that were i n 3pparent agreement with the present r e s u l t s , but it has been suggested t h a t an mtenna located c l o s e r t o the i n j e c t i o n s i t e may have given b e t t e r r e s u l t s . I n view of t h e r e s t r a i n t s placed upon t h e experiment, t h e present results we considered very encouraging. There i s general agreement among t h e people lnvolved here at Langley t h a t , with one more successful f l i g h t test, an operat i o n a l system could be designed which would provide s i g n i f i c a n t amounts of VHF transmission during t h e blackout period f o r these l a r g e manned vehicles.

REFERENCES
1. Cuddihy, W i l l i a m F.; Beckwith, Ivan E.; and Schroeder, Lyle C.: RAM B2 F l i g h t Test of a Method f o r Reducing Radio Attenuation During Hy-personic F l i g h t . NASA TM X-902, 1963. 2. Jeans, James: A n Introduction t o t h e Kinetic Theory of Gases. Univ. Press, 1952.

Cambridge

3. Beckwith, Ivan E.:

Injection, Distribution, and Evaporation of Liquids i n t h e Flow F i e l d s of Hypersonic Vehicles. Proceedings of t h e N S Conference AA on Communicating Through Plasmas of Atmospheric Entry and Rocket Exhaust, NASA SP-52, 1 6 , pp. 191-202. 94 DropSize Distribution f o r Crossand Foster, Hampton H.: current Breakup of Liquid Jets i n Airstreams. NACA TN 4087, 1957.

h. Ingebo, Robert D.;

5. Beckwith, Ivan E.; and Bushnell, Dennis M.:

Effect of I n t e r m i t t e n t Water Injection on t h e Aerodynamic Heating of a Sphere-Cone a t F l i g h t V e l o c i t i e s t o 18 000 Feet Fer Second. NASA T ~ ~ 2 1965. M 8 ,

5. Beckwith, Ivan E.; and Huffman, J a r r e t t K.:

I n j e c t i o n and Distribution of Liquids i n t h e Flow F i e l d s of Blunt Shapes a t Hy-personic Speeds. NASA 1M X-989, 1964. I
J. j and Gordon, Sanford: A General IBM 704 o r 7090 Computer Program f o r Computation of Chemical Equilibrium Compositions, Rocket Performance, and Chapman-Jouguet Detonations. NASA TN D-1454, 1962.

7. Zeleznik, Frank

FLOW FlELD WITH WATER !NJECTION

DROPLET E'fAPORATION AND MOTION THEORY

GEMINI COhlDlTlONS FOR SECOND PULSE: 256,WFl: m 6D. mc. 67 LWSEC: FROZEN COMPOSITION

- rMlXlNG REGION VELOCITY PROFILE

2-

----_----____

r,

66x

FT12011

r1

7 x 10-5 fl ,bw

VHF ANTENNA

'

DISTANCEFROM INJECTION SIE. x. F T

Figure 1

Figure 2

CORRELATION OF SPRAY PENETRATION FROM MACH 8 WIND TUNNEL TESTS

PREDICTED S P R A Y , , P ~ ~ GT-3 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ s ~ ~ R ~ ~ REENTRY

a. DEG
0.

.. \
OPTIMUM PENETRATION

SHOCK

pmMOBSERVED PULSES

LB/SEC IN. ORIFICES FPS 7.2 0.221 4 110

:;J;
0.3

W;OF

;V

,082

128

Figure 3

235

APPLICATION OF ANALYSIS TO RAM 82 FLIGHT MTA T O ANTENNA STATION ( x z 2FT)

Figure 5

THEORETICAL PREDICTION OF ELECTRON CONCENTRATION WITH WATER INJECTION

FOR ATTACHED FLOW NEAR VHF ANTENNA SITE a. DEG 0 9 NO ABLATION 0 15 PRODUCTS 9 ALKALI METALS 1.5 LWSEC 7.2 L V S E C
PULSE 1

THEORETICAL VARIATION OF ELECTRON CONCENTRATION WITH DISTANCE FROM INJECTION SITE mc 7.2 LWSEC, 9'. NO ABLATION PRODUCTS

(I.

PULSE

ALTITUDE.

-2

---- 4

Fr
237x12

2 5 6 IO3 ~ MACHINE SOLUTION VARIABLE AREA ASSUMED

INCRfASED ATlENUATION AND BLACKOUT

Figure 6

Figure 7

EFFECT

OF WATER INJECTION ON SEPPRATED

FLOW TEMPERATURE
a . 15

EQUILIBRIUM ELECTRON CONCENTRATION IN NEAR WAKE DURING GEMINI (GT-3) REENTRY

MEASURED
MACH 8

-N.FORAIR N. FOR AIR PLUS K AN0 No MOLE FRACTDNS OF K AND No

____

ESTIMATED

WAKE

Figure 8

Figure 9

237

24.

ANTENNAS UNDER ABLATION MATERIALS

By Wi lliam

F. Croswell

SUMMARY

..

Problems associated with the design of flush-mounted antennas on reentry configurations covered with thermal-protection material are considered with particular reference to the Apollo command module. Measured values of charring loss of the proposed Apollo thermal-protection material are given that were obtained by simulating afterbody heating rates. Pattern calculations for a resonant shot antenna located on a large dielectric-covered cylinder are presented which demonstrate that patterns of typical flush-mounted antennas are critical to thickness changes in the dielectric covering. Finally, a brief discussion of surface-wave effects is given relative to the matter of maintaining circular polarization on large conducting bodies of revolution covered with a layer of dielectric. INTRODUCTION The metal communication antennas of high-velocity reentry vehicles, and in particular the Apollo command module, must be protected from the severe heating conditions encountered during reentry and exit from the atmosphere during launch. In order to permit communications to ground stations after severe heating ceases, the thermal-protection material used over the antennas must not seriously attenuate radio-frequency energy after thermal degradation. In addition, during certain other parts of the trajectory where heating is not involved, the antennas must perform predictably as a part of the communication system. For VHF frequencies where the typical spacecraft dimensions are only several wavelengths, there are usually no serious antenna-pattern effects that are attributable to the dielectric ablation material. In this case the antenna problem associated with ablation materials is reduced to the simple loss problem caused by charring during heating. For higher frequencies where the spacecraft have the dimensions of many wavelengths, that is, the Apollo command module at S-band o r C-band frequencies, the dielectric ablation material can cause considerable pattern changes. Therefore, in this instance there are effects which disturb the performance of the antenna as a communication-system element, in addition to the charring losses. These effects can and do occur independently of heating, as will be shown subsequently. Measurements of charring loss for several materials were reported in reference 1 and are included i n this paper for completeness. However, these measurements were limited to L-band frequencies. In addition, the effects of dielectrics upon slot antennas in a plane geometry have been presented in references 2 to 4 along with limited calculations of patterns of dielectric-covered slots on cylinders (ref. 5).

239

The primary purposes of this paper are to report measurements of the charring loss of ablation materials at S-band and X-band frequencies under sim ulated heating rates of Apollo reeritry and to present theoretical and experimental results of a study of the effects of dielectrics upon the patterns of slot antennas for ranges of parameters not examined previously.
SYMBOLS

constants radius of conducting cylinder unit vector in direction of polar angle, spherical coordinate system radius of outer layer of dielectric coating circumference of cylinder in wavelengths, dimeter electric field in y-direction electric field polarized in the go direction frequency frequency associated with loaded cavity resonant frequency unloaded cavity resonant frequency
Hankel function, second kind

21ra h

first derivative of Hankel function, second kind magnetic field in y-direction phase constant Bessel function of first kind first derivative of Bessel function, first kind

j*m
k
L
2

free-space phase constant, induc t ance length of s l o t integer

2n
A

Q
Q41
Q4 0

measure of sharpness of response of a tuned c i r c u i t , loaded c a v i t y

Q
Q

unloaded c a v i t y r e s i s tanc e

r
sf

distance from o r i g i n t o observation point i n f i e l d S-band transmitted power S-band r e f l e c t e d power thickness of d i e l e c t r i c coating

'r

Vm = Jm(Pa)
VO
W

II,(2)(Pb)

Jm(Pb) %(2)(Pa)

impressed slot voltage peak amplitude width of s l o t X-band transmitted power X-band r e f l e c t e d power rectangular coordinates attenuation constant wave number i n d i e l e c t r i c medium f r e e -space wave number

xf

Xr

x Y, ,
a

P
PO

21 4

tan 6 8Om

l o s s tangent
Kronecker d e l t a function p e r m i t t i v i t y of f r e e space r e l a t i v e d i e l e c t r i c constant d i e l e c t r i c constants i n a p a r t i c u l a r medium p o l a r angle spherical coordinate system wavelength wavelength i n d i e l e c t r i c medium free-space wavelength wavelength i n a p a r t i c u l a r medium r e l a t i v e permeability constant permeability of f r e e space permeability i n p a r t i c u l a r mediums azimuthal angle i n a spherical coordinate system

'r
' 2 1

e
h
A
hO

hl
'5
PO
PlJ 1-12

er
03 =

2nf

Notation:
J E !

transverse e l e c t r i c f i e l d
transverse e l e c t r i c f i e l d modes p a r t i c u l a r modes of

%
m

TE1yTEJ,TE5

transverse magnetic f i e l d transverse magnetic f i e l d modes p a r t i c u l a r modes of thermocouple t r a v e l i n g wave tube

TM,
TM0,?M2,TM4
Tc

TM,

TWT
242

frequency range, 0.210 G t o 0.290 G c c frequency range, 0.96 Gc t o i . 7 Gc frequency range, 1.7 G t o 2.66 G c c c frequency range, 3.95 G t o 5.85 Gc frequency range, 8.2 G t o 12.4 Gc c S-band
S-band

i-bmd S-band C-band X-band

S

The d i e l e c t r i c a b l a t i o n materials a r e products of research t o improve t h e heat-protection properties of materials used t o p r o t e c t spacecraft from t h e severe thermal environment of reentry. Therefore, l i t t l e consideration has been given t o t h e e l e c t r i c a l properties, and as a consequence, these properties a r e usually unknown. Since use of t h e ablation material as an antenna cover i s t h e main i n t e r e s t , t h e s u i t a b i l i t y of t h e n a t e r i a l s f o r such use requires t h e determination of t h e room-temperature d i e l e c t r i c properties p r i o r t o subjecting t h e materials t o simulated reentry heating r a t e s . Since t h e d i e l e c t r i c properties were completely unknown, and since t h e r e w s no problem i n obtaining a s u f f i c i e n t quantity of samples, it was decided t o a use t h e completely f i l l e d lowest order mode rectangular c a v i t y method (ref. 6, pp. 518-530) t o obtain measurements of the d i e l e c t r i c properties. A number of transverse e l e c t r i c mode lO1(TE1o1) c a v i t i e s were constructed having unloaded resonant frequencies from 3,000 Gc t o 14,000 Gc. These c a v i t i e s were coupled a with coaxial probes where t h e center conductor w s machined f l u s h t o t h e c a v i t y walls. This arrangement provided an undercoupled c a v i t y with a t l e a s t a 23 dB i n s e r t i o n l o s s when unloaded. The d i e l e c t r i c constant and l o s s tangent were obtained by measuring t h e loaded and unloaded c a v i t y Q values and resonant frequencies. From reference 6,

and

(2)

r'

243

where fr,O and &u,o are the unloaded cavity parameters and fr,1 and '&u, . 1 are the loaded parameters. The resonant frequencies were measured by an interpolation method of frequency measurement (ref. 7, pp. 386-389). The response curve of the cavity was measured by a standard method also given in reference 7 (pp. 403-403). The samples were measured at room temperature with no unusual care in preparation other than machining for accurate fit. The results of the measurements on materials of present interest for thermal purposes are shown in . table I All the ablation materials listed have dielectric properties which are acceptable for antenna covers except perhaps Namco 4028 which has a large percentage of carbon and, as a result, has a high loss tangent. The plexiglass measurement was included to demonstrate the accuracy of the measurement. The proposed Apollo material, Avcoat 5026-39, has acceptable properties as an antenna cover at room temperature although some improvement in loss characteristics would be desirable. DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST SPECIMENS AND

TRERMAL TEST FACILITY

The determination of the radio-frequency insertion loss of ablation materials which char because of exposure to extreme heating was the primary purpose of this study since the thermal properties of these ablation materials are already known. Because of the requirement of obtaining sufficient volume in a test specimen to mount antennas, a coaxial cable, and a waveguide in addition the thermocouple wires, it was necessary to use the largest nose cone that can be tested in the facility utilized. Sketches of the details of these test nose . cones are shown in figures 1 and 2 The phenolic asbestos nose cap was common to all models to insure survival of the cone during a run. The test materials were attached to the aluminum afterbody. The X-band horn antenna shown in figure 1 is used both as an antenna and as a mechanical attachment to the watercooled sting. The water-cooled sting has a built-in X-band waveguide and a 3/4-inch tube running the length of the sting to allow the passage of coaxial cables and thermocouple wires. The S-band antenna (fig. 2) consists of a T-bar cavity filled with glass-fiber laminate. There were eight thermocouple connections along the inside of the aluminum afterbody, four of which were redundant and placed 1800 radi.ally from the other four. A bakelite ring was used to insulate the graphite ring from the aluminum afterbody. "he graphite ring is an excellent thermal conductor and is used to protect the connecting parts of the water-cooled sting and the waveguide leading to the horn antenna.

The nose-cone models were tested in the 2500-kilowatt arc jet at the Langley Research Center with air as a test medium. The details of the construc. tion and operation of this facility are given in reference 8 This arc-jet facility is characterized by subsonic flow and an enthalpy of approximately 3,000 Btu/lb. Both the stream velocity and enthalpy available from this facility are substantially lower than those which would be encountered by a typical blunt reentry vehicle at the stagnation point of the flow. However, because of the volume requirements for the radio frequency tests, large test models were e n t r . required and the 2300-kilowatt arc jet facility at the Langley Research C was the only available facility with the capability of testing such large models.

244

For these t e s t s a nozzle 6 inches i n diameter was used, and t h e mass flow of air from t h e nozzle w a s 0.35 lb/sec. The cold-wall heating r a t e w a s determined with a calorimeter of the same shape as the t e s t models. Tne neating r a t e varied over the afterbody length from about 50 Btu/sq f t - s e c t o 20 Btu/sq f t - s e c ( r e f . 1. )

It i s understood t h a t these heating rates a r e similar t o those predicted f o r t h e afterbody of t h e Apollo command module i n t h e regions \here S-band communication and tracking antennas may be located.
DESCRIPTION OF MEASURING EQUIPMENT AND
ExpERlMENTAL PROCEDURE

The measurements of the char l o s s were made a t S-band and X-band frequencies, i n p a r t i c u l a r 2660 M and 9600 Mc. The S-band frequency w s chosen since c a t h e space communication frequencies a r e i n t h a t band. The X-band frequency was chosen because of the increased s e n s i t i v i t y any changes i n d i e l e c t r i c constant o r thickness w i l l have upon t h e i n s e r t i o n l o s s measurement of charring e f f e c t s . The arrangement f o r making the char-loss measurements i s shown i n block-diagram form i n f i g u r e 3. A s i g n a l generator which i s c a l i b r a t e d i n frequency and power w a s modulated a t 1000 cps and used t o drive a t r a v e l i n g wave tube amplif i e r with an output power of 1 w a t t . This s i g n a l was transmitted by c o a x i a l cable o r waveguide t o t h e t e s t model through t h e water-cooled s t i n g . Dual d i r e c t i o n a l couplers were used t o monitor the forward and r e f l e c t e d power. The forward power was monitored during runs t o insure t h a t no changes occurred. The r e f l e c t e d power w s continuously recorded. The s i g n a l w a s then transmitted from a the test-model antenna and received by a standard-gain horn antenna located i n a favorable position t o receive maximum signal l e v e l s . The detected s i g n a l w a s then recorded on an ac logarithmic recorder which has a 40 dB dynamic range l i n e a r i n decibels. The recorder has a constant-speed drive system which can be adjusted. In addition, t h e recorder used t o record r e f l e c t e d power has an automatic time marker which i s printed and which can be used t o c a l i b r a t e t h e ac recorder. Also, t h e r e were e i g h t thermocouples connected from the t e s t model through t h e water-cooled s t i n g t o a c a l i b r a t e d recorder. The procedure f o r making t h e insertion-loss measurements i s s t r a i g h t f o r ward. F i r s t , with t h e model over t h e a r c j e t as shown i n f i g u r e 3, the recorders a r e adjusted t o f u l l - s c a l e values without the a r c operating. I n addition, t o c a l i b r a t e t h e reflected-power channel of the dual d i r e c t i o n a l coupler, a short c i r c u i t i s placed on the l i n e f o r reference. After t h e c a l i b r a t i o n s a r e completed, t h e short c i r c u i t s a r e removed, and t h e transmission l e v e l s a r e checked again. The t e s t model i s then moved away from the nozzle, and t h e flame i g n i t e d and adjusted t o t h e conditions of t h e t e s t . After the proper conditions a r e reached, a l l recording equipment i s activated and t h e t e s t model i s i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e flame. The decision t o terminate any t e s t model run i s based upon t h e recorded thermocouple measurements. The run i s terminated i f any of the eight thermocouples reach 4500 F. This temperature was chosen t o prevent damage t o the aluminum s h e l l and bonding compounds, p a r t i c u l a r l y since t h e temperature Usually rises a t l e a s t 10 percent higher than t h e termination temperature 245

because of s l i g h t thermal time-constant e f f e c t s . The recording w a s continued upon termination of the flme =?til no appreciable change occurred i n t r a n s mission loss.
MEASURED COLD CHAR LOSS

The r e s u l t s of t h e char measurements a r e s m a r i z e d i n t a b l e 11. The measurements made a t 0.980 G (from r e f . 1) a r e included f o r comparison and comc pleteness. "he values given i n t h i s t a b l e a r e those obtained a f t e r t h e termina t i o n of the flame i n the a r c j e t and a f t e r t h e t e s t model had cooled s u f f i c i e n t l y t o be handled. The char l o s s i n most instances w a s l a r g e r than t h e values given i n t a b l e I1 a t the moment of flame cutoff. For brevity, however, it was necessary t o s t a t e a p a r t i c u l a r value f o r a p a r t i c u l a r condition. The proposed Apollo heat-shield material, Avcoat 5026-39, has an insertion-loss B value of a t l e a s t 16.5 d a t S-band frequencies and 25 d B a t X-band frequencies. These values of l o s s a r e considered t o be unacceptable f o r performance i n any communication system with normal margins. The t e s t model material i s only 1/4 i n c h t h i c k . The Apollo command module afterbody i s postulated t o have a t l e a s t several inches of Avcoat 5026-39 material over the antennas; however, t h e a c t u a l charred material a t any one given time w i l l be on the order o f 1/4 inch o r greater. Therefore, the values measured a r e considered t o be representative of the char l o s s t h a t w i l l occur during f l i g h t .
EQUIVAIXNT A T N A MODEL NE N

I n addition t o the i n s e r t i o n losses t h a t may be experienced during t h e exposure of a b l a t i o n materials t o a reentry environment, d i e l e c t r i c materials placed over antennas located on conducting bodies may produce disruptions i n expected antenna p a t t e r n s a s a function of t h e thickness and d i e l e c t r i c constant of t h e covering material. These changes may be p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t i f the antenna i s t o operate as a predictable p a r t of t h e communication system before, during, and after reentry heating. To obtain estimates of t h e e f f e c t s denoted when applied t o t h e Apollo command module is d i f f i c u l t because of t h e geometric shape of the module. For p r a c t i c a l purposes therefore an approximate model w i l l have t o be u t i l i z e d . W a i s believed t o be a reasonable model t o p r e d i c t ht antenna patterns i n t h e r o l l plane of t h e Apollo command module i s shown i n f i g u r e 4. The general blunt-cone shape i s a representation of t h e Apollo command module. A t any s t a t i o n on t h e afterbody with radius a, w i n e t h a t t h e a f t e r body shape can be replaced with an i n f i n i t e cylinder of radius a. A t y p i c a l antenna which m i g h t be considered e i t h e r s i n g l y o r i n arrays i s t h e circumfere n t i a l s l o t antenna. The p a t t e r n of t h i s antenna placed on a cylinder i n t h e $-plane i s well-known. (See r e f s . 9 and 10. ) I n f a c t , f o r cylinders t h a t have r a d i i t h a t a r e l a r g e compared with wavelength, t h e e q u a t o r i a l plane p a t t e r n of t h e resonant s l o t i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h e p a t t e r n of the resonant s l o t located on i n f i n i t e f l a t ground plane. (See r e f . 10. ) Figure 5 presents t h e cylinder radius a and with the circumferential s l o t of f i g u r e 4 covered w i t h a

246

d i e l e c t r i c material. The outer i n t e r f a c e o f t h e d i e l e c t r i c has a radius b y and t h e r e s u l t i n g layer thickness i s t = b - a . This p a r t i c u l a r problem has been solved by -hop ( r e f . 3) for both the coated and uncoated cylincier. The uncoated cylinder problem f o r both t h e axial and circumferential s l o t i s discussed i n reference 10 (pp. 243-250). From reference 5 , t h e only f i e l d t h a t e x i s t s i n t h e $-plane of the f a r f i e l d i s Eo. For t h e case of t h e uncoated cylinder, Eo i s given by

For t h e case of t h e coated cylinder t h e e l e c t r i c f i e l d given by

Eg

i n t h e @-plane i s

where

and

Previous computations were limited t o small-radius cylinders i n the order of Poa = 3.00 and f o r d i e l e c t r i c constants up t o 5.00. An inspection of t h e f a r f i e l d p a t t e r n s p l o t t e d f o r these parameters reveals t h e f a c t t h a t although some energy i s r a d i a t e d from t h e side of the cylinder away from t h e s l o t , t h e f i e l d on t h e opposite side i s r e l a t i v e l y small ( l e s s than -10 dB) even f o r f a i r l y

t h i c k layers. I n connection with a s l o t array problem ( r e f s . 2 and ll), t h e r e was i n t e r e s t i n extending some of these calculations t o l a r g e r diameter c y l i n ders. Since equations ( 3 ) and (4) were a v a i l a b l e and had been programed f o r an e l e c t r o n i c computer, the a d d i t i o n a l computations were obtained under contract NAS 1-4623with t h e National Engineering Science Company, Pasedena, California. The parameters used f o r the computations a r e given a s follows: s l o t length, 2xa ; f = 9210 M c 2 = 0.494 inch; s l o t width, w = 0.0825 inch; Tr = 2.54; C = f o r t = b - a from 0 inch t o 0.703 inch i n increments of 0.0323 inch. Seve r a l of the calculated p a t t e r n s a r e shown i n f i g u r e s 6 and 7. The dashed patt e r n s a r e the free-space p a t t e r n s computed from equation (3). The s o l i d curves a r e f o r t h e two thicknesses, t = 0.2385 inch and t = 0.3231 inch, and a r e computed from equation ( 4 ) . The free-space p a t t e r n i s i d e n t i c a l with t h e p a t t e r n of the circumferential s l o t on an i n f i n i t e ground plane. This s i m i l a r i t y should be noted a s it w i l l be used i n subsequent discussions. A review of a l l t h e patterns calculated revealed several i n t e r e s t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t were not observed i n e a r l i e r r e s u l t s f o r C = ka = 3.00 or smaller. The p a t t e r n merely broadens with increased thickness without r i p p l e s u n t i l a thickness of t = 0.2585 inch i s reached. After t h i s thickness i s a t t a i n e d , t h e r i p p l e s become severe u n t i l t = 0.3555 inch a f t e r which t h e p a t t e r n becomes smoother and i s nearly i d e n t i c a l t o t h e free-space value of t = 0.5816 inch. The p a t t e r n s f o r l a r g e r thicknesses broaden again without r i p p l e s u n t i l a thickness of t = 0.7753 inch i s reached. After t h i s thickness i s reached, any f u r t h e r increase i n thickness causes t h e r i p p l e s t o appear again. The magnitudes of t h e r i p p l e s , as seen i n f i g u r e 7, a r e only approximately -5 dB below the on-axis values f o r f a r - f i e l d angles opposite t h e s l o t location. This general characteri s t i c of radiating energy around t h e cylinder i s very s e n s i t i v e t o t h e t h i c k ness or d i e l e c t r i c constant of t h e l a y e r . A possible cause of the p a t t e r n broadening and r i p p l i n g i s more thoroughly discussed l a t e r ; however, i n gene r a l it i s believed t o be due t o reradiation of energy trapped i n t h e dielectric.
APPLICATION O EQUIVALENT ANTENNA MODEL TO TKE COMMAND MOWLF F

To apply t h e calculation discussed i n t h e previous section, it i s necessary t o scale t h e parameters accordingly t o an S-band frequency by assuming t h a t t h e d i e l e c t r i c constant i s s t i l l E y = 2.54 and t h e s l o t i s resonant a t is t h e scaled frequency. For fo = 2250 Mc, t h e corresponding wavelength

5.25 inches.

Therefore, t h e circumference i n wavelengths

C =

*
h

39.5h

will correspond t o a circumference of 207 inches o r a radius of 33 inches. Thus, t h e p a r t i c u l a r radius occurs a t a s t a t i o n on t h e upper p a r t of t h e Apollo command module afterbody. The a b l a t i o n material, Avcoat 5026-39, w i l l be approximately 1 t o 2 inches t h i c k o r i n terms of free-space wavelengths approximately 0.lWh t o O.38OA t h i c k . The d i e l e c t r i c constant of the Avcoat 5026-39 material i s approximately 2.26 a t S-band frequencies; therefore, t h e p a t t e r n e f f e c t s noted i n t h e previous model could occur f o r t h e p r a c t i c a l case.

248

Since t h e command module i s large and since the loss of a b l a t i o n m a t e r i a l probably will not be uniform, an exact knowledge of t h e antenna p a t t e r n a f t e r o r even before reentry w i l l be d i f f i c u l t t o obtain.
A s a consequence of t h i s lack of knowledge, some l a r g e changes i n antenna p a t t e r n s can occur which would degrade the antenna performance a s a p a r t of a c o m i c a t i o n system. To i l l u s t r a t e such changes, use can be made of t h e computed p a t t e r n s shown i n figures 6 and 7. F i r s t , assume t h a t because of t h e -n--kl--r. I I O L,.-;llinn e j +L- 10n-n ~ ~ ~ I I ~ ----, PI U U I G I uaIIuALl* 6 L o-nr-nCr. cf u-4I--Inn+-& ~ unh-l Qfi a + n r - i a ' it 5s 4 nn m assumed t h a t t h e p a t t e r n i n f r e e space given i n figures 6 and 7 i s a good approximation. A t y p i c a l method of obtaining good p a t t e r n coverage i n t h e roll plane of a c i r c u l a r l y symmetric spacecraft i s t o use two s l o t s located 10 8' a p a r t and f e d i n phase. Such an a r r a y pattern was calculated by using t h e available data and i s given i n f i g u r e 8. It should be noted that a s i m i l a r p a t t e r n of one element r a d i a t i n g i n t o f r e e space can be obtained when a d i e l e c t r i c layer i s present, i f the proper d i e l e c t r i c thickness i s chosen. Suppose t h e element p a t t e r n shown i n f i g u r e 7 should have been used t o account properly f o r t h e d i e l e c t r i c e f f e c t s . An a r r a y of t w o s l o t s having such an element p a t t e r n i s given i n f i g u r e 9 . This p a t t e r n includes many large r i p p l e s over wide angular regions. Since t h e element pattern i s very s e n s i t i v e t o changes i n thickness a s seen i n f i g u r e s 6 and 7, the a r r a y p a t t e r n s could conceivably change from t h a t of f i g u r e 8 t o t h e one i n f i g u r e 9 during t h e period from before r e e n t r y t o a f t e r reentry. Or even just a s s i g n i f i c a n t , t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t e s t i n g would preclude the a 3 i l i t y t o measure t h e e f f e c t s of t h i c k l a y e r s of a b l a t i o n m a t e r i a l i n a proper manner. A more thorough discussion of d i e l e c t r i c e f f e c t s and methods of predicting occurrence i s given subsequently. These c a l c u l a t i o n s were performed under contract NAS 1-4623. I n addition, experimental v e r i f i c a t i o n of such p a t t e r n s w i l l be made.
e+. U I

"UL

I U I

c c I I I " ~ I U "

) _ "

UF C APPLICATION OF PLANE SHEET S R A E WAVE THEORY The p e r t i n e n t dimensions of t h e comand module and t h e equivalent antenna model a r e l a r g e i n terms of wavelength, C = 39.3h. For such cases ( r e f . 10, pp. 245-250), t h e p a t t e r n of a circumferential s l o t on a cylinder i s nearly i d e n t i c a l t o t h e p a t t e r n of a s l o t on a semi-infinite plane conducting sheet. This s i m i l a r i t y suggested t h a t a study of surface-wave modes i n plane dielect r i c sheets might give an i n s i g h t i n t o t h e trapping e f f e c t s and t h e r e s u l t i n g r i p p l e s i n t h e antenna p a t t e r n s given i n figures 6 and 7. Consider t h e diagram shown i n figure 10. Here i s depicted a d i e l e c t r i c It i s consheet which extends t o i n f i n i t y i n both the y- and z-directions. sidered t h a t t h e f i e l d s a r e two-dimensional and have no v a r i a t i o n i n t h e y-direction. The trapped waves a r e considered t o be t r a v e l i n g waves i n t h e M z-direction. The f i e l d s can be f o m d i n a s e t of TE o r T Eodes r e l a t i v e t o e i t h e r t h e x- o r z-direction. I n this case t h e z-direction i s chosen. The 1 regions I and 1 1 can be chosen t o be a r b i t r a r y l i n e a r i s o t r o p i c regions with any e,p property; i n t h i s case, a i r i s chosen s o t h a t p 1 = pg and el = cO. The region I1 i s a l s o a r b i t r a r y and i s chosen t o be p2 = po, 2 = E y e From these assumptions, t h e following f i e l d s are obtained. (See r e f . 12, pp. 43-83.)

249

For TE, modes,

b

Ey = Be -me-j hz

(Region I )

(7)
(8)

(Region 11) (Region 1 1 1 ) Similarly, f o r modes, Hy = &-=e

(9)

-jhz

(Region I )

(10)

Hy

( -l)mBeaxe

- jhz

(Region 1 1 1 )

(12)

The distinguishing property of surface waves i s t h e exponential decay of t h e f i e l d s i n the x-direction away from t h e sheet. Since t h e value a t a will decrease for decreasing t , CI), o r ~ ~ t h e , value of a will become zero i f 2 t , (I)o r ~ ~ is decreased s u f f i c i e n t l y . When a i s zero, equations ( 7 ) , 2 t o (12) show t h a t t h e f i e l d s r e v e r t t o plane waves t r a v e l i n g p a r a l l e l t o t h e 2 sheet. Therefore, any combination of parameters t , w, o r ~ 2 . ~which cause a t o go t o zero f o r a given surface-wave mode i s s u f f i c i e n t t o define t h e cutoff conditions f o r t h a t mode. Applying t h e boundary conditions t o equations (1)t o (12) gives t h e f o l lowing relationships :

k w2 - - - k tan(T t- m 7) p1

By' using equations (13) and (14) a t cutoff (that i s ,

a = 0)

tan(? or

F)

= 0

and

and

Therefore, using equations (18) and (20) gives ( a t c u t o f f )

since

S u b s t i t u t i n g equation (22) i n t o equation (21) and denoting

2 - by 1

M2
P1

by

and

er

gives

For

- - 0; thus, f o r any thickness of t h e d i e l e c t r i c , the TEo and ?Mo A1 surface-wave modes a r e not cutoff.
m = 0,

Consider t h a t a t h i n conducting sheet i s i n s e r t e d i n t h e y - z plane. The same f i e l d conditions apply except that t i s now twice t h e thickness M used i n t h e cutoff conditions. I n addition, all even TE modes and odd T modes cannot e x i s t . The significance of t h i s f a c t w i l l be applied and discussed

more thoroughly subsequently. The equivalent antenna model shown i n f i g u r e 5 when related t o the geometry given i n figure 10 r e s u l t s i n t h e conclusion t h a t t h e TE, surface-wave mode solutions might apply, i f the plane-geometry approximation i s v a l i d . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e modes of i n t e r e s t a r e t h e TE1 and TE3 modes. For E y = 2.54 and f = 9210 Mc, t h e cutoff thickness f o r t h e TE1 mode i s 0.2584 inch. The cutoff thickness f o r t h e TE3 mode i s 0.7751 inch. The thickness where t h e r i p p l e s f i r s t s t a r t e d f o r t h e cylinder problem was

t -= 2

0.2585 inch.

This condition may have occurred a t t h e cutoff thickness of

t h e TE1 mode but t h e i n t e r v a l of calculation precludes such knowledge. A s s t a t e d i n t h e previous sections, t h e r i p p l e s disappear i n t h e cylinder p a t t e r n s f o r 4 = 0.3494 inch and do not reappear u n t i l a thickness = 0.7753 inch i s
2 2

This thickness closely corresponds t o t h e cutoff thickness f o r t h e A s a matter of reference, t h e thicknesses of m a x i m and m i n i m u m r e f l e c t i o n f o r a plane d i e l e c t r i c sheet with an incident plane wave a t normal incidence a r e 4 = he = 0.2012 inch,

reached.

TE3 surface-wave mode i n t h e plane-sheet case.

t - " - - - - - 0.4024 inch, i

2 2

- - -3A' 2 4

t 0.6036 inch, and - = A ,

2

0.8047 inch.

Even

though the maximum r e f l e c t i o n s occur a t

- = A, 2 4
t

(approximately), t h e r i p p l e s
A sim-

i n t h e pattern do not occur u n t i l t h e TE1 cutoff thickness i s reached.

i l a r observation can be made concerning the TEI, surface-wave mode and t h e , r e f l e c t i o n thiclmess.

3A
4

Consequently, it appears t h a t t h e r i p p l e s i n the p a t t e r n s i n t h e cylinder problem occur because of r e r a d i a t i o n of energy trapped i n t h e d i e l e c t r i c layer. Furthermore, it a l s o appears t h a t for cylinders with r a d i i which a r e l a r g e compared w i t h wavelength, t h e plane-sheet surface-wave theory i s adequate f o r pred i c t i n g when r i p p l i n g will occur. The form and amplitude of such r i p p l e s w i l l have t o be determined by f'urther study.

THE EFFECTS OF D1EI;ECTFUC COATINGS UPON T E POLARIZATION H

OF SPACECRAFT A T N A NE N S

Previous sections of t h i s paper have d e a l t b r i e f l y with t h e loss of antenna gain from charring e f f e c t s , and with antenna-pattern anomalies caused by t h i c h e s s changes of d i e l e c t r i c a b l a t i o n materials due t o heating. A t h i r d e f f e c t , changes i n p o l a r i z a t i o n due t o t h e d i e l e c t r i c a b l a t i o n m a t e r i a l covering a r e e n t r y spacecraft, i s a major e f f e c t , p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e antenna i s considered a s a p a r t of a communication system. The Unified S-band Telecommunications and Tracking System being designed f o r use on t h e Apollo p r o j e c t requires t h e existence of a quasi-omnidirectional S-band antenna on t h e command module f o r use during d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of t h e lunar mission both

p r i o r t o and a f t e r reentry blackout periods ( r e f . 13). This requirement means that t h e antenna p a t t e r n and p o l a r i z a t i o n mu& be hown f o r s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t s t a t e s of t h e ablation miterial covering t h e antenna. The present design concept ( r e f . 13) o f t h e ground s t a t i o n s c o n s i s t s of 85-foot dishes located a t t h e positions i n t h e Deep Space Instrumentation F a c i l i t y , and 30-foot dishes a t other locations f o r near-earth operations. Although t h e 85-foot dishes a r e primarily used f o r deep-space operation when .LL- L;-L bLIF: ulw-6-aiil mod-filean-.eru-lii is cFerat~iig, al-c elllcr-&cll~yCULlCu ---a2 bllcl-e --- ---------t i o n s t h a t require t h e use of t h e command module omnidirectional antenna i n case of failure of t h e antenna. None of these receiving s t a t i o n s include plans f o r a polarization-diversity system. Indeed, n e i t h e r do present Deep Space Instrumentation F a c i l i t y development plans include a polarizationd i v e r s i t y system (ref. 14). I n t h e case of t h e Apollo 85-foot-dish feed syst e m , t h e r e i s planned c a p a b i l i t y t o switch from right-hand c i r c u l a r (RHC) p o l a r i z a t i o n t o left-hand c i r c u l a r (LHC ) polarization e l e c t r i c a l l y . However, t h e proposed 30-foot-dish receiving system, a s presently planned (ref. l3), requires manual switch from RHC polarization t o LHC polarization. A s a consequence of these design l i m i t a t i o n s placed upon t h e various Apollo S-band ground receiving systems, it i s necessary t o r e q u i r e a single matching c i r c u l a r p o l a r i z a t i o n of one sense o r another t o be produced by t h e command module omnid i r e c t i o n a l antenna o r serious depolarization l o s s e s ( r e f . 15) w i l l occur. The requirement of maintaining a p a r t i c u l a r sense of c i r c u l a r p o l a r i z a t i o n over t h e l a r g e angular extent of an omnidirectional antenna i s very d i f f i c u l t . (See refs. 16 and 17.) I n f a c t , f o r t y p i c a l nonreentry spacecraft, t h i s problem i s approached by placing a c i r c u l a r l y polarized antenna on t h e end of an extended boom (ref. 18, pp. 20-25) t o minimize d i f f r a c t i o n e f f e c t s . For t h e present case, t h e Apollo command module, flush-mounted antennas a r e required, and it i s f u r t h e r complicated by t h e f a c t that t h e antennas a r e covered by s e v e r a l inches of d i e l e c t r i c ablation material. The purpose of t h i s s e c t i o n of t h e paper i s t o i n d i c a t e t h e nature of t h e d i f f i c u l t y involved with d i e l e c t r i c covered antennas.
s r 2 c e " 1 e
A.L---

C i r c u l a r p o l a r i z a t i o n may be produced by having two l i n e a r l y polarized r a d i a t o r s l o c a t e d goo a p a r t i n s p a t i a l orientation and i n t i m e phase. The sign of t h e phase angle determines whether t h e wave i s LHC or RHC polarized. (See r e f . 19, pp. 470-480.) One method of physically r e a l i z i n g a c i r c u l a r l y polarized antenna on a ground plane i s t o use a crossed s l o t cut i n t h e broad wall of a waveguide. (See r e f . 20.) Since it was shown previously t h a t f o r analysis purposes, a cylinder 40h i n circumference may i n c e r t a i n cases be approximated by a plane, f o r convenience a f l a t ground plane 22 inches by 12 inches w s machined with an i n t e g r a l waveguide included s o that p a t t e r n s a of t h e various kinds of s l o t s excited by t h e currents flowing on t h e broad w a l l of a waveguide could be measured. The p a r t i c u l a r s l o t chosen f o r these measurements w s displaced 0.237 inch from the center, was square ended, and had a a length 2 of 0.55 inch and a width w of 0.132 inch. P a t t e r n s i n t h e plane including t h e long dimension of t h e ground plane were measured with both a vert i c a l l y and h o r i z o n t a l l y l i n e a r l y polarized receiving antenna. These p a t t e r n s are given i n figure 1 , where t h e r e l a t i v e p a t t e r n i n decibels i s p l o t t e d 1 o ),against angle f o r f = 8935 Mc. Only yo f t h e p a t t e r n i s shown since t h e other 90 s e c t o r i s symmetrical. To simulate t h e ablation material, sheets of

253

plexiglass were used ( c y = 2.37) since i t s d i e l e c t r i c constant i s close t o t h e d i e l e c t r i c constsnt. of Avcoxt. ,502h-3S) ( cr = 2 . 2 6 ) . The succeeding p a t t e r n s t h a t a r e given will show only one polarization a t a t i m e t o avoid confusion; however, it should be r e a l i z e d t h a t both of these p a t t e r n s e x i s t simultaneously. The v e r t i c a l polarization p a t t e r n f o r a sheet thickness of 0.132 inch i s given i n f i g u r e 12. Also included i s the free-space p a t t e r n f o r comparison. L i t t l e significant change from t h e free-space p a t t e r n i s noted. However, t h e h o r i z o n t a l polarization p a t t e r n f o r t h e same thickness t / 2 = 0.132 inch i s given i n f i g u r e 13. Here s i g n i f i c a n t r i p p l i n g and l a r g e changes r e l a t i v e t o t h e free-space p a t t e r n occur. The p a t t e r n f o r v e r t i c a l p o l a r i z a t i o n f o r a thickness of 0.243 inch i s shown i n f i g u r e 14. The e f f e c t of increasing t h e t h i c k ness i s t o cause changes i n the p a t t e r n t h a t depart markedly from t h e f r e e space pattern. Additional p a t t e r n s were obtained f o r horizontal p o l a r i z a t i o n f o r t / 2 = 0.243 inch, a s shown i n f i g u r e 15, and these p a t t e r n s showed marked departures from t h e free-space p a t t e r n s . A r a t i o n a l explanation of these e f f e c t s of p a t t e r n change can be obtained by considering t h a t surface waves a r e excited i n t h e sheet which a r e not only dependent upon thickness but upon polarization. The so-called v e r t i c a l p o l a r i z a t i o n corresponds t o t h e TE f i e l d s discussed previously and t h e horizontal polarization corresponds t o t h e T M f i e l d s . It has been noted that t h e surface-wave modes t h a t can e x i s t i n dielect r i c sheets on ground planes a r e only t h e odd TE, modes ( t h a t i s , T?Q, TE3, TE3) and the even modes ( t h a t i s , TMo, TM2, TMlt). For t h e case given i n f i g u r e 12, t / 2 = 0.132 inch, t h e r e a r e no serious p a t t e r n e f f e c t s due t o t h e d i e l e c t r i c . The TE1 surface-wave mode i s cut off and w i l l not appear u n t i l about t / 2 = 0.2384 inch. However, t h e TMo surface-wave mode i s not cut o f f and, a s a r e s u l t , p a t t e r n disturbances a r e seen i n f i g u r e 13 t h a t do not appear f o r t h e TE polarization. Consider f i g u r e 1 4 where t / 2 = 0.243 inch which i s very close t o cutoff f o r t h e TE1 surface-wave mode. I n f i g u r e 14, p a t t e r n d i s t o r t i o n s appear t h a t a r e not v i s i b l e f o r thinner sheets. Additional p a t t e r n s have been made f o r more extended thickness v a r i a t i o n s t h a t a r e not presented herein. To v e r i f y f u r t h e r t h a t t h e p a t t e r n r i p p l e s a r e indeed surface waves, t h e p e r i o d i c i t y of r i p p l e w a s computed by assuming two point-source r a d i a t o r s located 22 inches a p a r t and r a d i a t i n g with equal phase. Good agreement w i t h measured values was obtained. The most important observation t h a t can be made about t h e d i e l e c t r i c e f f e c t s observed i s t h a t t h e nature of t h e e f f e c t i s d i f f e r e n t f o r t h e two orthogonal p o l a r i z a t i o n s and i s dependent on thickness. This r e s u l t means, of course, that maintaining t h e equal amplitude of f i e l d and 90 phase s h i f t may be very d i f f i c u l t f o r t y p i c a l types of flush-mounted antennas and t h e r e f o r e t h e maintenance of c i r c u l a r p o l a r i z a t i o n with good e l l i p t i c i t y r a t i o s w i l l be diff i c u l t . A a d d i t i o n a l observation t h a t can be made i s t h a t f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r n source great care was taken t o f i t t h e d i e l e c t r i c sheet t o t h e ground plane and t h e quality of the f i t was s i m i l a r t o t h e q u a l i t y of f i t required f o r a p r a c t i c a l case. It appeared t h a t , a s a r e s u l t , very l a r g e amounts of source energy were trapped by the sheets.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Problems associated with t h z design of f lush-mounted antennas on reentry configurations covered with thermal-protection material were considered with p a r t i c u l a r reference t o t h e Apollo command module. Measured values of charring l o s s of t h e proposed Apollo thermal-protection material were given t h a t were obtained by simulating afterbody heating r a t e s . The charring e f f e c t s due t o simulated reentry heating on Avcoat 5026-39 produce a l o s s of a t l e a s t 17 dB f o r 1/4 inch of t h e material a t S-band f r e quencies. "his loss i s very l a r g e i n t h e terms of normal margins used i n radio-frequency systems design. A s a r e s u l t , t o r e l i e v e t h e charring-loss problem, some type of low-charring-loss material must be found t o place over t h e s i g n i f i c a n t r a d i a t i n g p a r t s of t h e antenna f o r t h e Apollo command module. There a r e l a r g e p a t t e r n perturbations t h a t can occur f o r t y p i c a l f l u s h mounted dielectric-covered antennas which are c r i t i c a l l y s e n s i t i v e t o thickness changes o r changes i n t h e d i e l e c t r i c constant. Allowances i n system design w i l l be necessary t o account f o r these e f f e c t s . The p a t t e r n changes noted previously a r e a l s o s e n s i t i v e t o p o l a r i z a t i o n ; thus, r e a l i z a t i o n of c i r c u l a r polarization over wide angular regions of a quasi-omnidirectional antenna i s very d i f f i c u l t . To insure maximum system 1 r e l i a b i l i t y , it i s recommended t h a t polarization-diversity systems be included a s p a r t of t h e Apollo ground receiving system.

255
3

1 Dow, Marvin B ; Pittman, Claud M.; and Croswell, William F : . . .

Thermal Performance and Radio-Frequency Transmissivity of Several Ablation Materials.

NASA TN D-1896,1 6 . 94
2 Croswell, William F.; and Higgins, Robert B.: A Study of Dielectric-Covered . Shunt Slots in a Waveguide. Proceedings of the NASA Conference on Communicating Through Plasmas of Atmospheric Entry and Rocket Exhaust. NASA SP-52, 1 6 , pp. 115-129. 94

. . 3 . Croswell, William F ; and Higgins, Robert B : Effects of Dielectric Covers Over Shunt Slots in a Waveguide. NASA TN D-2158, 1 6 . 94

4 hop, Charles M.; and Cob, George I : Radiation From an Aperture in a . . Coated Plane. Res. Paper 68D4-354, J. Res. Natl. Bur. Std., D, vol. 68, no. 4, Apr. 1964, pp. 363-378.
5. Knop, Charles M.:
The Radiation Fields From a Circumferential Slot on a Metal Cylinder Coated With a Lossy Dielectric. IRE, Trans. Antennas Propagation, vol. AP-9, no. 6 Nov. 1 6 , pp. 335-545. , 91 Dielectric Constant. Handbook of Microwave Measurements, d, 1 Third E . Vol. 1 , Max Sucher and Jerome Fox, eds., Polytech. Press of Polytech. Inst. Brooklyn, 1963, pp 495-548.

6 Altschuler, H. M: . .

. 7. Ginzton, Edward L :

1957

Microwave Measurements. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,

8. Chapman, Andrew J.: An Experimental Evaluation of Three Types of Thermal Protection Materials at Moderate Heating Rates and High Total Heat Loads. NASA TN D-1814, 1963.

9. Knop, C. M.; and Battista, A. R.:

Calculated Equatorial Plane Radiation Patterns Produced by a Circumferential Slot on a Cylinder. IRE, Trans. Antennas Propagation (Communications), vol. A ? 9 no. 5, Sept. 1961, I-, PP. 498-499. Book Co., Inc., 1 6 . 91

1 . Harrington, Roger F : Time-Harmonic Electromagnetic Fields. McGraw-Hill 0 .

1 . Croswell, W. F ; and Higgins, R B : 1 . . .

Slots in a Waveguide. pp. 278-283.

A Study of Dielectric Covered Shunt IEEE, Trans. Aerospace, vol. AS-2, no. 2 Apr. 1 6 , , 94

1 . Richmond, J. H : Reciprocity Theorems and Plane Surface Waves. Bull. 2 . No. 176, Ehg. E r t Sta., Ohio State Univ. studies, vol. XXVIII, no. 4, sp. July 1 5 9 99

13. Painter, John H.; and Hondros, George: Unified S-Band Telecommunications
Techniques for Apollo. TN 2-2209, 1965.

: Volume I Functional Description. NASA

14. Anon.:

System Capabilities and Development Schedule of the Deep Space Instrumentation Facility, 1964-68 (Revision 1 . Tech. Mem. No. 33-83. ) Jet Propulsion Lab., C I T , Apr. 2 , 1964. ... 4

15. Hartop, R. W.: Power Loss Between Arbitrarily Polarized Antennas. Tech. Rept. No. 32-457 (Contract No. lJAs (-iOOj, Jet Propulsion La%., C.I.T., Sept. 1 1 6 . , 94
1 . Bangert, J. T.; Ehgelbrecht, R. S.; Harkless, E. T.; Sperry, R. V.; and 6
Walsh, E. J.: The Spacecraft Antennas. no. 4, pt. 1 July 1963, pp. 869-897. , Bell System Tech. J . , vol. XLII,

17. Martin, J.

A . : Design Approaches for Satellite Antennas. Final Rept., Task I (Contract AF 0 ( 4 ) 4 3 , Stanford Res. Inst. (Menlo Park, 467-8) Calif. ), Feb. 1962.

1 . Rechtin, E. : Basic Constraints of Space Communication Systems. Space Com8 munications, A. V Balakrishnan, ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., Lnc., 1963, . pp. 4-29.

1 . Kraus, John D.: Antennas. McGraw-Hill 9

Book Co.,

Inc., 1 9 0 .3.

2 . Simmons, Alan J.: Circularly Polarized Slot Radiators. IRE, Trans. 0 Antennas Propagation, vol. AP-3, no. 1 Jan. 1957, pp. 31-36. ,

257

TABIS I

MEASURENEKFS O ABLATION MATEFtIALS AT ROOM TEMPEBAm F

Frequency, Gc Dielectric constant,
Loss tangent, tan 8

Material Avcoat

'r

5026

10.4 9.87
10.03

1.83
1.8
2.00

0.0115
.050

Cork
Teflon Narmco

.0m7
.011

4032C

7.641 9.63 6.12 9.82 9.82 9-92 5.46 3.945 7 312 8.84

3.44 2.16 2.68 2.26 2.25 2.045 3.36

3.20

LRC &A1

.013

Avcoat I1 Avcoat 5026-3 : 9 with g r a i n cross grain Narmco

.013
.031

035
.200

4028

Phenolic nylon

.018
.02 .002

m-ll
Corning 1913 glass
Plexiglass

3.76
2

569

.0045

TABLE I1

COLD-CHAR-INSERTION TRANSMISSION LOSS

Material Teflon* Avcoat 11" Avcoat I1 Avc oat I1 Phenolic nylon" Phenolic nylon Phenolic nylon

Frequency,
Gc

Loss,

dB
2

0.980
,980

2.66 9.60
.980
2

30 t o 35

2.66 9.60 2.66 9.60 2.66 9.60 2.66 9.60

.980
.980

25 16 t o 17 13 t o 23 16.3 t o 17 25 t o 28
1

LRC E4Al
LRC EhAl
Avc oat 5026-39 Avc oat 5026-39

Cork Cork
T-300 m 6 7 *

2-5
30 t o 35

RTV-88"

*From reference 1.

259

X-BAND HORN DETAILS

TEST SPECIMEN

TEST SPECIMEN
S-BAND CAVITY DETAILS

[TEST

MATERIAL

Figure 1

Figure 2

CHAR LOSS TEST ARRANGEMENT

Figure 3

260

EQUIVALENT ANTENNA MODEL

CYLINDER MODEL
I-b-a

C 'ka

2na ._ A

COMMAND MODULE-

- RESONAM SLOT

METAL CYLINDER
LAYER OF DIELECTRIC

Figure 4

Figure 5

CALCULATED

+ - R M l E WTTERN OF SLDT ON CYLINDER

1V 8

Figure 6

Figure 7

261

CALCULATED

0 -PLANE

WTTERN OF TWO SLOTS ON CYLINDER

I =0323l I ( 0 2 5 2 a fo:9210 Mc, C = 395Ao N

Figure 9

262

SURFACE- WAVE MODES

TEm MODES:

ON DIELECTRIC SHEET
TMm MODES:

E ~ - costx-F)e-~' ~
I-lim BeaxChz

BeQXe-jhZ

Hy-

;
h

El

I
m
Y

BeQxe-jhz

I
11

A co~(kx-F)-~~

I UrnBeaxe-hz

CUT-OFF CONDITIONS

+*! li
IAT CUT-OR)

--z

2
1

v2

Figure 10

MEASURED PATTERNS OF CROSSED SCOT ON LARGE FLAT GROUND PLANE

FREE SPACE: f

MEASURED FATTERN OF CROSSED SLOT ON LA&E GRWND PLANE

VERT POLARIZATION; VZ-O.U2 IN., I-8955Mc

FLAl

8955 Mc

0
FREE SPACE

RELATIVE POLMR. d8

RELATIVE POWER. -12dB

-16-20

-a F 2 2 IN.+

I I I I I

-240

1 1 4

15

30

45 0, DEG

75

15

30

0. DEG

45

60

15

Figure 11

Figure 12

KASURED PATTERN OF CROSSED SLOT ON LARGE FLAT GROUND PLANE

HORIZ. POLARIZATION, 112

-o

132 IN., 1 a955 MC

-_t,
-24
0

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15

,
30

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45

,
M

,
75

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W

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Figure 13

264

MEASURED mTTERNS OF CROSSED SLOT ON LARGE FLAT GROUND PLANE

VERT. POLARIZATION: V2 0.243 IN.: f

6955 M C

RELATIVE POWER.

dB

15

30

45

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Figure I4

MEASURED PATTERN OF CROSSED SLOT ON LARGE FLAT GROUND PLANE HORIZ. POIARIZATION: t/2 a w IN.: I .8955 MC

RELATIYE POWER.

dB

4 5 E, DEC

Figure 15

25.

LUNAR ORBITER

B Edmund A. Brummer y

The Lunar Orbiter i s an unmanned photographic reconnaissance s a t e l l i t e :which w i l l be placed i n a n e l l i p t i c a l lunar o r b i t with a pericynthion a l t i t u d e of about 46 kilometers. Fromthat a l t i t u d e , each Lunar Orbiter spacecraft w i l l be able t o photograph a number of d i f f e r e n t s e l e c t e d areas of t h e lunar surface with a resolution of about l m e t e r t o a s s i s t i n s e l e c t i n g a landing s i t e f o r Apollo

The Lunar Orbiter w i l l a l s o y i e l d other data of i n t e r e s t t o Apollo. For example, tracking data from t h e o r b i t i n g spacecraft w i l l help define t h e s i z e and shape of t h e moon and i t s g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d . I n addition, since t h e spacecraft w i l l be o r b i t i n g i n t h e lunar environment, it w i l l be used f o r making some measurements of t h a t environment.
INTRODUCTION

The Lunar Orbiter Project i s being managed by t h e Langley Research Center and c a r r i e d out under NASA contract NAS-1-3800 by The Boeing Company and i t s two major subcontractors, Eastman-Kodak Company and Radio Corporation of America. A t t h e present time, a l l t h e design work has been completed, "breadboard" veri f i c a t i o n s of t h e design have been accomplished, t h e f i r s t f l i g h t components a r e becoming available, and t h e extensive component and spacecraft t e s t i n g program i s beginning.
A t o t a l of eight spacecraft a r e bein@; u i l t . Five of t h e s e w i l l be flown b by using an Atlas-Agena launch vehicle, and t h r e e w i l l be used i n t h e ground t e s t program. The first launch i s scheduled f o r about t h e middle of 1966. More d e t a i l e d information on t h e Lunar O r b i t e r i s a v a i l a b l e i n references 1 t o 4.

.'.

DISCUSSION Program Objectives The objectives of t h e Lunar Orbiter program are both photographic and nonphotographic, and t h e program e x i s t s primarily t o support Apollo.

The photographic objectives include assistance i n t h e s e l e c t i o n and c e r t i f i c a t i o n of an Apollo landing s i t e and landmark mapping f o r Apollo navigational purposes. Geological survey, including the extension of t h e Surveyor

spacecraft lunar-surface data t o other s i t e s with some degree of confidence, w i l l a l s o be possible by using t h e photographs. The program has several nonphotographic objectives. For example, precision tracking of t h e spacecraft w i l l y i e l d selenodetic information and onboard environmental instrumentation w i l l provide micrometeoroid and p a r t i c l e radiat h e n&ber of micrometeoroid d e t e c t o r s used w i l l ti0 not easurement, it i s believed t h a t a comparison of t h e Lunar Orbiter micrometeoroid data with t h a t obtained by using t h e same type of detectors on Explorers XVI and X II i n e a r t h o r b i t w i l l permit a reasonable XI estimate of t h e micrometeoroid hazard i n t h e l u n a r environment. The p a r t i c l e r a d i a t i o n detectors used a r e s c i n t i l l a t o r types and w i l l measure t h e t o t a l r a d i a t i o n dose. The l a s t objective i s t h e demonstration of techniques and hardware t h a t should increase confidence i n those used f o r Apollo. Several examples of t h i s objective w i l l be given. Spacecraft Configuration

1 The spacecraft weighs about 850 pounds and i s about 5F f e e t high, 5 f e e t

i n diameter at t h e base, and 18 f e e t across t h e antenna booms. (See f i g . 1.)

A s can be seen, most of t h e p r i n c i p a l spacecraft components a r e attached t o a main equipment mounting p l a t e . The upper spacecraft m o d u l e , which i s detachable f o r t e s t i n g purposes, holds t h e velocity-control rocket engine, the 1 attitude-control-system gas j e t s , and t h e f u e l tanks. Around t h e edge of t h e bottom deck of that module a r e 20 of t h e Langley Explorer-type micrometeoroid d e t e c t o r s . These detectors a r e e s s e n t i a l l y pressurized cans having a beryllium skin of 1 - m i l thickness. A puncture by a micrometeoroid i s indicated by a l o s s of pressure. Paper No. 27 by Robert L. O ' N e a l describes those d e t e c t o r s and presents data obtained by using them on earth-orbiting Explorer s a t e l l i t e s .

The particle-radiation sensors used are r e l a t i v e l y simple s c i n t i l l a t o r types, measuring t h e t o t a l o v e r a l l r a d i a t i o n dose. They are used primarily t o f u r n i s h engineering measurements f o r monitoring t h e r a d i a t i o n t o which the camera f i l m i s subjected. When the configuration i s ready f o r f l i g h t , t h e area between t h e uppermodule mounting deck and t h e main-equipment mounting p l a t e i s covered w i t h a highly r e f l e c t i v e shroud of aluminum-coated p l a s t i c f i l m . The only protrusions through the shroud a r e t h e micrometeoroid d e t e c t o r s and t h e lenses of t h e came r a system. The Lunar Orbiter camera system i s somewhat unique i n t h a t it i s not a TV type of camera such as i s used by Ranger, Mariner, and Surveyor. Instead, it i s a film-type camera t h a t requires t h e film t o be developed onboard and scanned by an o p t i c a l system, and t h e images t o be converted t o e l e c t r i c a l sign a l s f o r transmission through t h e spacecraft communications system. The camera system i s described i n more d e t a i l subsequently.

268

The spacecraft has two antennas: an omnidirectional type f o r command reception and f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g performance telemetry, and a 3-foot-diameter parabolic antenna t h a t provides t h e additional gain required i n t h e communicat i o n s l i n k f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g t h e photographic d a t a .
The power system used i s a conventional solar-array-storage-battery
!k

type.

A.L-

The Sun and Canopus are detected by using appropriate sensors and serve as &.I. -....n,.hnnn.F+ L e1 C L C l l G C D I V I bLLG " P E i F l t h e pericds when those references a r e occulted o r when t h e spacecraft i s maneuvering, an i n e r t i a l reference u n i t consisting of strapped-down rate gyros i s used.
but:
L - - 2

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The f l i g h t programer, which i s e s s e n t i a l l y a d i g i t a l computer, c o n t r o l s a l l t h e spacecraft functions. Information i s s t o r e d i n t h a t u n i t by command messages from t h e ground. Mission Operations Figure 2 shows t h a t t h e Lunar Orbiter mission operation involves and w i l l exercise many of t h e same types of elements as Apollo. Tracking of t h e vehicle during t h e launch phase w i l l be accomplished by using t h e Eastern Test Range instrumentation. About t h e t i m e t h e spacecraft i s i n j e c t e d i n t o a t r a n s l u n a r t r a j e c t o r y , tracking, command, and d a t a reception r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w i l l be assumed by t h e s t a t i o n s of t h e Deep Space Instrumentation F a c i l i t y . Centralized m i s I ".trim b u A r o l w i l l be accomplished from the m a c e F l i g h t Operations F a c i l i t y nnc (SFOF) i n Pasadena, California. A l l t h e tracking and telemetry data received by t h e remote s t a t i o n s w i l l be relayed i n real time t o t h e SFOF. The data w i l l then be used t o determine t h e t r a j e c t o r y and s t a t u s of t h e spacecraft and t o o r i g i n a t e comands t o t h e spacecraft for midcourse maneuvers, deboost i n t o l u n a r o r b i t , o r b i t changes, t a k i n g photographs, e t c .
u ~ u A 1

The spacecraft communications system w i l l use some e l e c t r o n i c components which are very similar t o t h e Apollo u n i t s and w i l l operate on S-band frequenc i e s which a r e adjacent t o those employed by Apollo. Therefore, i n a d d i t i o n t o providing f l i g h t experience with some s i m i l a r e l e c t r o n i c components, t h e Lunar Orbiter s i g n a l could be used t o checkout and gain operating experience f o r t h e Apollo receiving s t a t i o n s .

O r b i t a l Maneuvers

I n i t i a l l y , t h e Lunar Orbiter w i l l be placed i n a 200- by 1800-km e l l i p t i c a l o r b i t as shown i n f i g u r e 3. After tracking has accurately e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t o r b i t , a second deboost w i l l be effected t o provide a pericynthion a l t i tude of about 46 kilometers above t h e f i r s t photo t a r g e t . The launch t i m e and o r b i t t r a n s f e r s must be planned so t h a t when t h e spacecraft a r r i v e s above t h e t a r g e t , proper l i g h t i n g i s a v a i l a b l e f o r photography. Proper l i g h t i n g condit i o n s a r e t h o s e which provide s u f f i c i e n t l i g h t and enough s e n s i t i v i t y t o surf a c e slope changes t o permit d e t e c t i o n i n t h e f i n a l photographs of t h e c r a t e r s and cones of significance t o Apollo. This condition i s achieved by t a k i n g photographs when t h e sun angle i s about 3 above t h e horizon. 0 '

The experience of t h e Lunar Orbiter i n being able t o h i t a r e l a t i v e l y narrow window a t t h e moon, t o achieve lunar o r b i t , and t o e f f e c t an o r b i t trans.f e r should give confidence t o Apollo. Paper No. 6 by Alton P. Mayo describes t h e methods t h e Lunar Orbiter w i l l employ f o r t r a j e c t o r y determination and t h e expected accuracies.
The velocity-control engine w h i c h t h e o r b i t e r w i l l use f o r accomplishing deboost and midcourse corrections i s a 100-pound-thrust engine being used i n t h e reaction-control system on both t h e Apollo service and l u n a r excursion modules. I n addition, t h e f u e l tank system being employed i s t h e same as t h a t used i n the command module. Therefore, t h e Lunar Orbiter w i l l be logging some a c t u a l space f l i g h t experience on several of t h e Apollo control-system components

Photographic Target Selection

o Figure 4 shows t h e ~ O l a t i t u d e , f60 longitude area t h a t i s i d e n t i f i e d as t h e region of i n t e r e s t f o r Apollo landings. It a l s o shows t h e manner i n which t h e Lunar Orbiter overflys t h a t region. For t h e case i l l u s t r a t e d , a w a i t i n g time of about 4 days i s required i n order f o r t h e o r b i t t o begin i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e region of i n t e r e s t . O t h e eighth day, t h e o r b i t i n t e r c e p t s t h e t y p i c a l n t a r g e t shown. Again, t h e t i m i n g of t h i s event i s such t h a t t h e r e i s proper illumination f o r photography.

Since t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e o r b i t w i t h respect t o t h e lunar surface i s about t h e same as t h e illumination r o t a t i o n and i n t h e same direction, proper photographic conditions a r e available f o r a number of days. Therefore, s a t i s f a c t o r y p i c t u r e s can a l s o be taken on t h e other o r b i t a l passes over t h e region of interest. Photographic Coverage The Lunar Orbiter camera system has two lenses: a long-focal-length l e n s f o r taking high-resolution p i c t u r e s and a short-focal-length l e n s f o r taking moderate-resolution p i c t u r e s . Simultaneous exposures are made by these lenses and have the format shown i n f i g u r e 5 . The long-focal-length l e n s covers, from an a l t i t u d e of 46 lan, a region of approximately 4 km by 16 km with a resolution of 1 meter. That area l i e s within t h e 33- by 36-km area covered by t h e other l e n s with a r e s o l u t i o n of 8 meters.
The camera can take single-frame exposures o r multiple-sequence exposures. For example, t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l between photographs can be made such t h a t contiguous coverage a t high resolution i s obtained along with considerably overlapping stereo coverage a t moderate resolution. O r , i f t h e timins i n t e r v a l i s s l i g h t l y lengthened, s t e r e o coverage a t moderate resolution and a l s o highresolution samples are possible.

Each spacecraft w i l l carry about 200 f e e t of f i l m which w i l l provide coverage of 12,000 s q lan of t h e lunar surface a t high resolution and s t e r e o coverage of 100,000 sq km a t moderate resolution. The 200 f e e t of film w i l l provide t h e equivalent of about 1 million p i c t u r e s of standard commercial TV q u a l i t y . Spacecraft Photographic System The basic elements of t h e photographic system are shown i n f i g u r e 6. The operation of t h e system can be t r a c e d by using t h a t f i g u r e and beginning with t h e two lenses which simultaneously expose images on t h e 70-mm high-definition a e r i a l f i l m . To provide image-motion compensation during exposure, movable platens a r e employed. After exposure, processing i s accomplished by using a technique i n which t h e exposed f i l m i s pressed i n t o contact with a web which contains a single-solution processing chemical. The f i l m and web a r e then separated, and t h e f i l m i s d r i e d and passed through an i n a c t i v e readout system on t o a f i l m takeup spool. T o accomplish readout, t h e f i l m i s run back through t h e readout device and scanned by a l i g h t beam. The v a r i a t i o n s i n l i g h t intens i t y a r e detected by using a photomultiplier and a r e conditioned f o r transmission over the spacecraft radio-frequency l i n k . During t h e period of p i c t u r e transmission, t h e photographic d a t a are combined by the communication system with t h e spacecraft performance telemetry d a t a and are transmitted on a single radio-frequency c a r r i e r by using a 10-watt t r a n s m i t t e r and t h e 3-foot-diameter parabolic antenna.

To accomplish reconstruction of t h e p i c t u r e data, t h e ground equipment e s s e n t i a l l y performs t h e reverse function of t h e spacecraft readout system. The demodulated p i c t u r e s i g n a l i s displayed on t h e face of a kinescope and recorded on a continuously moving s t r i p of 35-mm film. The r e s u l t i n g s t r i p s of 35-IMUi l m are then edge matched and assembled i n t o f i n a l photographs. f
End-to-end t e s t s on engineering models of t h e photographic and communicat i o n systemhave been run, and t h e s e t e s t s i n d i c a t e t h a t design objectives a r e e s s e n t i a l l y being achieved. PHCrrOGRAPHIC S S E DESIGN CRITERIA YT M Figure 7 shows t h e types of lunar surface c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which a r e detectable a t a signal noise r a t i o (S/N) of 3 by using t h e high-resolution photographs. These "targets," which have been i d e n t i f i e d by t h e Office of Manned Space Flight as t h e type and s i z e which a r e of importance t o t h e lunar excursion module, have been used as criteria f o r t h e design of t h e LunaT Orbiter photographic system. These types of surface data appear on t h e f i l m as differences i n scene brightness. They are read off t h e f i l m by scanning with a microdensitometer. With t h e expected system performance, it w i l l be possible t o d e t e c t over 95 percent of these types and s i z e s of surface i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n t h e areas photographed.

271

P C I G A HC DATA FLOW H YO R P I ' Figure 8 shows t h e s t e p s involved i n t h e analysis of both t h e high- and moderate-resolution photographs, t h e intermediate product of each, and most important, t h e manner i n which t h e combination of t h e two types of photographs a r e used t o produce t h e f i n a l topographic and geologic maps. The immediate product of t h e moderate-resolution photographs i s s t e r e o p l o t s from which cont o u r maps can be &e. Microdensity measurements of t h e high-resolution photographs w i l l y i e l d d a t a regarding surface brightness. These values of surface brightness are a function of two parameters: albedo and t h e photometric function. The s t e r e o p l o t s from t h e moderate-resolution photographs can be used f o r albedo determination, and thereby t h e albedo contributions can be "subtracted-out" from t h e brightness data. A s a r e s u l t , t h e photometric function can be more accurately applied i n making t h e f i n e - d e t a i l surface-characteristic determinations.
CONCLUDING REMARKS

The Lunar Orbiter has been designed and appears adequate t o secure t h e photographic coverage required by Apallo. I n addition, it w i l l provide s e v e r a l types of o t h e r information of value t o Apollo, such as selenodetic and l u n a r environmental data.

REFERENCES

1 Taback, I s r a e l : Lunar Orbiter: I t s Mission and Capability. . Am. Astronaut. SOC., M y 1964. a

Preprint 64-7,

2. Taback I.; and Brummer, E. A.: The Lunar Orbiter. Presented a t AIM Unmanned Spacecraft Meeting (Los Angeles, C a l i f . ) , M r 1-3, 1965. a.

3. Kosofsky, Leon J.; and Broome, G. Calvin:

Lunar Orbiter: A Photographic S a t e l l i t e . Presented at Society of Motion P i c t u r e and Television Engrs. a. (Los Angeles, Calif. ), M r 28 - Apr. 2, 1965.

4. Michael, W i l l i a m H., Jr.; and Tolson, Robert H.:

The Lunar Orbiter Project Selenodesy Ekperiment. NASA paper presented a t t h e Second I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on The Use of A r t i f i c i a l S a t e l l i t e s f o r Geodesy (Athens, Greece), y , Apr. 27 - ~ a 1 1965.

MISSION OPERATIONS

SPACECRAFT CONFIGURATION ROCKET LUNAR TRAJECTORY AGENA ESTABLISHES

ATLAS BOOSTER SEPARATION

CORDING ETR GOLDSTONE WOOMERA MADRID

Figure 1

Figure 2

LUNAR ORBITAL MANEUVERS SHOWN IN APPROACH HYPERBOLA PLANE

TYPICAL TARGET SELECTION AREA

TTYPICAL TARGET AREA

W60

40

2O0

20

40

60E

ORBIT INCLINATION = 1 7 O ORBIT PERIOD=3.5 HR PERICYNTHIONOVER TYPIWTARGET:209 3ON SUN ANGLE=300 ABOVE HORIZON AT T A R ~ E T

Figure 3

Figure 4

273

FRAME FORMAT AND MPOSURE MODES

SlNGLe FRAME k - 3 6km+

SPACECRAFT PHOTOGRAPHIC SYSTEM

CAMERA
*-r

PROCESSOR

READOUT TO COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM

TYPICAL MULTIPLE EXPOSURE MODES

TAKEUP RESOLUTION MWRATE RESOLUTION ( 4 6 km PERICYNTHION) CONTIGUOUS HIGHRESOLUTION COVERAGE

LOOPER

STEREO MODERATESTEREO MODERATERESOLUTION COVERAGE RESOLUTION COVERAGE

~

-3
I

FILM

TAKEUP

HIGH-RESOLLITION TOTAL COVERAGE (EACH SPACE CRAFT): HIGH RESOWTION-12.000 km2: SAMPLES MODERATE RESOLLITION, STEREO- 100,000km2

2 4 LENS I

IL&I

LOWER

Figure 5

Figure 6

PHOTOGRAPHIC DATA FLOW

HIGHRESOLUTION

LUNAR SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS DETECTABLE U S I N G HIGH-RESOLUTION PHOTOGRAPHS

S/N

-3

+ l
CONTOUR FINE DETAIL TOPOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC MAPS

STEREO PLOTS

MICRODENSITY

1Rm
CRATERS OR CONES SLOPES

Figure 7

Figure 8

274

.
26.
APPLICATION TO A P O W O S M ORBIT DETERMINATION F O E RESULTS O THE LUNAR ORBITER F Sy Alton P. Mayo
-

- -

S W Y

The o r b i t e r mission w i l l provide information on t h e lunar o r b i t determinat i o n problem as w e l l as refinement of t h e physical constants of t h e earth-moon system. I n the t r a n s l u n a r phase ( t h a t is, e a r t h t o moon) t h e o r b i t determinat i o n procedures w i l l be t h e same ones used for t h e Ranger series. I n the l u n a r o r b i t t h e o r b i t a l elements as w e l l a s rectangular coordinates of the o r b i t w i l l be determined. The higher harmonics of t h e l u n a r g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d w i l l be solved f o r i n near real t i m e . The b a s i c methOd of o r b i t determination i s a d i f f e r e n t i a l c o r r e c t i o n process where l i n e a r observation equations are solved t o obtain a d i f f e r e n t i a l correction t o be added t o t h e nominal o r b i t t o obtain t h e a c t u a l f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y . The solution f o r t h e correction i s obtained by t h e B y e s estimate method.
The s i z e s of t h e p o s i t i o n and v e l o c i t y perturbations t h a t can be propagated l i n e a r l y i n t h e l u n a r o r b i t depend on t h e length of t i m e or" propagation. For t h i s reason, when t h e perturbations from the nominal t r a j e c t o r y are l a r g e , such as s h o r t l y a f t e r deboost, t h e o r b i t determination procedures f o r the l u n a r o r b i t e r w i l l be confined t o processing t h e tracking data over a very short traj e c t o r y a r c where n o n l i n e a r i t i e s are not so severe. I n t h e l i m i t , a s i n g l e r a d a r point can be processed t o obtain a refinement i n t h e o r b i t i f a s h o r t data a r c i s required.
A s u f f i c i e n t l y accurate o r b i t can be obtained f o r t h e l u n a r o r b i t e r , that is, one with an uncertainty i n p o s i t i o n of much l e s s than 1 kilometer and an uncertainty i n v e l o c i t y of a few centimeters p e r second. Considerable r e f i n e ment of the physical constants of t h e earth-moon system can a l s o be obtained. These o r b i t determination results of t h e lunar o r b i t e r w i l l provide Apollo with much information on determination of t h e lunar o r b i t from earth-based tracking, and will provide improved values of many physical constants of t h e earth-moon system. An extensive p o s t f l i g h t a n a l y s i s of t h e data w i l l be made t o determine t h e physical constants of the earth-moon s y s t e m and t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d of t h e moon.

I
i

INTRODUCTION

The o r b i t determination procedures f o r s a t e l l i t e s i n and f o r l u n a r impact missions have been developed i n p a s t The tasks f o r t h e Apollo and the l u n a r o r b i t e r ) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ so t h a e closed o r b i t s about t h e moon can ~ c t d u r e s s u f f i c i e n t accuracy t o insure mission success.

o r b i t s near the e a r t h years and have been c a l l f o r extension of be determined with

I n the case of t h e o r b i t e r , earth-based measurements of range and range r e t e a r e t h e b a s i c d a t a f o r determining the o r b i t ; whereas, f o r Apollo it i s understood t h a t earth-based measurements w i l l be used i n combination w i t h onboard meAsurements. The t r a c k i n g system f o r t h e o r b i t e r w a s described by Brummer i n paper no. 25. According t o present schedules, t h e o r b i t e r mission w i l l precede t h e Apollo and w i l l provide information on t h e o r b i t determination p r o w as w e l l as refinement of the p h y s i c a l constants of t h e earth-moon sysf o r t h e l u n a r o r b i t e r are discussed i n t h i s paper. t e m . 8om stud&%
SYMBOLS

element of t r u e l u n a r or nominal lunar o r b i t v e c t o r of d i f f e r e n c e s between elements of t r u e l u n a r o r b i t and e l e ments of nominal l u n a r o r b i t u n i v e r s a l g r a v i t a t i o n a l constant mass of earth or moon range from t r a c k i n g s t a t i o n t o s p a c e c r a f t d i f f e r e n c e between range of true l u n a r o r b i t and range of nominal l u n a r o r b i t a t corresponding t i m e s
time

axes i n geocentric rectangular coordinate system spacecraft geocentric rectangular coordinates spacecraft v e l o c i t i e s v e c t o r of d i f f e r e n c e s between coordinates of t r u e lunar o r b i t and coordinates of nominal l u n a r o r b i t spacecraft p o s i t i o n u n c e r t a i n t y w i t h respect t o earth

ux,uy,uz

spacecraft p o s i t i o n u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n x-, y-, and z-directions

Subscripts :

t
0

a t time

a t beginning of d a t a processing i n t e r v a l
moon
earth

C
8

276

FBSULTS AND DISCUSSION

The topics discussed herein are as follows:

( ) Fundamentals of orbit determination procedures 1

(2) Perturbation nonlinearities in the lunar orbit

( 3 ) Lunar-orbit accuracies obtainable from earth-based tracking

(4) Real-time improvement of earth-moon system constants

Figure 1 shows the fundamental equations underlying the basic orbit determination procedures for the lunar orbiter. In the translunar phase (that is, f o r the earth-to-moon trajectory), the orbit determination procedures will be the same ones used in the Ranger series. Basically, these procedures, which are demonstrated at the top of the figure, assume that the deviations between measurements m d e on the true trajectory and those made on the nominaltrajectory at corresponding times can be expressed in linear terms of the deviations in the initial conditions. Thus, the observation equation is

The initial conditions and the nominal trajectory are expressed in a geocentric rectangular coordinate system where the Z - a x i s is the earth spin axis, the Xand Y-axes are in the equatorial plane, and the X-axis is toward the equinox of date. After the observation equations are obtained at numerous points along the trajectory, the equations are essentially solved by a weighted-least-squares which when added to the initial process. The solution gives a value of coordinates for the nominal trajectory gives a trajectory which minimizes the weighted square of the difference between the actual measurements and those computed on this determined trajectory. The measurements are weighted according to their accuracy, so more accurate measurements will have more effect on the solution for A q o . The actual solution process, which is known as Bayes estimate (see ref. l , is slightly m r e complex than this, since it takes into ) account the knowledge of the trajectory that one has before the measurements are made. The validity of the quantity &,o depends on the perturbative f process being correctly represented by these linear equations. I the process is slightly nonlinear, then iterative procedures are used. The orbit obtained from solving the equation once is assumedto be a new nominal, and the equations are solved again. This method of orbit determination is known as the differential correction process, which is what the name implies; the tracking data are processed to determine a differential correction to the orbit ipitial conditions. For the translunar phase, the linear assumptions are fairly good, since the motion is approximately a straight Ldne. In the elliptical lunar orbit, however, the nonlinearities are more pronounced. The lunar orbit procedures are given at the bottom of figure 1 The procedures are essentially .

Axt.0

277

t h e same a s those f o r the translunar phase; however, t h e measurement deviations are made on a n e l l i p t i c a l o r b i t t o determine t h e i n i t i a l conditions of t h e e l l i p s e . I n t h e translunar phase, rectangular coordinates a r e being solved f o r . I n t h e lunar-orbit phase, it i s p r e s e n t l y planned t h a t t h e o r b i t a l elements, as well as the rectangular coordinates, w i l l be determined. It i s e a s i e r t o v i s u a l i z e the o r b i t i f it i s expressed i n t e r n of i t s elements r a t h e r than rectangular coordinates. Also, computations using o r b i t a l elements are i n some respects numerically b e t t e r behaved than those using t h e rectangular coordinates. (See r e f . 2.) Study i s being made of t h e technique f o r obtaining t h e elements of t h e l u n a r o r b i t . The results discussed herein a r e f o r t h e rectangular coordinate representation of the o r b i t .
If the nonlinear e f f e c t s a r e not considered properly, t h e o r b i t determinat i o n procedures could f a i l t o determine t h e o r b i t ; a l s o , e r r o r s would occur i n t h e calculated o r b i t s t a t i s t i c s . These s t a t i s t i c s represent t h e uncertainty i n the knowledge of t h e o r b i t and are a l s o based on l i n e a r i t y assumptions which a r e too lengthy t o discuss i n t h i s presentation.

Figure 2 shows t h e range deviations obtained by i n t e g r a t i n g t h e equations of motion f o r a perturbation i n each component of i n i t i a l position of 50 k i l o meters and i n each component of i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y of 70 meters p e r second and those obtained by propagating l i n e a r i l y t h e same perturbation. The v e r t i c a l s c a l e i s range deviation from the values on t h e nominal o r b i t ; t h e horizontal s c a l e i s minutes since lunar i n j e c t i o n . The data shown a r e f o r about two o r b i t s . The s o l i d curve represents t h e integrated r e s u l t s , and t h e dashed curve represents t h e l i n e a r l y propagated values. The difference i s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i n a equacy of l i n e a r theory t o hold f o r perturbations of t h i s s i z e i n t h e lunar o r b i t . This p a r t i c u l a r perturbation ( t h a t i s , 50 kilometers and 50 meters per second) was applied i n such a manner as t o not appreciably a f f e c t t h e energy o r t h e period of t h e o r b i t . This i s evidenced by t h e f a c t t h a t the t r u e and l i n e a r deviations cross zero a t the same time point. If the-energy had been affected, there would have been a phase s h i f t i n t h e curves, and a t some times during t h e o r b i t t h e deviations predicted by t h e l i n e a r theory would be of opposite sign t o t h e t r u e deviations. The l i n e a r approximation i s not very good, as t h e error i n aRt i s as l a r g e as 100 kilometers i n two o r b i t s about the moon. Figure 3 shows t h e n o n l i n e a r i t i e s i n the propagation of the ?-component only of the s t a t e vector. The ?-component w a s selected because it d i r e c t l y a f f e c t s t h e energy of t h e o r b i t . A s previously i l l u s t r a t e d , it i s assumed i n t h e o r b i t determination procedures that t h e t r a j e c t o r y perturbations propagate l i n e a r l y along t h e o r b i t with increasing time according t o t h e equation

where

- i s assumed constant a;c, a%, 0

f o r t h e expected values of

4 0.
Y

The ver-

t i c a l scale i s t h e value of the d e r i v a t i v e . The horizontal scale i s t h e s i z e of t h e perturbation being propagated. The curves shown represent the d e r i v a t i v

a'

st required t o propagate properly t h e perturbation Akt,o %,O

t o t h e times of

each curve. For example, t o propagate correctly a perturbation fit,, of 10 meters p e r second f o r 5 hours, t h e value of t h e d e r i v a t i v e would be -10; whereas, t h e derivative necessary t o propagate properly a perturbation of 50 meters per second would be -25. The perturbations f o r a 9-hour propagation i n t e r v a l are even more nonlinear. The value of t h e d e r i v a t i v e computed by t h e o r b i t determination procedures f o r the observation equation and f o r s t a t i s t i c s i s t h e value given f o r &,o = 0, and the procedures make t h e assumption t h a t t h i s value i s v a l i d f o r the expected perturbations. There are, i n general, two p o i n t s p e r t i n e n t t o t h i s figure. One i s t h a t t h e perturbation process i s f a i r l y l i n e a r over 1 hour and up t o 50 meters per second; t h e other i s that only very small perturbations can be c o r r e c t l y propagated l i n e a r l y over long i n t e r v a l s , t h a t is, 5 o r more hours i n the lunar o r b i t . For t h i s reason, it i s presently planned t h a t when the lunar o r b i t e r f i r s t goes i n t o lunar o r b i t , each d a t a a r c processed by the o r b i t determination w i l l be l i m i t e d t o l e s s than 1 hour when n o n l i n e a r i t i e s are not s o severe. "he f a c t t h a t t h e curves a t 5 and 9 hours a r e e s s e n t i a l l y straight l i n e s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s a 2 second-order term i n the perturbation equation which i s a function of (Akt,o) or, as one m i g h t suspect, t h e perturbation i n energy of t h e o r b i t .
A study was a l s o made of t h e r e l a t i o n between small deviations i n t h e spacecraft l o c a l p o s i t i o n and v e l o c i t y and t h e r e s u l t i n g small deviations i n range and range r a t e . The r e l a t i o n s h i p was found t o be very l i n e a r .

Figure 4 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e e f f e c t that u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n physical constants may have on p o s i t i o n determination accuracy i n t h e lunar o r b i t . The results were obtained from a simulation of t h e mission. The d a t a represent an o r b i t with a 250-kilometer perilune and a 1850-kilometer apolune and with an i n c l i n a t i o n of l 5 O t o t h e lunar equator. The selenographic longitude of t h e ascending t h e argument of t h e perilune i s -12.5O. The uncertainty i n node i s 25.5'; spacecraft p o s i t i o n shown along t h e v e r t i c a l s c a l e was determined from t h e equation

Tracking time i n minutes since i n j e c t i o n is shown along t h e horizontal scale. I n j e c t i o n i s taken t o be immediately a f t e r deboost from t h e translunar t r a j e c t o r y i n t o t h e i n i t i a l lunar e l l i p s e ; an i n i t i a l uncertainty of 100 kilometers i n each p o s i t i o n component w a s assumed. The s o l i d curves a r e t h e r e s u l t s obtained using range and range rate. The dashed curve shows some results using range-rate d a t a only. I n t h e t o p s o l i d curve, t h e s i x components of s t a t e x, y, z, 5 , p, and 5 were estimated, and t h e e f f e c t s of u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n physical constants were considered; t h a t is, t h e tracking d a t a w e r e not used t o r e f i n e t h e s e constants. The physical constants considered were the masses of t h e e a r t h and moon, t h e lunar ephemeris scale f a c t o r ( a f a c t o r which a d j u s t s t h e ephemeris t a b l e s ) , t h e speed of l i g h t , and t h e geocentric radius, l a t i t u d e , and longitude of each tracking s t a t i o n . The corresponding u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n

279

these constants were taken t o be those obtained from t h e p o s t f l i g h t a n a l y s i s of t h e Ranger V I tracking d a t a made by the J e t Propulsion Laboratory. ( A s a m a t t e r of i n t e r e s t , the 46-minute time point corresponds t o t h e f i r s t occultation of t h e spacecraft by the moon.) The next lower s o l i d curve shows t h e p o s i t i o n uncertainty when, i n addition t o estimating t h e spacecraft state (that i s , posit i o n and velocity), t h e tracking d a t a a r e a l s o used t o estimate t h e physical constants. The dashed curve i l l u s t r a t e s t h e use of range rate only t o d e t e r mine t h e s t a t e and physical constants. The bottom curve can be viewed as t h e ultimate accuracy possible i f t h e physical constants are known exactly and t h e only e r r o r source i s t h e measurement e r r o r .

The r e s u l t s show k h a t if t h e uncertainty i n knowledge of the t r a j e c t o r y i s a s l a r g e as 100 kilometers a f t e r deboost i n t o t h e lunar o r b i t , during t h e 46 minutes that elapse before t h e spacecraft goes behind t h e moon, i t s position i s known t o t h e order of a kilometer. After two o r b i t s , i t s p o s i t i o n i s known t o much l e s s than a kilometer. This value of 100 kilometers i s very conservat i v e , a s the uncertainty i s expected t o be about 20 kilometers.
The uncertainty i n spacecraft v e l o c i t y was a l s o obtained. The curves a r e similar t o t h e ones shown i n f i g u r e 4. The uncertainty a f t e r two o r b i t s of tracking was 9 centimeters per second. The r e s u l t s presented i n figure 4 do not r e f l e c t any consideration of t h e higher harmonics of t h e lunar g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d . The inclusion of t h e higher harmonics i n the o r b i t determination process i s not a n t i c i p a t e d t o change t h e results of t h i s f i g u r e appreciably. Figure 5 i l l u s t r a t e s the amount of improvement i n t h e physical constant u n c e r t a i n t i e s possible a f t e r tracking f o r approximately two lunar o r b i t s . The v e r t i c a l scale shows t h e standard deviations of t h e constants. The physical constants and t h e i r dimensions a r e given along t h e horizontal scale. The l e f t most b a r above each parameter represents t h e standard deviation a f t e r t r a n s lunar tracking. The center bar gives t h e standard deviation a f t e r tracking two lunar o r b i t s i f t h e range-rate data a r e used, and t h e rightmost bar shows t h e improvement i f both range and range-rate d a t a are used during the two o r b i t s . Note t h a t t h e product of the g r a v i t a t i o n a l constant of the moon multiplied by t h e mass o f t h e moon shows s u b s t a n t i a l improvement, and, i n t h i s case, t h e inclusion of range data makes no s i g n i f i c a n t difference. The uncertainty i n t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l constant of t h e e a r t h cannot be decreased by t h e lunar o r b i t tracking data, and hence, i t s determination i n the o r b i t determination process i s unnecessary. The mass of t h e earth, t h e m a s s of t h e moon, and t h e lunar ephemeris scale f a c t o r were solved f o r as independent q u a n t i t i e s . These quant i t i e s were obtained using t h e o r b i t determination program of reference 3 , which does not include t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e moon mass, t h e e a r t h mass, and t h e distance between the e a r t h and the moon. This r e l a t i o n i s included i n l a t e r versions of t h e o r b i t determination program, which a r e given i n reference 4. The lunar ephemeris scale f a c t o r i s t h e only physical. constant f o r which range data yielded a s u b s t a n t i a l improvement over range-rate data alone. This i s because of t h e f a c t t h a t range-rate d a t a contain no information about t h e d i s tance between t h e e a r t h and the moon. The u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n t h e trackings t a t i o n location show s l i g h t decreases due t o t h e two o r b i t s of tracking; rang d a t a offered l i t t l e many of t h e higher harmonics 280

of t h e lunar g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d are a l s o being solved f o r . In general, the r e s u l t s presented i n figure 5 show t h a t t h e most improvement i s i n the uncert a i n t y of the product of the g r a v i t a t i o n a l constant of t h e moon multiplied by t h e mass of t h e moon and i n the uncertainty of the distance between t h e e a r t h and t h e moon. However, i n order t o obtain t h e improvement i n t h e uncertainty of the distance between t h e e a r t h and the moon, spacecraft range must be measured.
CONCLUDING REMARKS

The s i z e s of t h e position and velocity perturbations that can be propagated l i n e a r l y i n t h e l u n a r o r b i t depend on t h e length of t i m e of propagation. For this reason, when t h e perturbations f r o m t h e nominal t r a j e c t o r y are large, such as s h o r t l y a f t e r deboost, t h e l u n a r o r b i t determination procedures f o r t h e lunar o r b i t e r w i l l be confined t o processing the tracking data over a very short traj e c t o r y a r c where n o n l i n e a r i t i e s are not so severe. I n t h e l i m i t , a s i n g l e radar point can be processed a t a time i f a s h o r t data a r c i s required. In t h i s case, a refinement i n t h e estimate of the o r b i t would be obtained a f t e r each data point i s processed.
A s u f f i c i e n t l y accurate o r b i t can be obtained f o r t h e l u n a r o r b i t e r , that i s , one with an uncertainty i n p o s i t i o n of much less than 1kilometer and an uncertainty i n v e l o c i t y of a few centimeters per second. Considerable r e f i n e Iment of t h e physical constants of t h e earth-moon system can a l s o be obtained. These o r b i t determination r e s u l t s of t h e lunar o r b i t e r will provide Apollo with much information on determination of the lunar o r b i t from earth-based tracking, and w i l l provide improved values of many physical constants of t h e earth-moon system, which w i l l be used during t h e Apollo mission. The improvements i n physical constants were those expected t o be obtained i n near real time s h o r t l y a f t e r i n j e c t i o n i n t o t h e lunar o r b i t . A n extensive p o s t f l i g h t a n a l y s i s of t h e data w i l l be made t o determine t h e physical constants of t h e earth-moon system and the g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d of t h e moon.

1 Smith, Gerald L.; Schmidt, Stanley F.; and McGee, Leonard A.: . Application of S t a t i s t i c a l F i l t e r Theory t o the Optimal Estimation of Position and Velocity on Boqrd a Circumlunar Vehicle. NASA TR R-135, 1962. 2. Pines, Samuel; Wolf, Henry; and Payne, Mary: Asymptotically Singular Diff e r e n t i a l Correction W t r i c e s . Rept. No. RAC 708-453 (328) (Contract No. NAS5-293), Rep. Aviation Corp., Apr. 30, 1961.

3. Warner, M. R.; Nead, M. W . j and Hudson, R. H.:

Program of t h e Jet Propulsion Laboratory. M r 18, 1964. a. Propulsion Lab., C.I.T.,

The Orbit Determination Tech. Men. No. 33-168, J e t

4 Warner, .

Michael R.; and Nead, Melba W.: SPODP - Single Precision Orbit Determination Program. Tech. Mem. No. 33-204, Jet Propulsion Lab., C.I.T., Feb. 15, 1963.

282

ORBIT DETERMINATION PROCEDURES

LUNAR-ORBIT PHASE
TRI IF

Figure 1

COMPARISON OF TRUE RANGE DEVIATIONS AND LINEAR APPROXIMATION

PARTIAL DERIVATIVE OF VELOCITY FOR DIFFERENT VALUES OF AX+,o

10
t. HR

Et, = sii km AND sii m/SEC

1 0

-50
1 ORBIT
I

ZORBITS
I

-3w

M 30 Axt,,, m/SEC

40

50

Figure 2

Figure 3

EFFECT OF MEASUREMENT TYPE, PHYSICAL CONSTANTS, AND STATION LOCATION UNCERTAINTIES ON POSITION ACCURACY
20 0r
lORBlT 2ORBlTS

-MEASURINGRANGEANDRANGERATE --- MEASURING RANGE RATE

-__OCCULTED

UNCERTAINTY I N SPACECRAFT POSITION, km

10

PHYSICALCONSTAM UNCERTAINTIES INCLUDED PHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND UNCERTAINTIES ESTIMATED

ONLY MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTIES INCLUDED 0 100 m 300 400 5w TRACKINGTIME SINCE INJECTION. M I N

Figure 4

1.6r

IMPROMMENT ON PHYSIC& CONSTANTS WE TO WNAR-ORBIT TRACKING

AFEG TRANSLUNAR TRACKING

a AFTER TWO LUNAR ORBITS M RANGE AND RANGE-RAE

TRACKING

0AFTER TWO LUNAR ORBITS OF RANGE-RATE TRACKING

Gm,. km3/SEC2

Gm,. SCALE STATION STATION STATION .2 FACTOR, RADIUS. L A T I N M . LONGITUDE, km3/SEC x l O m 102 x DEG x 1 6 3 MG

Figure 5

284

b
4 '

- 27.

- I

EXPLOFER SATI.LL'E MEASUREMENTS OF METEOROID

PENETRATION R T S I N STRUCTURAL MATERIALS AE

B Robert L. O'Neal y

With t h e micrometeoroid s a t e l l i t e program of Explorers XVI and X I I NASA XI, has established, with a high degree of confidence, t h e meteoroid r i s k i n a very small portion of t h e o v e r a l l problem. The predicted r a t e s of penetration of 0.001- and 0.002-inch-thick s t r u c t u r a l materials a r e found t o be d i f f e r e n t from these experimental findings. It must b e recognized t h a t even though such pred i c t i o n s have shown continuing improvement within t h e past few years, no claim can be &e t h a t present methods are b e t t e r than perhaps an order of magnitude i n defining t h e meteoroid r i s k . I T O U TO NR D CI N One of t h e hazards associated with the operation of a vehicle i n t h e space environment i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of damage t o t h e spacecraft system by meteoroid impact. The probability of occurrence of such an event depends upon t h e meteoroid environment, namely t h e number of meteoroids present and t h e i r v e l o c i t y and mass, as well as upon t h e a b i l i t y of the spacecraft s t r u c t u r e t o r e s i s t pene t r a t i o n . An accurate assessment of t h e probability of t h e occurrence of damage by meteoroid impact i s v i r t u a l l y impossible a t present because of t h e very l i m i t e d knowledge of t h e meteoroid environment and of impact phenomena a t meteoric v e l o c i t i e s . However, advancements a r e being made i n several areas involved i n n defining t h e r i s k of damage by meteoroid impact. A important contribution i n t h i s area i s t h e measurement of meteoroid penetration r a t e s i n s t r u c t u r a l materials by use of e a r t h s a t e l l i t e s . The purpose of t h i s report i s t o summarize t h e r e s u l t s of such measurements obtained by t h e Explorer XVI and Explorer XXIII micrometeoroid s a t e l l i t e s . More d e t a i l s of these experiments a r e presented i n references 1 t o 5 .
DISCUSSION

Predictions of Puncture Rates

Estimates of t h e probability of spacecraft penetration by meteoroids have changed by orders of magnitude as estimates of t h e meteoroid environment have changed. A example of t h i s change from 1957 t o 1963 i s shown i n f i g u r e 1 This . n f i g u r e presents t h e predicted puncture rates i n a s t a i n l e s s - s t e e l s t r u c t u r e as btained by Whipple ( r e f . 6) from c r i t e r i a used i n 1957, 1961, and 1963. It can be seen t h a t t h e most recent predicted rate (1963) i s l e s s than t h a t previously

estimated by orders of magnitude. The b a s i s f o r t h e l a r g e reduction i n estimates df the meteoroid hazard has been some data t h a t have become a v a i l a b l e i n c e r t a i n ' a r e a s involved i n making t h e associated analysis. One such area i s t h e d i r e c t measurement i n space of meteoroid impacts by use of microphone-type sensors. These measurements have made it possible t o determine with a b e t t e r degree of accuracy t h e nature of t h e small mass range of t h e meteoroid environment. Prior t o such measurements, t h e only basis f o r estimates was extrapolal e f o r t h e l a r g e r mass range of p a r t i c l e s . These data were obtained from visual, photographic, and radio s entering t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere. Many u n c e r t a i n t i e s e x i s t i n r e l a t i n g such observations t o a meaningful quantity which defines t h e meteoroid environment. Results obtained from t h e T r a i l b l a z e r Program ( refs 7 t o 9) have provided a much b e t t e r understanding of such ground based observat i o n s . This a r t i f i c i a l meteor program, which i s being conducted as a cooperat i v e project between t h e NASA Langley Research Center, t h e Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e of Technology, and t h e U.S. A i r Force, has l e d t o a b e t t e r c a l i b r a t i o n of t h e luminous efficiency of meteors; and t h i s information, i n turn, has allowed a b e t t e r d e f i n i t i o n of meteoroid density. I n making h i s prediction i n 1963 of the meteoroid hazard, Whipple ( r e f . 6) took advantage of both the microphone data and t h e luminous e f f i c i e n c y c a l i b r a t i o n d a t a .

A more d i r e c t approach toward ascertaining t h e s e v e r i t y of t h e meteoroid problem has been t o measure d i r e c t l y i n space t h e penetration frequency of s t r u c t u r a l materials. This approach minimizes many assumptions and uncertaint i e s present i n other methods. The micrometeoroid s a t e l l i t e program was i n i { t i a t e d at t h e Langley Research Center f o r t h e purpose of making such d i r e c t measurements. The program has thus f a r included successful launchings of two XI. such s a t e l l i t e s , t h e Explorer XVI and Explorer X I I

The Explorer Micrometeoroid S a t e l l i t e s The Explorer XVI s a t e l l i t e w a s launched i n t o an e a r t h o r b i t i n December of 1962 and transmitted penetration d a t a f o r a period of about 7 months. (See r e f s . 1 t o 4.) A photograph of t h i s s a t e l l i t e i s shown i n f i g u r e 2. The s a t e l l i t e had an apogee of 640 n a u t i c a l miles, a perigee of 405 n a u t i c a l miles, and an i n c l i n a t i o n t o t h e equator of 520. This s a t e l l i t e had a number of sensors designed t o provide d a t a concerning t h e meteoroid environment. These sensors included microphone-type impact detectors, f i v e rows of pressurized c e l l penetration detectors, stainless-steel-covered penetration detectors, and copper break w i r e s . Only t h e pressurized cell-penetration data a r e presented, as these data were s t a t i s t i c a l l y more s i g n i f i c a n t and were not contradicted by t h e other penetration sensor data. The pressurized c e l l d e t e c t o r i s e s s e n t i a l l y a h a l f cylinder some 7 inches long and 2 inches i n diameter. The t e s t material makes up t h e cylindrical portion of t h e d e t e c t o r exposed t o t h e space environment. A penetration i s indicated by l o s s of pressure i n t h e c e l l . When a c e l l has once been penetrated it cannot i n d i c a t e a d d i t i o n a l penetrations. These penet r a t i o n s r e s u l t i n a decrease i n exposed s e n s i t i v e area. Three thicknesses of beryllium-copper t e s t material were used i n t h i s experiment. The exposed a r e a and thicknesses used are given i n t h e following table:

206

~~~

Area, ft2

Thickness, i n . (bery1liuz c q p e r )
091 .0
.002 005

Number of c e l l s

10.6 4.3
2.1

100

40
20

A s indicated, t h e r e were 10.6 square f e e t of 0.001-inch-thick material representing 100 c e l l s , 4.3 square f e e t of 0.002-inch-thick material representing 40 c e l l s , and 2.1 square f e e t of O.OQ-inch-thick m a t e r i a l representing 20 c e l l s . The reason f o r having a l a r g e r exposed area of t h e t h i n n e r materials was t o increase t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t penetration d a t a would be obtained i n a t l e a s t one m a t e r i a l thickness. Beryllium copper was s e l e c t e d as a t e s t material because of e x i s t i n g f a b r i c a t i o n techniques. The puncture r a t e s obtained from t h e s a t e l l i t e during i t s 7 months of operation a r e shown i n f i g u r e 3 . The t o t a l punctures recorded were 44 punctures i n the 0.001-inch-thick material, 1 punc1 t u r e s i n t h e 0.002-inch-thick material, and no punctures i n t h e O.OO5-incht h i c k material. The average puncture r a t e s represented by t h e d a t a points were 0.031 and 0.016 punctures per square foot per day. Ninety-five percent confidence l i m i t s a r e indicated by t h e horizontal bars above and below each data point. The upper confidence l i m i t i s shown f o r no penetration i n t h e 0.005-inch-thick material.

I were

The 1957 and 1961 estimates of t h e meteoroid f l u x m a d e by Whipple ( r e f . 6) used t o predict t h e puncture rate i n the t e s t material. The estimates were made before Whipple had made h i s 1963 estimate of t h e environment. A comparison showed t h e measured puncture r a t e s were f a r l e s s than predicted by 1957 c r i t e r i a and were i n somewhat b e t t e r agreement with 1961 estimates. However, t h e decrease of t h e measured average puncture r a t e w i t h increasing material thickness, t h a t i s t h e slope of a l i n e connecting t h e two d a t a points, was considerably less than predicted by Whipple. This difference i n slope w a s an i t e m of concern because if one extrapolated these data t o g r e a t e r thicknesses, t h e extrapolated puncture frequency would soon exceed t h e predicted r a t e by a considerable amount.

The second successful s a t e l l i t e i n the micrometeoroid program, Explorer XXIII, was planned so as t o obtain a more nearly equal s t a t i s t i c a l sampling of puncture r a t e s i n material of 0.001-inch and 0.002-inch thickness and thus t o b e t t e r define t h e slope of t h i s curve. For t h i s reason, t h e exposed area of t h e penetration experiment w a s devoted t o only these two thicknesses. A photograph of t h i s s a t e l l i t e i s shown i n f i g u r e 4. The primary penetration sensors were again t h e pressurized c e l l s . These sensors were made of s t a i n l e s s s t e e l i n s t e a d of beryllium copper. Ground t e s t s have indicated t h a t each of these materials have e s s e n t i a l l y the same resistance t o penetration; however, because f a b r i c a t i o n techniques had advancedto allow s t a i n l e s s s t e e l t o be used i n making t h e detector, t h i s material was selected a s being a more t y p i c a l spacecraft s t r u c t u r a l material. Ekplorer X II was launched i n t o a n e a r t h XI 94 o r b i t i n November 1 6 (ref. 5 ) . This s a t e l l i t e i s s t i l l (June 1965) operating and transmitting puncture data. F i r s t results a r e presented i n reference 5. The spacecraft i s similar t o t h a t of Explorer XVI but c a r r i e s more pressurized

287

c e l l s . 'These c e l l s were mounted i n seven rows around t h e periphery of t h e spacecraft. The spacecraft i s about 24 inches i n diameter and 92 inches long. "he o r b i t has a n apogee of 530 n a u t i c a l miles, a perigee of 250 n a u t i c a l miles, and an inclination t o t h e equator of 52'. The exposed a r e a and material thicknesses used i n t h e pressurized c e l l experiment are as follows: Area, ft2 Thickness, i n . (stainless steel) Number of c e l l s

7.4 14.8

0.001 .002

140

70

This allocation of area and thickness was made by u t i l i z i n g Explorer XVI d a t a t o predict penetration frequency. The puncture d a t a received during t h e i n i 1 tial 3- months of operation a r e shown i n f i g u r e 3 . During t h a t period t h e r e 2 were 24 punctures i n t h e 0.001-inch-thick material and 25 punctures i n t h e 0.002-inch-thick material. The average puncture r a t e s r e s u l t i n g a r e 0.036 and 0.017 punctures per square f o o t per day. These d a t a a r e shown compared with Explorer X V I d a t a and predicted puncture r a t e s . These d a t a can be compared d i r e c t l y because t h e two t e s t materials have t h e same resistance t o penetrat i o n . A s i s shown, t h e two s e t s of d a t a agree remarkably w e l l . A b e t t e r stat i s t i c a l sample of d a t a has been obtained f o r t h e 0.002-inch-thick m a t e r i a l i n t h i s experiment than w a s obtained from t h e Explorer XVI f l i g h t . The confidence l i m i t s shown are t h e best combination from t h e two s e t s of d a t a . Whipple's 1963 estimated penetration frequency has been included f o r compnri son. The data s t i l l l i e below t h e predicted penetration r a t e s . The decrease i n penetrat i o n frequency with increasing material thickness continues t o be much lower than predicted. It i s believed t h a t t h i s f a c t i s now firmly established f o r t h i s material-thickness range. Only a d d i t i o n a l t e s t s w i l l v e r i f y t h e range of m a t e r i a l thicknesses over which t h i s trend e x i s t s . The Pegasus micrometeoroid s a t e l l i t e i s designed t o expose aluminum of 0.0015-inch, 0.008-inch, and O.016-inch thickness f o r obtaining penetration frequency data. When complete, t h a t program w i l l extend t h e range of knowledge by a s i g n i f i c a n t amount. It must be remembered t h a t t h e Explorer and Pegasus micrometeoroid measurements are representative of t h e near-earth meteoroid environment. Any v a r i a t i o n of penetration frequency a t l a r g e distances away from t h e e a r t h must await other evidence. Application t o Apollo The r e l a t i o n of t h e thicknesses being t e s t e d i n t h e Explorer and Pegasus micrometeoroid programs t o those being used i n t h e Apollo program i s indicated i n f i g u r e 6. The Apollo thickness shown i s t h e combined thickness of a double w a l l and a s such w i l l have t h e penetration resistance of a somewhat t h i c k e r material. It can be seen t h a t t h e thicknesses of material being t e s t e d i n the4 Explorer and Pegasus programs are very t h i n as compared with those t y p i c a l of Apollo. It i s unlikely t h a t proof t e s t s of t y p i c a l spacecraft-material

2aa

thicknesses w i l l be conducted, since t h e required exposure areas and mission times would be beyond t h e realm of p r a c t i c a l i t y . However, t h e examination and study of recovered spacecraft f o r evidence of meteoroid impacts w i l l y i e l d some d a t a on t h e loeteoroid environment. It w i l l be necessary t o combine t h e experimental r e s u l t s from such micrometeoroid programs as t h e Explorer and Pegasus with t h e results of ground observations of meteors and hy-pervelocity impact studies t o e s t a b l i s h t h e r i s k of meteoroid penetration.
CONCLUDING REMARKS

With t h e r e s u l t s from t h e micrometeoroid s a t e l l i t e s , Explorers XVI and

XXIII, NASA has established with a high degree of confidence t h e meteoroid r i s k i n a very small portion of t h e o v e r a l l problem. The predicted r a t e of penetrat i o n of 0.001- and 0.002-inch-thick s t r u c t u r a l materials has been found t o be d i f f e r e n t from these experimental findings. It must be recognized t h a t even though such predictions a r e now much improved over those of some years past, no claim can be made t h a t they a r e b e t t e r than perhaps an order of magnitude i n defining t h e meteoroid r i s k .

REFERENCES

1 Hastings, E a r l C., Jr., compiler: The Explorer XVI Micrometeoroid Satel. l i t e - Description and Preliminary Results f o r t h e Period December 16, 1962, Through January 13, 1963. NASA TM x-810, 1963.
2. H a s t i n g s , E a r l C., Jr., compiler: The Explorer XVI Micrometeoroid Satell i t e - Supplement I, Preliminary Results f o r t h e Period January 14, 1963, Through March 2 1963. NASA TM X-824, 1963. ,

3. Hastings, E a r l C., Jr., compiler:

The Explorer XVI Micrometeoroid Satell i t e - Supplement 11, Preliminary Results f o r t h e Period March 3, 1963, Through M y 26, 1963. NASA TM X-899, 1963. a
The Explorer W I Micrometeoroid Satell i t e - Supplement 111, Preliminary Results f o r t h e Period M y 27, 1963, a Through J u l y 22, 1963. NASA TM X-949, 1964.

4. Hastings, E a r l C., Jr., compiler:

5. O'Neal, Robert L., compiler:

The Explorer XXIII Micrometeoroid S a t e l l i t e Description and Preliminary Results f o r t h e Period November 6, 1964, Through February 15, 1965. NASA TM X-1123, 1965.
J . Geophys. Res.,

6. Whipple, Fred L.: O Meteoroids and Penetration. n no. 17, Sept. 1963, pp. 4929-4939.

vol. 68,

7. McCrosky, Richard
8. Jewell,

E.; and Soberman, Robert K.: Results From an A r t i f i c i a l I r o n Meteoroid a t 10 km/sec. AFCRL-62-803, U.S. A i r Force, J u l y 1962.

Preliminary Analysis of a Simulated W. 0 ; and Wineman, A. R.: . Meteor Reentry at 9.8 Kilometers Per Second. NASA TN D-2268, 1964.

9. Brown, Clarence A.; and Keating, Jean C.:

Flight Test Performance and Description of a Rocket Vehicle f o r Producing Low-Speed A r t i f i c i a l Meteors. NASA TN D-2270, 1964.

COMPARISON OF PUNCTURE RATES PREDICTED BY WHIPPLE

EXPLORER Icpl

PRESSURIZED CEUS

Figure 1

Figure 2

L-2482-2

COMPARISON

ICTED PUNCTURE RATES WITH DATA

Figure 3

Figure 4

L-2482-5

COMPARISON OF PREDICTED PUNCTURE RATES WITH EXPLORER Xm AND EXPLORER XXUI DATA
0 EXPLORER I(pI n EXPLORER Xxm

PREDICTED PUNCTURE RATE IN W M I N U M

WHIPPLE 119631

PEGASUS-+

Figure 5

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28. UTILIZATION O APOLLO SPACECRAFT SYSTEMS F R F O
SUPPORT O A MANNED ORBITAL RESEIIRCH LABORATORY F
By W i l l i a m C. Hayes, Jr.
%

.-

--

-I

SUMMARY

The MORL '(Manned Orbital Research Laboratory) comprises t h e laboratory, l o g i s t i c s , and operation support systems, F l i g h t crew r o t a t i o n and resupply requirements w e r e determined as a b a s i s for d e f i n i t i o n of t h e l o g i s t i c s system.
A s a t i s f a c t o r y l o g i s t i c s system includes the Apollo command module, a s e r v i c e pack, and a multimission module adapted t o t h e Saturn I B launch vehicle. Modifications and new development items have been i d e n t i f i e d and a conceptual d e f i n i t i o n of t h e l o g i s t i c s spacecraft accomplished.
An approach t o t h e development of new technology using t h e i n t e g r a t e d Apollo and MORL systems i s presented.
INFRODUCT1 ON

As p a r t of a continuing e f f o r t directed toward t h e d e f i n i t i o n of advanced research requirements, techniques, and f a c i l i t i e s , t h e NASA Langley Research Center, with t h e Douglas A i r c r a f t Company, Inc., i s studying a Manned O r b i t a l The MORL was conceived as a v e r s a t i l e , experimental Research Laboratory (MORL). research f a c i l i t y for t h e simultaneous development of space f l i g h t technology and man's c a p a b i l i t y t o function effectively i n t h e space environment f o r long periods of time. It was recognized t h a t a dynamic, onboard experimental program of approximately 5 years duration could i n t e r j e c t u n r e a l i s t i c design parameters unless t h e l o g i s t i c s and operational support systems requirements were ident i f i e d and integrated. The MORL, therefore, includes t h e laboratory, t h e Apollo-derived l o g i s t i c s spacecraft, and t h e operational support systems. The b a s i c philosophy governing t h e selection of laboratory weight, volume, power, and flight-crew complement was optimum research c a p a b i l i t y and mission f l e x i b i l i t y commensurate with u t i l i z a t i o n of spacecraft, launch vehicles, and f a c i l i t i e s currently within t h e inventory of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
FLIGHT SYSTEMS Mission Vehicle Elements
The vehicle elements i d e n t i f i e d f o r several e a r t h o r b i t a l missions ( r e f . 1) are shown i n f i g u r e 1. The Saturn I B launch vehicle may be u t i l i z e d f o r

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200-nautical-mile o r b i t s i n c l i n e d 30 t o 300. The MORL has a launch weight of ( approximately 30,000 pounds, and t h e Apollo l o g i s t i c s spacecraft can d e l i v e r a flight-crew increment of t h r e e and approximately 11,000 pounds of cargo p e r flight

For e a s t e r l y launch from Cape Kennedy i n t o a 200-nautical-mile p o l a r o r b i t o r a synchronous o r b i t i n c l i n e d approximately 30, t h e Saturn V launch v e h i c l e i s required. For t h e polar o r b i t t h e MORL and t h e Apollo l o g i s t i c s spacecraft have b @ S . n t @ l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as f o r t h e lower i n c l i n a t i o n s . For synchronous o r b i t , however, an a d d i t i o n a l 10,300 pounds of s h i e l d i n g must be added t o t h e MORL. The Apollo l o g i s t i c s spacecraft has a cargo d e l i v e r y c a p a b i l i t y of approximately 20,000 pounds.

be

The laboratory and t h e Apollo l o g i s t i c s spacecraft a r e shown i n t h e a r t i s t ' s rendering i n f i g u r e 2 and a r e described i n d e t a i l i n reference 2.

All l o g i s t i c s spacecraft are i n i t i a l l y docked a t t h e nose of t h e laboratory f o r f l i g h t crew and cargo t r a n s f e r . Separation from t h e nose and transfer t o t h e side-docked p o s i t i o n a r e accomplished by mechanical manipulators which allow p o s i t i v e remote c o n t r o l and provide t h e umbilical connection f o r spacec r a f t services and s t a t u s monitoring.
Laboratory System The laboratory shown i n f i g u r e 3 can accommodate s i x t o nine operative and i n v e s t i g a t i v e personnel simultaneously. The configuration i s predicated on s e p a r a t i o n of l i v i n g and working spaces f o r f u n c t i o n a l e f f i c i e n c y and campartmentation f o r f l i g h t s a f e t y . The hangar/test space contains approximately 2000 cubic f e e t of independently pressurized volume and i s used f o r checkout and maintenance of t h e l o g i s t i c spacecraft, f l i g h t crew and cargo t r a n s f e r , experimentation, and, i f required, f l i g h t crew h a b i t a t i o n i n a d e f e r r e d emergency m o d e of operation. External a i r l o c k s a r e provided f o r access t o l o g i s t i c s spacecraft i n t h e side-docked p o s i t i o n . The l a r g e r compartment contains approximately 7000 cubic f e e t of independently pressurized volume and includes:

(1)The c o n t r o l deck, which contains consoles and instrumentation f o r monitoring and control of a l l laboratory operations, maintenance, and experimentation. ( 2 ) The onboard centrifuge, which i s used f o r r e e n t r y simulation, physical condition t e s t i n g , and therapy, i f required, f o r one o r two members of t h e f l i g h t crew. Each cab i s equipped with emergency controls, a t e l e v i s i o n monit o r , and sensors f o r t h e measurement of r e s p i r a t o r y r a t e , pulse r a t e , blood pressure, EKG, and galvanic s k i n response.

( 3 ) The flight-crew quarters, which contain i n d i v i d u a l enclosures o r "staterooms" f o r relaxation, sleeping, and storage of personal e f f e c t s ; a wardroom and galley; hygiene f a c i l i t i e s ; and a r e c r e a t i o n a r e a . I n addition, a
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three-man a i r l o c k i s provided above t h e flight-crew q u a r t e r s which permits access t o t h e unpressurized a f t s k i r t space f o r t h e development of operational techniques and procedures. Logistics Spacecraft System The Apollo-derived l o g i s t i c s spacecraft, shown i n f i g u r e 4, comprises t h e A--ll - ~ A , . l a fipurr21 with lzmxh esczge system, 8 sers6ce pack ca multimission module, and an adapter f o r mating t o t h e S-IVB.
4-Lrr-h
~ULcc-uall
-e-

mrrrnnn-2 G u I I l y I a L A u

UUUUIL

,-

For t h i s application, t h e Apollo command module must withstand exposure t o t h e space environment f o r periods of up t o 6 months. Therefore, modificat i o n s which w i l l allow maintenance of v i t a l systems must be made. Umbilical connections with t h e MORL w i l l be required t o monitor t h e s t a t u s of t h e Apollo spacecraft systems, and possibly t o provide coolant, heat, and p r e s s u r i z i n g atmosphere. The parachute compartment may a l s o r e q u i r e a controlled environment t o prevent d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e parachute m a t e r i a l . Subsystems must be protected from excessive temperature cycling, pressure l o s s , l u b r i c a n t l o s s , outgassing, and cold-welding. Minor control-panel modifications w i l l be necess a r y t o r e l o c a t e and add s p e c i f i c controls required f o r t h e MORL mission. The s e r v i c e pack i s a new development item which contains s i x s o l i d propellant r e t r o r o c k e t s End provides emironmental-control/life-susport (EC/LS), power, coolant, and s t a b i l i z a t i o n and control system (SCS) functions f o r t h e command module. The multimission module i s a l s o a new development i t e m and contains an equipment section, a 1100-cubic-foot pressure vessel, and a bulk-cargo s e c t i o n . A separation plane i s provided t o allow f o r i n t e r i o r a l t e r a t i o n . The equipment s e c t i o n contains t h e rendezvous propulsion system, avionic and f l i g h t c o n t r o l systems, t h e module separation rocket, and d e o r b i t c o n t r o l e l e c t r o n i c s . The bulk-cargo s e c t i o n contains storage tanks and t h e transfer-system components.
A q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s of t h e l o g i s t i c s requirements demonstrated t h e need f o r t h r e e b a s i c laboratory-dependent i n t e r i o r s which could be interchanged without compromising t h e i n i t i a l man-rating of t h e system. Multimission module i n t e r i o r s a r e shown i n f i g u r e 5, and t h e three b a s i c ones are as follows: (1)The cargo i n t e r i o r , which i s used f o r resupply of expendables, spare p a r t s , and small experiments ( 2 ) The experiment i n t e r i o r , which may be used f o r animal colonies, o p t i c a l experiments, o r o t h e r large experiments

( 3 ) The r e t r o f i t i n t e r i o r , which may contain subsystems of advanced design

such as power o r l i f e support t o increase t h e research e f f e c t i v e n e s s o r extend t h e operational c a p a b i l i t y of t h e laboratory I n addition, an excursion i n t e r i o r which contains propulsion f o r r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t d u r a t i o n operating at d i f f e r e n t o r b i t a l a l t i t u d e s and i n c l i n a t i o n s could be provided.

295

FLIGHT OPERATIONS SUPPORT

The development and c a l i b r a t i o n of sensors f o r earth-centered a p p l i c a t i o n experiments and f o r f u t u r e planetary exploration require observation of both n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l standards. These standards should be known and cont r o l l e d and, where unknown o r uncontrollable, amenable t o simultaneous observat i o n and measurement with e x i s t i n g techniques. Therefore, because m a x i m u m overf l i g h t of the United S t a t e s and adjacent broad ocean areas a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e 50 inclined o r b i t , it w a s s e l e c t e d f o r preliminary a n a l y s i s and i s t h e b a s i s f o r the remaining discussion.
Figure 6 shows
(1)The coverage of t h e e a r t h provided by t h e MORL i n t h e 50 i n c l i n e d o r b i t (approximately 80 percent of t h e e a r t h ' s surface i s overflown) ( 2 ) The ground t r a c e of t h e launch t r a j e c t o r y

( 3 ) Required tracking/telemetry s i t e s (Guaymas, Corpus C h r i s t i , Cape

Kennedy, and Bermuda)

( 4 ) Required recovery a r e a s (West Pacific, Mid Pacific, South P a c i f i c ,

West Atlantic, and E a s t A t l a n t i c )
The f l i g h t p r o f i l e requires unmanned launch of t h e MORL from Cape Kennedy i n t o an e l l i p t i c a l o r b i t of 100 t o 215 n a u t i c a l m i l e s . I n j e c t i o n maneuvers are monitored by t h e Cape Kennedy and Bermuda s i t e s . A f t e r a 45-minute coast, t h e o r b i t i s m a d e c i r c u l a r by using t h e onboard propulsion system and c r i t i c a l subsystems a c t i v a t e d on command from a ship located i n t h e Indian Ocean. Performance i s assessed during t h e first pass over t h e Guaymas and Texas s i t e s . The f l i g h t p r o f i l e of t h e l o g i s t i c s spacecraft i s s i m i l a r with t h e exception of t h e launch azimuth and t h e coast period., which are as required f o r rendezvous and which are dependent on t h e time of launch.

Routine orbital operations and onboard experimentation can be adequately supported a t t h e Texas and Cape Kennedy sites, which can provide approximately 53 minutes of nonredundant contact time p e r day. Additional f a c i l i t i e s w i l l be required f o r experiment planning, scheduling, analysis, and control as w e l l as f o r d a t a reduction, analysis, and storage.
A preliminary concept of recovery operations w a s developed, based on curr e n t recovery planning a t t h e Manned Spacecraft Center. The f i v e recovery zones w i l l provide a t o t a l of 1 2 planned landing opportunities p e r 24 hours with no more than & hours mission elapsed t i m e between any two consecutive 2 opportunities. The complexity of preparing and supporting t h e l a b o r a t o r y i n o r b i t on a normal schedule and during emergency s i t u a t i o n s w i l l r e q u i r e well-defined procedures, maximum u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e flight-crew c a p a b i l i t i e s , and t h e rapid

296

response of operational support. These support a c t i v i t i e s w i l l consist of many r e p e t i t i v e operations which could be implemented with standardized equipment and routines.
LOGISTICS REQUIREMENTS
_ - - ght-Crew Fl1

Rotation

A t y p i c a l flight-crew schedule for the f i r s t 2 years of a mission i s presented i n f i g u r e 7 i n order t o demonstrate t h e manning concept and a technique f o r systematically increasing t h e in-space exposure time of t h e f l i g h t crew. Within 20 days a f t e r t h e MORL launch, an Apollo l o g i s t i c s spacecraft i s launched with a three-man f l i g h t crew increment (crewmen 1 t o 3 ) s p e c i a l l y t r a i n e d t o board t h e MORL, a c t i v a t e and check subsystems performance, and correct malfunct i o n s if required. Approximately 45 days a f t e r i n i t i a l m a n n i n g , two Apollo l o g i s t i c s spacecraft a r e launched (with crewman 4 t o 9 ) and one i s returned with two of t h e o r i g i n a l three-man increment (crewman 1 and 2) and with one of t h e f r e s h p i l o t s (crewman 4, represented by a dot i n f i g . 7). This procedure leaves (Exposure time i s indicated i n t h e nominal complement of s i x aboard t h e MORL. f i g . 7 by t h e length of each l i n e f o r each crewman. ) Single f l i g h t s a r e then scheduled a t 90-day i n t e r v a l s . I n t h i s plan, each spacecraft r e t u r n s with a f r e s h p i l o t and within 1 - months one crewman (crewman 9 ) has spent approximately 3 1
2

1 1 year i n o r b i t while others have spent 1 , 3, 6, and 9 months. With t h e 2 exception. of t h e f i r s t year of operation during which s i x successful f l i g h t s a r e proposed, f o u r successful f l i g h t s per year a r e s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h i s approach.
Resupply Requirements The estimated annual resupply requirements f o r t h e MORL with a six-man f l i g h t crew a r e shown i n f i g u r e 8 f o r a t y p i c a l ?-year period i n t h e e a r l y 1970's. The resupply requirements are shown t o vary between approximately 33,000 and 38,000 pounds per year. Since t h e requirement f o r resupply of t h e environmental-control/life-support system i s assumed t o be constant, t h e variat i o n i s a function of t h e t h r e e f a c t o r s discussed i n t h e following paragraphs:

e,

(1)Propellant required f o r orbit-keeping and a t t i t u d e control v a r i e s according t o t h e atmospheric density, which i n t u r n v a r i e s according t o t h e 11-year cycle of s o l a r a c t i v i t y . For the e a r l y 1970's, t h e atmospheric density, drag, and t h e orbit-keeping propellant requirements decrease at a diminishing r a t e . The requirement f o r attitude-control propellant, however, increases over t h e same time period because of t h e decreasing aerodynamic torque, which i s used t o counter t h e constant-gravity gradient torque. A net increase i n prop e l l a n t requirements f o r t h e last 2 years i s noted.
( 2 ) The f a i l u r e r a t e of onboard systems, subsystems, and components would tend t o increase with f l i g h t duration. Therefore, a n increase i n t h e requirement f o r d e l i v e r y of spare p a r t s i s seen.

297

( 3 ) The performance of the experiments w i l l increase flight-crew e f f i ciency and e s t a b l i s h requirements f o r additional experiments which w i l l probably be more numerous and complex. This f a c t o r w i l l increase t h e rate a t which experiments can be performed and therefore t h e requirement f o r experiment resupply.
Four resupply f l i g h t s per year a r e therefore seen t o be adequate f o r continuous ?-year operation.
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT

One possible plan f o r t h e development of advanced space f l i g h t technology u t i l i z i n g t h e integrated Apollo and MORL systems i s presented i n f i g u r e 9. A s was s t a t e d previously, t h e i n i t i a l three-man f light-crew increment would remain aboard t h e MORL f o r a t l e a s t 45 days. In addition, t h e current MORL study has shown t h a t approximately 935 man-hours o f i n - f l i g h t t e s t i n g i n support of MORL technology development a r e highly desirable. Development of t h e 45-day flight-crew capability, t h e b a s i c MORL technology, and t h e Apollo l o g i s t i c s spacecraft with combinations of t h e Apollo command and service module, t h e LEM (lunar excursion module) ascent stage, and t h e multimission module could be accomplished p r i o r t o 1972. From t h i s time, however, t h e extension of t h e MORL capability r e f l e c t s t h e development of t h e power-system technology. A Manned Orbital Research Laboratory launched i n 1 9 7 2 4 could have t h e 6-kW solar power system, which would be s u f f i c i e n t t o close t h e W water cycle, partially close t h e oxygen cycle, and provide 2.5 k per hour f o r experimentation. The resupply requirement would comprise food, oxygen, n i t r o gen, experiment equipment, spare parts, and orbit-keeping and a t t i t u d e - c o n t r o l propellant.
A Manned Orbital Research Laboratory launched i n t h e 1975 time period could u t i l i z e a 10-kW, radioisotope, Brayton cycle, power system with enough power t o close t h e oxygen system completely. The requirement f o r resupply oxygen could be nearly eliminated and t h e orbit-keeping propellant requirement reduced t o r e f l e c t t h e reduction i n aerodynamic drag r e s u l t i n g from removal of t h e s o l a r panels.

After 1978, u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e nuclear source t o extend t h e power capabili t y t o 30 k might allow p a r t i a l closing of t h e food cycle and use of an elecW t r i c propulsion system f o r orbit-keeping and a t t i t u d e control. This would perm i t f u r t h e r reduction i n t h e requirement for consumables and expendables. The character of resupply t o support such a system i n e a r t h o r b i t i s seen t o evolve from one of delivery of expendables t o one of delivery of advanced experiment equipment and f l i g h t components which could enhance t h e onboard research effect i v e n e s s while simultaneously developing a long-duration, resupply-independent, operational c a p a b i l i t y such a s w i l l be required f o r i n t e r p l a n e t a r y f l i g h t s .

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Operation of t h e Manned O r b i t a l Research Laboratory i s dependent on technology development and resupply which can be provided t o a l a r g e e x t e n t with e x i s t i n g Saturn-Apollo systems. Apollo and MORL systems can be complementary i n t h e development of advanced space f l i g h t technology.

REFERENCES Development of t h e Manned O r b i t a l Research Laboratory (MORL) 1 Starns, C. E.: . System U t i l i z a t i o n P o t e n t i a l . Interim Report. Rept SM-48157 (Contract No. NAS 1-3612), Missile & Space Systems Div., Douglas A i r c r a f t Co., Inc., Feb. 1965.

2. Charhut, D. E.: Report on t h e Optimization of t h e Manned O r b i t a l Research Laboratory (MORL) System Concept. Volume I Technical Summary. A Rept. SM-46072 (Contract No. N S 1-3612), M i s s i l e & Space Systems Div., Douglas A i r c r a f t Co., Inc., Sept. 1964.

299

MiSSlON VEHtCLE ELEMENTS

@ / NEW ~ $ A

~ ~ L O REQUIRED T P ~ ~ N

LOGISTICS S'C

LOGfSTlCS S ' C

1-2483- I I Figure f Figure 2

MA~NED ORBtTAL RESEARCH L A B O ~ A ~ R ~

APOLLO LOGETICS SPACECRAFT

Figure 3

Figure 4

MULTlMlSSlON MODULE INTERIORS FLIGHT OPERATIONAL SUPPORT

CARGO INTERIOR

50 25 LATITUDE, DEG 0
25

EXCURS ION INTER IOR

RETROFIT INTER IOR

120 150 180 150 120 90 60

30 LONGITUDE. DEG

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Figure 5

Figure 6

TYPICAL FLIGHT CREW ROTATION SCHEDULE

TYPICAL VARIATIONS OF ANNUAL RESUPPLY REQUIREMENTS FOR EARLY 1 7 ' 905

6-MAN FLIGHT CREW

RrsuPPtv REQUIREMENTS, L B N R

A SPACECRAFT LAUNCH
FLIGHT CREWMEN

ib RCS/SCS

EXPERIMENTS

v SPACECRAFT RECOVERY

wts

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12 6 0 4

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Figure 8

301

APCU-0

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1972

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CONSUMABLES _ _ - CLOSED CYCLE

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EXISTING SYSTEMS
I

1978

Figure 9

29.

D N MC AND CONTROL RESEARCH APPLICABIX TO YA IS

MOLL0 EXTENSION SYSTEMS
By P e t e r R. Kurzhals, Claude R. Keckler, and W i l l i a m M. Piland

The distArbance and c o n t r o l aspects of t h e Apollo extension systems (AES) concept a r e discussed and s t u d i e s made a t t h e Langley Research Center of t h e e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l disturbances f o r an e a r t h - o r b i t a l mission a r e outlined. Typical r e s u l t s a r e presented t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e disturbance p r o f i l e s and v e h i c l e response f o r t h e zero-gravity mode of operation. Experimental programs f o r poss i b l e 90-day and 42-day AES missions a r e described i n terms of requirements and experimental program durations. The f u e l consumption required t o compensate f o r t h e disturbances and t o provide c o n t r o l for t h e experiments i s a l s o given. The disturbance envelope and t h e experimental program requirements a r e used t o develop an optimum c o n t r o l system. Weight trade-offs of t h r e e competitive systems l e d t o t h e choice of a control-moment gyro-jet system combination a s t h e optimum minimum-weight system f o r t h e extended Apollo mission. Example experimental t a s k s were simulated t o determine t h e effectiveness of this c o n t r o l system. INTRODUCTION

An a n a l y s i s of t h e dynamics and control research f o r an Apollo extension system (AES) must be preceded by a b r i e f review of t h e AES mission and configur a t i o n . The base l i n e AES configuration proposed f o r e a r t h o r b i t a l missions i s correspondingly shown i n f i g u r e 1. This AES concept c o n s i s t s of t h e Apollo command and s e r v i c e modules which a r e linked t o t h e lunar excursion module (W) o r t o a laboratory module. Power f o r t h e spacecraft and i t s experiments could be produced by f u e l c e l l s , by a Brayton cycle system, o r by s o l a r panels.
The AE3 concept assumed f o r t h i s analysis w i l l have an o r b i t a l mission of from 45 t o 90 days and w i l l operate i n a 200-nautical-mile, 28.50 i n c l i n a t i o n o r b i t . It should be pointed out t h a t t h i s assumed AES mission i s only one of a number of p o s s i b l e missions t h a t have been under study. (See refs. 1 t o 3 . ) Other missions, f o r example, include a smaller IG-day AES with a l i m i t e d experimental mission. However, t h e dynamics and c o n t r o l problems of all t h e AES conf i g u r a t i o n s tend t o be similar, and t h e example Apollo assumed here i s thus a good measuring s t i c k f o r determining t h e impact of t h e s e problems on t h e AES mission.

303

TECHNICAL APPROACH
After t h e mission and configuration have been reviewed, an examination of t h e various aspects of t h e AES c o n t r o l a n a l y s i s i s made. The t e c h n i c a l approach used i n t h i s a n a l y s i s i s o u t l i n e d i n figure 2. For any AES concept, t h e cont r o l analysis f i r s t n e c e s s i t a t e s t h e determination of e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l d i s turbances t h a t may a c t on t h e spacecraft. These disturbances include aerodynamic Qnd gravity-g&*t torques, crew-motion e f f e c t s and, possibly, moments pro\?heed by operation oh. an onboard centrifuge. After d e f i n i t i o n o f . t h e s e d i s t u r b ance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e uncontrolled motion of t h e AES may be obtained from computer solutions of t h e spacecraft equations of motion and from t e s t s with scaled models. Maximum a t t i t u d e and rate e r r o r s can be r e a d i l y derived from t h e s e solutions and i n s t a b i l i t y trends i n t h e A E 3 motion can be detected. The experimental requirements i n terms of allowable a t t i t u d e and rate e r r o r s f o r t h e AES a r e defined next and, together with t h e disturbance inputs, are used t o determine a minimum-weight c o n t r o l system. Both reaction j e t s and momentumstorage systems, such as control-moment gyros and r e a c t i o n wheels, a r e considered. Comparative systems a r e mechanized t o assure t h e i r effectiveness and t o develop b a s i c control commands and p i l o t c o n t r o l techniques. The r e s u l t a n t optimum system i s then checked i n a d e t a i l e d simulation of normal and experimental tasks. DISTURBANCE AND EXPERlMENTAL REQUIREMENTS External disturbances are dependent on t h e AES o r i e n t a t i o n and have been o r i e n t a t i o n s ; namely, solar, o r b i t , and i n e r t i a l determined f o r t h r e e p r i m a orientation. During t h e s o l a r o r i e n t a t i o n , t h e roll a x i s of t h e spacecreft p o i n t s a t the sun; during o r b i t o r i e n t a t i o n , it i s normal t o t h e o r b i t plane; and during i n e r t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n , a l l t h r e e axes a r e held f i x e d with respect t o an a r b i t r a r y i n e r t i a l reference frame. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c torque p r o f i l e s f o r t h e s o l a r o r i e n t a t i o n a r e shown i n f i g u r e 3 . These torque h i s t o r i e s consider both aerodynamic and gravity-gradient torques and were c a l c u l a t e d by a computer program developed f o r Langley Research Center ( r e f . 4 ) . This computer program considers a H a r r i s - P r i e s t e r atmosphere with diurnal-bulge corrections and cocld include moving s o l a r panels. The r e s u l t a n t torques f o r AES have amplitudes of about 0.02 f t - l b f o r t h e r o l l a x i s , 0.4 f t - l b f o r t h e p i t c h a x i s , and 0.6 f t - l b f o r t h e yaw a x i s . A l l t h r e e torques a l s o have i n i t i a l biased components; therefore, t h e uncontrolled spacecraft response w i l l be a large-amplitude o s c i l l a t i o n such as that shown i n f i g u r e 4. Amplitudes of 50' i n r o l l , 80 i n p i t c h , and 5 i n yaw a r e seen t o occur under these disturbances. Control must thus be ' provided during experiments with rate and a t t i t u d e - p o i n t i n g requirements. This c o n t r o l w i l l r e q u i r e an average f u e l consumption of about 6.42 lb/day with t h e present Apollo r e a c t i o n - j e t system. I n t e r n a l disturbances, such as crew motions, pose a somewhat d i f f e r e n t problem. Large a t t i t u d e e r r o r s were produced by crew motions during t h e Gemini and Voskhod f l i g h t s . Similar motions w i l l occur during t h e A 3 mission. I3 Since t h e s e motions occur sporadically, t h e frequency and magnitude of torques produced by crew motions cannot be d e f i n i t e l y e s t a b l i s h e d a t t h i s t i m e . However,

304

cbmputed m a x i m e r r o r s of about 3 occur f o r t y p i c a l crew motions. Even moticr ' equivalent t o only one step, or 1-foot displacements, may produce e r r o r s on the A s some of t h e AES experiments r e q u i r e a t t i t u d e accuracy of 0.1' order of 0.2'. accomplishment of t h e experimental t a s k s my w e l l n e c e s s i t a t e continuous coma pensation f o r crew-motion e f f e c t s . Such control w i l l lead t o l a r g e r e a c t i o n - j e t f u e l consumption. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c f u e l expenditures are about 0.2 l b p e r s i n g l e motion and 30 lb/day f o r periodic unrestricted crew motions during t h e proposed experimental program.
A f t e r t h e t y p i c a l e f f e c t s of t h e disturbances a c t i n g on A B nave been considered, a review of t h e requirements associated with t h e experimental mission i s undertaken. Tables I and I1 summarize possible control-related experiments assumed f o r t h e example AES mission. The experiments have been arranged according t o o r i e n t a t i o n and a t t i t u d e accuracy within that o r i e n t a t i o n . The number of experiments p e r week and t h e time required f o r each experiment were then used t o derive an equivalent experiment duration i n hours p e r day. For example, t h e manned coronograph i s proposed f o r 14 experiments p e r week with an average experiment duration of 1/2 hour per experiment. T h i s proposal gives a t o t a l experiment t i m e of 7 hours p e r 7-day week, o r 1 hour p e r day.

From t a b l e s I and I1 it may be seen t h a t t h e required spacecraft accuracies range from 01 t o lo and t h a t t h e corresponding commanded s l e w requirements .' range from t h e o r b i t rate of 0 . 0 6 5 ~p e r second t o a maneuver rate of about 2O p e r second. Additional accuracies beyond 0.lo f o r c e r t a i n of t h e s e experiments are provided by i s o l a t i n g t h e experiment on a stable platform. From t h e requirements and from t h e experiment duration, t h e f u e l consumption f o r t h e Apollo r e a c t i o n - j e t system may be determined. This consumption i s t a b u l a t e d i n t h e right-hand column for each experiment. A s i n g l e three-axis maneuver p e r day was assumed t o provide t h e orientation changes f o r t h e experiments, with an attendant f u e l consumption o f 1 . lb/day. 11 Sequences of experiments with common requirements - as i n d i c a t e d by t h e numbered braces i n t h e left-hand column of tables I and I1 - could be performed simultaneously t o reduce t h e required f u e l consumption i n an optimized experiment scheduling program. I n minimizing t h e f u e l consumption, it must be pointed out t h a t two types of programs were taken i n t o consideration; namely, a f u l l experimental program f o r a possible W-day mission represented by a l l t h e assumed experiments, and a reduced experimental program encompassing only t h e four experiments l i s t e d i n sequences 6 and 7. The reduced experimental program corresponds t o experiments similar t o those t e n t a t i v e l y proposed as p a r t of AES f l i g h t 516. The optimization process grouped t h e experiments under t h e one w i t h t h e longest duration i n a sequence. The r e s u l t i s shown by table I11 f o r both t h e f u l l and t h e reduced programs. The f u e l requirements for t h e optimized sequences a r e again shown on t h e r i g h t , and t h e f u e l consumpt i o n f o r the f u l l experimental program i s about 43.85 lb/day f o r a 9.3-hour-perday experimental program. For t h e reduced experimental program, t h e f u e l consumption i s 12.28 lb/day f o r a bhour-per-day experimental program requiring control. If t h e f u e l required f o r compensation f o r aerodynamic and gravitygradient torques i s added, t h i s t o t a l becomes 50.27 lb/day f o r t h e full experimental program and 16.54 lb/day f o r t h e case of t h e reduced experimental program. Crew-motion disturbances were not considered here s i n c e t h e i r e f f e c t s have not, as y e t , been adequately defined.

305

I is thus probable that this fuel estimate is low and that the actual t fuel may be considerably greater than the optimized values of 50 lb/day and

'

1 lb/day. These values should, however, suffice to indicate the trends for 6 the optimization of the AES control system.
CONTROL-SYSTEM SELECTION AND APPLICATION

To develop a minimum-weight system, three types of control systems were studied. These systems are depicted in figure 5. The first system considered is a pure reaction-jet system using the existing Apollo reaction-jet system with additional nozzles on the UBI. The second system is a momentum storagetype system made up of three reaction wheels, one alined with each body axis, and the Apollo reaction jets. Control torques are produced by the reaction moments resulting from acceleration of the flywheels. The third system investigated is also a momentum-storage system. It consists of three double-gimbal control-moment g y r o s , one alined with each body axis, and of the present Apollo reaction jets. Control torques are now provided by precession of the g y r o s . Both momentum-storage systems had a reference momentum capacity of 1 0 ft-lb00 sec per axis. This momentum can compensate for the effects of crew motion, for the cyclic aerodynamic and gravity-gradient torques, and can provide the control for most of the experimental control tasks. Comparative total-system weights for these three means of control are shown by the weight trade-offs of figure 6. The system weight here includes an assumed power penalty of 1 lb/watt for the two momentum-storage systems and uses only minimum jet fuel requirements for both the full and reduced experimental programs being considered.
Several interesting trends can be observed from figure 6. First, the 60 reaction-wheel system is about 1 0 pounds heavier than the equivalent cont.ro1moment g y r o (CMG) system and thus may be eliminated from the comparison. Secondly, the reaction-jet system weight exceeds the gyro system weight after 14 days for the full experimental program and after 35 days for the reduced experimental program. At the end of a 90-day mission, the weight penalty for the present Apollo system is between 600 to 2 0 pounds over the gyro system 00 weight for the assumed experiment programs. When one adds the possible fuel requirements to compensate for crew motions, this weight penalty may well become prohibitive for long-term extended Apollo missions. Since the control-moment g y r o system becomes preferable for extended missions, it was decided to proceed with further studies of this system. The base line configuration used for this analysis is shown in figure 7. It consists of three double-gimbal control-moment gyros and the associated electronics and of the present Apollo reaction jets. It should be noted that these g y r o s can be located anywhere on the spacecraft since the torques produced by these devices are independent of the g y r o location. Each of the three gyros has an angular momentum of 1000 ft-lb-see, and 80 about 2 0 ft-lb-sec of angular momentum can be provided for each spacecraft 1 axis. The gyro weight is 1 0 pounds, average power is 30 watts per gyro, and maximum torque is 400 ft-lb per vehicle axis.

A preliminary laboratory prototype of a 1000 ft-lb-sec control-moment gyro i s c u r r e n t l y being b u i l t f o r Langley under Contract No. NASl-5012 by t h e Bendix Cornoration. A rnmk-q of t h i s gyro i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n figure 8. This gyro requires approximately 12 cubic f e e t o f volume and w i l l weigh about 110 pounds. Delivery of the gyro i s scheduled f o r early 1966, and s t a t i c t e s t s of t h e gyro w i l l begin s h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r .

&saturation f o r t h e gyro and tracking maneuvers could be provided by t h e e x i s t i n g Apollo j e t s w i t h t h e i r 90-pound t h r u s t l e v e l o r by smaller t h r u s t engines. Sixteen j e t s a r e available for t h i s purpose. After determining t h e control-moment gyro-system-hardware c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a number of c o n t r o l commands f o r t h e gyro gimbals were investigated. The o p t i mum control l a w determined by t h i s investigation produced c o n t r o l torques by commanding gimbal r a t e s proportional t o the AES a t t i t u d e and r a t e e r r o r s . The performance of t h i s c o n t r o l l a w was evaluated by d e t a i l e d computer simulations of t h e experiments assumed i n t h i s study. A s an example of these simulations, consider t h e earth-surface observation and mapping experiment shown i n f i g u r e 9. For t h i s experiment, t h e AES i s maneuvered i n t o an o r b i t orientation, t h a t is, with i t s long a x i s normal t o t h e o r b i t plane. After achieving t h i s orientation, a camera onboard t h e AES must continuously t r a c k a t a r g e t point on t h e surface of t h e e a r t h . Pictures may then be taken when t h i s t a r g e t point i s d i r e c t l y below t h e spacecraft. During t h e tracking process, t h e spacecraft control system must compensate f o r aerodynamic torque and crew motions. Gravitygradient torques a r e small enough t o be neglected f o r t h e o r b i t orientation. In t h e present simulation, aerodynamic torques were continuously applied t o t h e a spacecraft. An i n i t i a l crew motion w s also assumed. Attitude accuracies of O 2 O and r a t e accuracies of O.0lo per second were s p e c i f i e d f o r successful .5 completion of t h e experiment.
The idealized control-system operation f o r t h e earth-mapping mission w a s determined by computer solutions and i s given i n f i g u r e 10. Both t h e computed spacecraft r a t e and a t t i t u d e a r e p l o t t e d f o r t h e duration of t h e experiment. The t a r g e t i s acquired a t -7z0, corresponding t o t h e horizon, and is then tracked u n t i l t h e opposite horizon i s reached. When the t a r g e t i s d i r e c t l y below the AES, a maximum tracking rate of 1.16O per second occurs.

A crew motion was imposed during the f i r s t 1/2 minute t o t e s t the response c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e gyro system.

It can be seen t h a t t h e calculated and t h e commanded tracking angle and r a t e curves coincide on the f i g u r e . The spacecraft e r r o r s about a l l t h r e e axes .5 .1 were kept w e l l within t h e required experimental accuracies of 02' and 00' per second. The t h e o r e t i c a l l y determined accuracies were 0.005 o r about 18 arc-seconds with similar rate accuracies. During t h e crew motion, these e r r o r s were approximately doubled but s t i l l remained considerably below t h e experimental requirements.
Similar simulations with other experiments have f u r t h e r confirmed the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the gyro system. Maneuver r a t e s of about ' per second i n 1 roll and 1/2O per second i n p i t c h and yaw were obtained i n these simulations; maximum computed i n e r t i a l - h o l d accuracies were several seconds of a r c . The

307

control-moment gyro system thus appears t o be very capable of controlling t h e at l e a s t t h e o r e t i c a l l y . spacecraft during i t s experimental mission

CONCLUDING REMARKS

I n summarizing, one should note t h a t long-term e a r t h - o r b i t a l missions may pose formidable tasks f o r t h e spacecraft c o n t r o l system i f a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l of t h e Apollo i s required f o r onboard experiments. For such control, t h e Apollo c o n t r o l system must compensate f o r aerodynamic and gravity-gradient torques, f o r crew-motion e f f e c t s , and f o r other disturbances such as centrifuge operat i o n . It must a l s o be capable of producing l a r g e maneuver and tracking torques and, subsequently, of generating very small torques during i n e r t i a l a t t i t u d e holds. Complex experimental missions, such as t h e one assumed f o r t h i s analysis, may well lead t o p r o h i b i t i v e f u e l consumption f o r missions longer than 45 days. Since most of the control t a s k s and the applied disturbances a r e periodic, t h e Apollo reaction-jet system rapidly becomes i n e f f i c i e n t i n comparison w i t h control-moment gyro systems. Further s t u d i e s of t h e e f f e c t s of crew motions w i l l a l s o be necessary before the present j e t system i s used f o r extended experimental missions.

REFERENCES

1 Advanced Systems Division: Extended Apollo Systems U t i l i z a t i o n Study. . SID 65-500 (Contract No. rwSg-3140), Vols. 1-5, North Am. Aviation, k c . ,

1965.
2. Anon.: Apollo Extension Systems - 1300 Cubic Foot Laboratory. Doc. D2-90716-1 (Contract NAS 9-3662), The Boeing Co., Oct. 20, 1961.

3. Anon.:

Apollo Extension System Earth O r b i t Mission Study. Vol. 2 - F l i g h t Mission and Configuration Descriptions f o r N S Experiment Groupings. AA Grumman Design 378 (Contract No. NAS 9-3681), Grumman A i r c r a f t Fhg. Corp., May 10, 1965. Program. Description of a Disturbance Torque Computer Rept. No. AB-l2lO-OO32, Sperry Gyroscope Co., Nov. 1964.

4. Sperry Rand Systems Group:

TABLE I
SUMMARY DATA FOR CONTROL-RELATED EXPERIMENTS
SEQUENCES 111 TO 151

TABLE II
SUMMAKY DATA FOR CONTROL-RELATED EXPERIMENTS
SEQUENCES 161 TO 191

1lnE

DURATION. ACCURACY, S U W R E V , H(/OAY OEG DEG/SEC

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05

0 1
141

I 1

MULllSPEClRAL SENSING ELEClRO- OPTICAL IONIZE0 CLOUOOBSERVATION ARTIIICIAL M m O R S

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*REDUCE0 EXPER I M N l A L PROGRAM

1.5

1.1

7.55

I"
LOCAL VERTICAL

TABLE I I I

EXPERIMENTAL SEQUENCE STABILIZATION REQUIREMENTS

ACCURACY, SLEW REQ. FUEL,

(8) (9)
TOTAL

1.0 1.6 1.0 0.2 LOCAL VERTICAL 1.5 LOCAL VERTICAL 1.0 I NERl I AL 3.0 INERTlAL OPTIONAL 2 EVENWDAY 1 EVENTIDAY
9.3

1.14
0.5

0.50

7.55 7.w 4.59 1.81 11.10

AERODYI \MIC AND GRAI ry GRADIENT TORQUES TOTAL

43.85 6.42 50.21

Figure 1

L-2484- 1

Figure 2

UNCO

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Figure 3

Figure 4

CONTROL-SYSTEM
YAW

C O ~ ~ I G U ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ N S

CONTROL-SYSTEM WEIGHT TRADE-OFF

RQL

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Figure 5

Figure 6

CONTROL-SYSTEM LAYOUT
COMMAND AND SERVICE MODULE LEM

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ACTION
JETS

Figure 7

Figure 8

1-2484-13

S I M U ~ ~ O NEARTH MAFFING ~ ~ R I M E N T OF

Figure 9
4

L-2484- 14

Figure 10

30.

CARBON DIOXIDE

CONTROL FOR MANNED SPACECRAFT

By Rex B. Martin
*
a

,4

t'
A -

SUMMARY

[?I,

A system-design mission analysis i s given f o r carbon dioxide control f o r manned spacecraft f o r missions with durations of 0 t o 180 days. It i s evident t h a t system expendables such a s (1)a nonregenerative sorber, ( 2 ) t h e consumable portion of t h e f u e l - c e l l power penalty, and ( 3 ) moisture, carbon dioxide, and r e s i d u a l a i r l o s t i n vacuum desorption must be reduced or eliminated f o r systems designed f o r missions of increasing duration.

The s u b s t i t u t i o n of heat-assisted desorption f o r vacuum desorption allows a reduction i n system expendables a t t h e expense of increased e l e c t r i c a l power. However, a n e t system weight reduction i s achieved with increased mission durat i o n . The s u b s t i t u t i o n of waste heat for e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v e heating can achieve s t i l l f u r t h e r system weight reduction. Crossover times a r e indicated f o r a nonregenerative system and t h r e e systems u t i l t z i n g t h e regenerative sorber molecular sieve. P o t e n t i a l weight savings a r e indicated f o r a regenerative system u t i l i z i n g an amino a c i d s a l t sorber

The molecular-sieve system provides much f l e x i b i l i t y i n achieving weight savings with s t e p changes i n material conservation; t h e s e s t e p changes a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y appropriate f o r t h e intermediate-duration mission i n which both f u e l - c e l l and s o l a r - c e l l e l e c t r i c a l power may be considered.

Additional c r i t e r i a are imposed on the s e l e c t i o n and design of the regene r a t i v e carbon dioxide system when oxygen reclamation i s f e a s i b l e . Oxygen reclamation i s assumed t o be f e a s i b l e i n missions of 100 days o r more, and f o r t h e s e missions, a regenerative amino acid sorber may then be considered f o r p o t e n t i a l application.
INTRODUCTION

'

Since man produces about 2 pounds of carbon dioxide per day, means must be provided f o r removing carbon dioxide f r o m t h e cabin atmosphere i n order t o provide a habitable environment. Several methods a r e considered f o r t h i s purpose. (See r e f s . 1 t o 7.) Lithium hydroxide; LiOH, f o r instance, r e a c t s with carbon dioxide, C02, and t h i s reaction can be used t o remove C02 from t h e atmosphere. The reaction i s , for p r a c t i c a l purposes, i r r e v e r s i b l e , and thus a system u t i l i z i n g L i O H t o remove C02 i s termed a nonregenerative system. S u b s t i t u t i n g a m a t e r i a l f o r LiOH t h a t can be reactivated and reused many times i s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e design of a regenerative C02 removal system. The molecular sieve i s a sorber f o r C 0 2 which can be regenerated. A t t h i s time it i s t h e predominant

313

choice of a regenerative sorber f o r intermediate-duration missions. A predrying process i s necessarjr t o use t h e molecular sieve e f f e c t i v e l y f o r removal of C02 and this pqocess encumbers t h e system somewhat; however, t h e process does provide,considerable f l e x i b i l i t y i n adapting t h e system design t o t h e mater i a l conservation needs of intermediate-duration missions. Depending upon t h e n desired, t h r e e types of molecular sieve systems a r e i d e r a t i o n : (1)a system i n which H20 and C02 a r e both cum, ( 2 ) a system i n which H20 i s conserved by heat desorpt i o n and C02 i s desorbed t o space vacuum, and ( 3 ) a system i n which both H20 and C02 a r e conserved by heat desorption.

It may be noted t h a t t h e c r i t e r i a f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n of a C02 removal system change somewhat when oxygen reclamation becomes f e a s i b l e . Oxygen reclamation i s assumed t o be f e a s i b l e i n missions of 100 days o r more. A t t h i s time i n t h e mission duration, an amino a c i d s a l t sorber i s a l s o considered f o r the purpose of removing and c o l l e c t i n g C02.
These systems a r e compared f o r application f o r missions with durations t o Comparison i s made on t h e b a s i s of total-system weight i n which t o t a l weight includes fixed equipment weight, t h e weight of appropriate mater i a l l o s s e s incurred with t h e system design and operation, and t h e weight equivalence of e l e c t r i c a l power required by t h e system.

6 months.

N0NRMI;ENERATIVE C02 RESIOVAL

LiOH i s a granular s o l i d which r e a d i l y absorbs carbon dioxide i n a i r i n t h e presence of water vapor. The reaction i s indicated i n f i g u r e 1. LiOH combines with C02 i n t h e presence of some water vapor t o become Li2CO3 and H20 and heat i s l i b e r a t e d i n t h e process. LiOH may be packed i n a replaceable c a r t r i d g e o r c a n i s t e r and located i n a loop i n t h e entrance portion of t h e environmental control system. F i l t e r s must be provided t o keep LiOH dust from being circul a t e d i n t o the cabin.

The system weight on a pound per man b a s i s i s indicated i n f i g u r e 1 f o r mission durations t o 60 days, and assumes 95-percent u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e LiOH. Hardware weight i s assumed t o be 20 percent of t h a t of t h e sorber weight. A small weight penalty i s incurred f o r fan power. Because t h e fan power i s negligible f o r t h i s s m a l l pressure-drop equipment, t h e power weight penalty i s not s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t e d by t h e type of e l e c t r i c a l power system used i n t h e spacecraft. The steep slope shown here i s characteri s t i c of a stored or nonregenerative system, and i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e quantity of t h e sorber provided must be i n d i r e c t proportion t o t h e duration of t h e mission.

REGENERATIVE C02 REMOVAL

The molecular sieve i s t h e f u r t h e s t developed of t h e regenerative type of

C02 removal sorbers and r e s u l t s obtained with i t s use have been favorable.
Much research and development have been accomplished with molecular-sieve systems; thus, t h e f e a s i b i l i t y and t h e important design parameters of t h i s technique have been established.
A number of i n v e s t i g a t o r s have demonstrated t h a t t h e molecular sieve can be u t i l i z e d t o remove carbon dioxide from a i r provided t h e a i r i s s u f f i c i e n t l y predried. This drying s t e p i s necessary t o prevent t h e molecular sieve from being loaded with moisture instead of with carbon dioxide, because t h e a f f i n i t y of t h e molecular sieve f o r moisture i s f a r g r e a t e r than it i s f o r C02. A system u t i l i z i n g a molecular sieve therefore r e q u i r e s two types of regenerative sorbers, one t o remove H20 and one t o remove C02. A s shown i n f i g u r e 2, by using two beds of desiccant and two beds of molecular sieve, continuous removal of C02 can be achieved. This design u t i l i z e s t h r e e - and fourway valves t o change the a i r path and thus cycle t h e four beds between the adsorbing and desorbing modes. I n t h e schematic drawing, t h e lower desiccant bed and molecular-sieve bed a r e being desorbed while t h e upper two beds a r e removing moisture and COP. I n this system desorption of both t h e desiccant and t h e molecular sieve i s accomplished by exposing t h e sorbers t o space vacuum. Thus, t h e moisture and C02 t h a t a r e removed a r e l o s t t o space.

When t h i s method i s applied t o a manned spacecraft, t h e system should be penalized f o r t h e water desorbed t o space i f s o l a r c e l l s a r e used f o r power, but t h i s H20 i s not charged as a loss i f f u e l - c e l l e l e c t r i c a l power i s provided since f u e l - c e l l systems produce large q u a n t i t i e s of water. The C02 desorbed t o space i s not considered a l o s s unless it i s f e a s i b l e t o recover oxygen from t h e carbon dioxide. This recovery of 02 i s assumed t o be f e a s i b l e f o r missions of 100 days. Figure 3 shows t h e weight of this type of regenerative C02 removal system a s contrasted with t h e system using LiOH. It i s evident t h a t a f t e r about 20 days t h e regenerative molecular-sieve system shows weight savings over t h e nonregenerative LiOH system. The system weights obtained with t h e use of s o l a r c e l l s and f u e l c e l l s a s power sources a r e indicated by the dashed and s o l i d l i n e s , respectively. It i s well t o emphasize t h a t t h e fuel c e l l i s a stored type of system and incurs a penalty f o r t h e expendables it uses. Furthermore, t h i s l i f e - s u p p o r t system does not r e f l e c t a d i r e c t comparison between the types of e l e c t r i c a l power systems for t h e purpose of t h e i r s e l e c t i c n . I f t h e h e 1 c e l l i s selected over t h e s o l a r c e l l a s t h e spacecraft e l e c t r i c a l power system, t h e life-support system described b e n e f i t s by t h e difference shown between t h e dashed and s o l i d l i n e s . The power penalty assumed here f o r these power systems i s 500 lb/kW f o r s o l a r c e l l s and 450 lb/kW plus 1.5 lb/kW-hr f o r f u e l c e l l s .

315

The preceding regenerative C02 system u t i l i z e d vacuum desorption and r e s u l t s i n E20 and CO2 as well as some a i r being l o s t t o space. The regene r a t i o n of t h e molecular-sieve system can be c a r r i e d a s t e p f u r t h e r and matched more s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r t h e s o l a r - c e l l type of power system by s u b s t i t u t i n g h e a t desorption of t h e desiccant f o r vacuum desorption. With h e a t - a s s i s t e d desorpt i o n of t h e desiccant, it i s then p r a c t i c a l t o recover t h e H20 that i s removed i n i t i a l l y t o p r o t e c t t h e molecular sieve. Thus a material conservation i s achieved. A system of t h i s type i s shown i n f i g u r e 4. This system i s very s i m i l a r t o the molecular-sieve system represented previously. The COP sorber i s s t i l l vacuum desorbed. The desorption of t h e desiccant i s achieved by heating a l l or a p o r t i o n of t h e a i r a f t e r it has passed through t h e sieve bed, and t h e heat i s transported t o t h e desiccant bed by t h e a i r . The heat-desorbed moisture i s then flushed from t h e bed by t h e a i r and i s returned t o t h e cabin atmosphere.
A prototype system of t h i s design i s shown i n f i g u r e 5 which i s a photograph of a molecular-sieve system which uses s i l i c a g e l a s a desiccant t o d r y t h e a i r f o r t h e sieve beds. It u t i l i z e s timer-controlled e l e c t r i c a l h e a t i n g of t h e process a i r t o desorb t h e s i l i c a g e l . The system w a s designed and b u i l t by Hamilton Standard, a d i v i s i o n of United A i r c r a f t Corporation ( r e f . 1) and has undergone extensive t e s t i n g a t t h e Langley Research Center.

Figure 6 compares t h e weight and mission duration applicable f o r t h i s type of regenerative molecular-sieve system and t h e systems previously described. O f t h e previously described vacuum desorbed systems, only t h e vacuum desorbed sieve system with f u e l c e l l power i s shown. The crossover time i s shown t o be 60 days between t h e two d i f f e r e n t regenerative systems. E l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v e heating i s used t o provide heat desorption, and thus t h e trade-off point i s very dependent upon t h e power penalty assumed. I f a lower power penalty f o r s o l a r c e l l s were used (330 lb/kW, f o r example), t h e crossover point would be moved back t o about 33 days. This range i n crossover t i m e of 33 t o 60 days p o i n t s up the dependence of life-support-system design s e l e c t i o n upon t h e e l e c t r i c a l power penalty t h a t i s assumed; and a l s o , t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y of minimizing t h e use of r e s i s t i v e heating i n a regenerative system.
OXYGEN RECLAMATION CONSIDERATIONS
A t i m e occurs i n a system and mission duration a n a l y s i s when it becomes f e a s i b l e t o reclaim oxygen from C02, and f o r t h e purpose of t h i s a n a l y s i s , t h i s mission duration t i m e i s assumed t o be 100 days o r more. Although t h i s assumpt i o n i s not discussed here, some of i t s e f f e c t s on t h e s e l e c t i o n and design of a C02 removal system must be considered. Obviously, such a system makes recovery or conservation of C02 necessary. Addition of t h e c o l l e c t i o n of C02 t o t h e system a f f e c t s t h e method used f o r desorption.

The desorption c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a regenerative C02 sorber tend t o dom-

i n a t e t h e design and operation of t h e C02 system when C02 c o l l e c t i o n i s

required. The most important desorption c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a regenerative

sorber a r e t h e quantity of heat and temperature required, t h e e f f e c t i v e recovery pressure of t h e C02, and t h e recovery r a t e and p u r i t y of t h e C02 recovered. Lnl general, t h e quantity of heat and temperature required t o desorb t h e C02 should be a s low a s possible. The recovery pressure, desorption r a t e , and t h e p u r i t y of t h e C02 recovered should be a s high as possible. Considerations of t h i s type a r e involved i n the i n t e g r a t e d life-support systems being investigated by General Dynamics/Astronautics under N S contract N S 1-2934. The u t i l i z a t i o n AA A of moleci&u sieve nev hec~megsnaevha+, l e s s a & z ~ ~ z mht~ i e e . Xove-yer, c because of t h e extensiveness of t h e t e s t s and t h e state of development of t h e molecular sieve, it i s s t i l l t h e preferred choice. Recovery and c o l l e c t i o n of carbon dioxide f o r oxygen reclamation reqyires h e a t - a s s i s t e d desorption of t h e sieve. Thus, t h e system design now includes provisions f o r complete conservation of material. The power requirement t o provide heating f o r double heat desorption i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r than heat desorption f o r t h e desiccant alone. Also, a means f o r cooling t h e sieve bed becomes of great importance. Figure 7 i n d i c a t e s schematically t h e general molecular-sieve-system design required t o achieve complete material conservation i n s o f a r as i s possible with t h i s type of system. The sieve i s heat desorbed of C02. The r e s i d u a l a i r l o s s i s considerably reduced over t h e vacuum desorption method. Heat desorption of t h e desiccant with back f l u s h of the desorbed vapor i n t o t h e cabin i s t h e same as i n t h e sieve system i n which desorption i s accomplished with heat and vacuum. Figure 8 shows t h e system weight and t h e s t e p increase t h a t occurs f o r the mission duration when C02 must be collected. Note t h e slight slope change from t h a t of t h e preceding system. This change i s t h e savings due t o reducing the r e s i d u a l a i r l o s s . Included i n t h i s weight i s a l s o a cooling penalty of 0.01 lb/Btu/hr, which i s needed t o cool the sieve a f t e r heat desorption. The e l e c t r i c a l power penalty f o r solar-cell-powered systems assumed f o r figure 8 i s s t i l l 500 lb/kW. Heat desorption of t h e desiccant i s provided l a r g e l y with heat " l e f t over" from t h e sieve heat desorption. Effective heat desorption of t h e sieve requires a temperature of a t l e a s t 3000 F, whereas t h e heat desorpt i o n of t h e desiccant can be achieved a t a much lower temperature. The temperature required i s i n d i r e c t proportion t o the t o t a l process a i r pressure and the degree of desorption required. A minimum temperature f o r a half-atmosphere a p p l i c a t i o n i s about 180 F. The p o t e n t i a l weight savings by s u b s t i t u t i n g waste heat f o r e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v e heating i s obvious i n t h e sieve system designed f o r complete heat desorption. Waste heat with a temperature of perhaps b o o F from a heat8 generation source o r even from o t h e r systems a t temperatures up t o 1 0 F could be u t i l i z e d advantageously. A s i s i f i c a n t weight savings could be achieved i n t h i s manner t h a t would amount t o t h e difference i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l power penalty and t h e waste-heat penalty. The l a t t e r penalty may be up t o 95 percent less than t h e e l e c t r i c a l power penalty. Another regenerative sorber which i s considered a p o t e n t i a l and a t t r a c t i p - e s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e molecular sieve i s a system t h a t uses an amino a c i d s a l t .

317

This substance does not require predrying and poses l e s s of a thermal management problem than the molecular sieve. A schematic of t h i s type of system i s shown i n figure 9. The s p e c i f i c capacity f o r C02 of t h i s sorber i s somewhat l e s s than t h a t of t h e molecular sieve; however, t h e desorption temperature and heat quantity and management required i s l e s s than those required with t h e molecular sieve. A l s o , t h e compatibility of t h e sorber process with t h e moisture concentration of t h e cabin atmosphere i s a favorable a s s e t . The lack of a predrying process s i m p l i f i e s t h e system and reduces t h e problem of control and management. The upper c a n i s t e r shown i n t h e schematic diagram of f i g u r e 9 i s absorbing and some H 2 0 and a i r i s then passed d i r e c t l y back t o t h e cabin. The heat developed i n absorption i s t r a n s f e r r e d with a coolant f l u i d from t h e bed and with additional heating i s then passed t o t h e desorbing bed where desorption i s achieved with a temperature of about 1790 F and a pressure of about 40 mm Hg. Water i s desorbed along with C 0 2 and although t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e system i s not assessed here, it i s apparent t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l of such a system would b e s t be achieved by coupling it with an oxygen reclamation system which accepts simultaneously H20 and C02. Definition and control of the function of watercarbon dioxide r a t i o desorbed with t h i s sorber formulation requires much more research than has been done. The r a t i o of H20 t o C02 processed t o balance t h e oxygen cycle i s about 0.13. This r a t i o i s not yet p r a c t i c a l f o r t h e amino a c i d s a l t sorber
C02,

Figure 10 shows a laboratory prototype system using t h e regenerative amino a c i d s a l t sorber ( r e f . 3 ) . I n t h e schematic diagram t h e two c a n i s t e r s shown contain the sorber material. The controls a r e a timer and valves for control of t h e coolant and h e a t - t r a n s f e r f l u i d . This concept i s far l e s s developed than t h e sieve system. Further investigation and evaluation a r e necessary before it can be considered with t h e same l e v e l of confidence a s i s possible with t h e sieve. Figure 1 includes a p o t e n t i a l system weight savings from t h e sieve system 1 based on heating requirements and heat management, ease of desorption, and system simplicity i n t h e amino a c i d s a l t system.
CONCLUDING REMARKS

Some generalizations can be made from t h i s system mission analysis. It i s most evident t h a t l o s s e s and expendables must be reduced i n order t o achieve a reasonable system weight, f o r missions longer than a few days. Such expendables as t h e nonregenerative sorber i t s e l f , t h e consumable l o s s portion of t h e f u e l c e l l power penalty, and moisture and C02 l o s t i n vacuum desorption must be reduced or eliminated a s mission time increases. The r e s i d u a l a i r l o s s t h a t occurs w i t h vacuum desorption can a l s o be g r e a t l y reduced when heat desorption i s used. To achieve a reduction and/or elimination of these expendables both t h e system-fixed equipment weight and t h e weight equivalence of e l e c t r i c a l powe required increase. The p o t e n t i a l f o r reducing t h e system-fixed equipment weight

from t h a t included i n t h e analysis i s very small. However, t h e e l e c t r i c a l power reqtlire-,ents CZI? be v e r y sigr,ificar;tly r e & x e d 5y t h e substit.;ttien o f waste heat from other systems o r a heat-generation source f o r e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v e heating. The molecular sieve i s t h e favored regenerative C02 sorber u n t i l t h e mission duration i s such t h a t oxygen recovery i s f e a s i b l e . "he desiccant sieve system lends i t s e l f well t o intermediate-range missions because v a r i a t i o n i n t h e system design i s possible and t h e system can be adapted t o both f u e l - and s o l a r - c e l l power. The recovery of oxygen from C02 greatly influences t h e s e l e c t i o n and design of a C02 removal system. Other methods such a s t h e amino a c i d s a l t sorber must be reconsidered when t h e mission duration t i m e i s such t h a t recovery of oxygen i s f e a s i b l e . The amino a c i d s a l t sorber i s considered primarily because of i t s simplicity and i t s potential f i t with c e r t a i n types of oxygen reclamation systems.

REFERENCES SR 1. Ziegler, Leon: Prototype C02 Iiegenerable System Tests. H E 2497, Hamilton Standard Division, United A i r c r a f t Corp., Apr. 18, 1962. 2. Mason, J . L.; and Burriss, W. L.: Application of Molecular Sieve Adsorbents t o Atmosphere Control Systems f o r Manned Spacecraft. Paper presented a t 50th National Meeting Am. I n s t . Chem. Engrs., May 1963.

3. MRD Division:

F i n a l Technical Report f o r a Prototype Regenerable Carbon Dioxide Removal System. GATC Rept MRD 1230-4050 (Contract No. N S 1-2915), MRD Div. Gen. Am. Transportation Corp., Aug. 1964. A

.'

4. Anon.:

Environmental Control and L i f e Support System Study. SLS 410-1 (Contract NAS 9-1498), Hamilton Standard Division, United A i r c r a f t Corp., May 1964.

5. Anon.:

Mars Landing and Reconnaissance Mission Environmental Control and A Life Support System Study. SLS 414-1 (Contract N S 9-1701), Hamilton Standard Division, United A i r c r a f t Corp., 1964.

6. Rousseau, J . : Atmospheric Control Systems f o r Space Vehicles. ASD-TDR-62-527, P t . 1 (Contract AF 33( 616) -8323), U.S. A i r Force, M r 1963. a.

7. Byke, R. M.; and Brose, H. F.:

Environmental Control/Life Support. Vol. X I V of Report on t h e Optimization of t h e Manned O r b i t a l Research Laboratory (MORL) System Concept. Rept No. SM-46085 (Contract N o . N S 1-3612), Missile & Space Systems Div., Douglas A i r c r a f t Co., A Sept. 1964.

319

NONREGENERATIVE C02 REMOVAL SYSTEM

MOLECULAR- SIEVE REGENERATIVE CO2 REMOVAL SYSTEM

VACUUM DESORPTION AIR

r-

SYSTEM WEIGHT. LB/MAN

-,/
I I I

DRYING BED

MOLECULAR SIEVE

Figure 1

Figure 2

NONREGENERATIVE SYSTEM COMPARED WITH VACUUM DESORBED REGENERATIVE SYSTEM

SYSTEM WEIGHT, LB/MAN VACUUM DESORBED REGENERATIVE MOLECULAR SIEVE WITH SOLAR CELL HzO LOSS CHARGED 500 LB/kW WITH FUEL CELL H$ LOSS NOT CHARGED 450 LB/kW t 1.5 L B A W - H R

MONONREGENERATIVE LiOH

Mo

1 W

60

I 10 2

M I S S I O N DURATION, DAYS

Figure3

*-

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AIR

Figure 4

Figure 5

L-24846

ECULAR-SI NONRE~E~E~TIVE SYSTEM COMPARED WITH REGENERATIVE SYSTEM

AIR

YS

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MISSION DURATION, DAYS

Figure 6

Figure 7

AMINO ACID SALT C O M P ~ I S ~ GO2 REMOVAL SYSTEMS OF

C ; REMOVAL SYSTEM O!
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Figure 8

Figure 9

C02 REMOVAL SYSTEM FOR MISSIONS TO 180 DAYS

r NONREGENER
IVE MOLECXAA SIEVE

SYSTUVI WEIGHT. LBhlAN

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Figure 10

1-2486-11

Figure 11

.
31.
WATER AND WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

By Vernon G . Coll-ins and Robert W. Johnson

SUMMARY
A number of water-reclamation system c v n c e p t s h m e been r c ~ i e w e d , and t h e i r various advantages and disadvantages discussed. The e f f o r t s which are being made at t h e Langley Research Center are directed toward improving t h e state of t h e art. S i g n i f i c a n t launch-weight savings can be r e a l i z e d by u t i l i z i n g t h e proper technique f o r t h e reclamation of water and t h e management of human waste.
INTRODUCTION
An a r e a o f major consideration on any manned space mission i s water and waste management. (See, f o r example, refs. 1 and 2 . ) The water and waste management systems a r e very important aspects of manned space missions because t h e s e l e c t i o n of a proper technique could r e f l e c t s i g n i f i c a n t launch-weight savings on medium- t o long-term missions. (See r e f s . 3 and 4 . ) Of course, it would be impractical t o use water-reclamation techniques on short-term space missions since moderate q u a n t i t i e s of s t o r e d water can be supplied. On t h e o t h e r hand, if water were supplied from s t o r e s t o a crew of 4 men on a 100-day mission, over 2 tons of water would be required. A reclamation system t h a t would be capable of doing t h i s job, including i t s power-weight penalty, however, might weigh no more than 100 pounds. References 5 and 6 discuss t h i s problem i n d e t a i l .

DISCUSSION General
A t y p i c a l materials balance f o r one man i s shown i n table I . It might appear r i d i c u l o u s t o have t h e values shown c a r r i e d out t o t h e second decimal place because it i s known t h a t man's metabolism i s not t h a t p r e d i c t a b l e . The decimals are simply c a r r i e d t o show an exact balance. The values were derived from reference 7; they w i l l vary depending upon man's a c t i v i t y and environment as w e l l as o t h e r f a c t o r s .

Man requires, i n addition t o an otherwise habitable environment, about 1 pounds of food, 2 pounds of oxygen, and %pounds of water p e r day. I n 1 lF exchange, h i s environment is rewarded with about 2 pounds of humidity water,

3 pounds of urine (95 percent of which i s water), 1/4 pound of feces (75 percent of which i s water), $ pounds of carbon dioxide, and c e r t a i n other small
losses ( f i n g e r n a i l s , h a i r growth, and so f o r t h ) . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e b a s i c requirements, a quantity of water i s required f o r hygienic purposes t h a t has

r;

323

.
been estimated t o be about 4 pounds p e r day depending upon t h e h e a l t h h a b i t s o t h e mar,. The most a t t r a c t i v e sources of water f o r reclamation are humidity water, urine, and wash water. There are a number of p r a c t i c a l techniques t h a t may be employed f o r t h e reclamation of water from t h e s e sources. Actually though, t h e choice of technique and extent of reclamation is d i c t a t e d t o a la& 8,degree by t h e n&%% and type of o t h e r systems on board t h e s p a c e c r a f t . Figure 1 i l l u s t r a t e s some basic f a c t o r s t h a t influence decisions concerning t h e use of water-reclamation systems on space missions. Launch weight i n pounds per man i s p l o t t e d against mission duration i n days. The dashed l i n e l a b e l e d "Water demand" represents t h e amount of s t o r e d water t h a t would be required. I n calculating t h i s water-demand l i n e , t h e humidity water w a s assumed t o be a v a i l able f o r reuse. There would be no need t o perform water reclamation on space missions t h a t are of such duration t h a t f u e l c e l l s are used f o r power, s i n c e a by-product of f u e l c e l l s i s water. When space missions are of such duration t h a t energy supply systems other than f u e l c e l l s a r e used f o r power, it becomes obvious, f r o m t h e water-demand curve, t h a t i n t h e i n t e r e s t of minimizing launch weight, some degree of water reclamation should be performed. All need f o r s t o r e d water can be eliminated i f t h e r e i s a system on board t h a t i s capable of reclaiming a t l e a s t 91.5 percent of t h e a v a i l a b l e water from man's waste produ c t s . Only 91.3 percent i s required because man produces metabolic water from t h e food t h a t he e a t s . Since some oxygen i s a l s o consumed i n t h e production of t h i s metabolic water, when mission durations become of such length t h a t oxygenreclamation systems are included t o balance t h e oxygen cycle, then some water must be decomposed t o make t h i s possible. I n o t h e r words, when oxygen reclamat i o n i s performed, t h e r e i s an increased water demand and a t least 93 percent o t h e available water from man's waste products must be reclaimed i f t h e need f o r s t o r e d water i s t o be eliminated.

!@

C w e s f o r two hypothetical water-reclamation systems are shown i n f i g u r e 1. System A is b a s i c a l l y a heavier system than system B because it pushes t h e recovery efficiency up t o 95 percent o r higher. U n t i l oxygen reclamation i s performed, system B, which can recover 91.5 percent of t h e a v a i l a b l e water, i s t h e system of choice, from launch-weight considerations. B u t , on missions t h a t require oxygen reclamation, system B would have t o be penalized f o r i t s lower recovery efficiency; then, it would become more economical t o f l y with system A .

Water Sources
Water-reclamation techniques a r e generally i d e n t i f i e d by t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e upon which they operate. Table I1 l i s t s some of t h e most promising techniques i n t h e f i r s t column. The bars i n t h e o t h e r columns i n d i c a t e t h e area of t h e i r most competitive a p p l i c a t i o n with respect t o water management of humidity water, wash water, urine, and f e c e s . Some generalized statements can be made about t h e s e sources and t h e r e l a t i v e ease with which water can be reclaimed from them.

No great problem i s associated w i t h t h e reclamation of humidity water. It has already undergone a phase change and i s t h e r e f o r e i n an advanced state of p u r i t y except f o r dissolved gases and aerosols. Some combination of f i l t e r s would render t h i s water potable. Reclaiming w a t e r from wash water and u r i n e i s

b -

o t such a simple process. Wash water i s very similar t o u r i n e t h a t has been d i l u t e d about 23 t o 1 with t h e inclusion of t r a c e q u a n t i t i e s of cleanser. Therefore, wash-water-reclamation systems would share t h e same probiems assoc i a t e d with t h e reclamation of urine, only t o a lesser e x t e n t . About 5 percent of u r i n e i s dissolved s o l i d s , t h e majority of which a r e organic i n nature and have very objectionable c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The primary c o n s t i t u e n t i s urea. This substance decomposes rapidly a t temperatures i n excess of about 120 F and produces copious q u a n t i t i e s of ammonia. Foul odors, l i k e ammonia, t h a t are soluble i n v&er are e x t r e ~ e l y6iffic~lttc elLm-ir?ate from a_ wzt.er-rerl~rna.t,inn system. The easiest w a y i s t o avoid forming such gases, i f possible. Operating t h e syst e m a t low temperature helps tremendously; but, even a t low temperature, some (See r e f . 8.) Some of t h e s e reclamation techkind of pretreatment i s required. niques are a l i t t l e more dependent on pretreatment processes than o t h e r s . There have generally been t h r e e b a s i c approaches t o t h e pretreatment problem:

t
) .

1) The d e s t r u c t i o n of urea by chemical o r enzymatic means 2 ) The f i x i n g o r preserving of urea by chemical treatment ( 3 ) The adsorption of urea by activated charcoal

A common objection t o each of t h e s e techniques i s t h e f a c t t h a t expendable mater i a l s are required. O medium- t o long-term space missions, t h e s e launch-weight n p e n a l t i e s may become excessive. The Langley Research Center i s i n v e s t i g a t i n g an e l e c t r i c a l approach t o pretreatment t h a t not only does not require expendables but breaks down urea i n t o nitrogen (which can be used f o r leakage makeup), caron dioxide (which i s a p o t e n t i a l source of oxygen), and hydrogen (which can be vented overboard). This new technique promises launch-weight savings over p r i o r techniques on space missions l a s t i n g l o n g e r t h a n about 60 days. The reclamation techniques are variously a f f e c t e d by t h e advent of t h i s new technology. Electrod i a l y s i s , f o r example, i s a technique t h a t , by i t s nature, i s dependent upon a pretreatment process t h a t completely removes urea. By conventional methods, such time-dependent weight p e n a l t i e s are prohibitive. Therefore, e l e c t r o d i a l y s i s would not be competitive on c e r t a i n space missions without t h i s new technology.
Reclamation Techniques The Langley Research Center has been investigating a f e w of t h e best tech1 niques (see table 1 ) t h a t have been proposed f o r t h e reclamation of water from man's waste products. Some of t h e s e techniques have seemed more promising than o t h e r s , and, f o r t h a t reason, they have been investigated more extensively. M u l t i f i 1 t r a t i o n . - As t a b l e I1 shows, there i s very l i t t l e competition with m u l t i f i l t r a t i o n as a means of recovering humidity water. M u l t i f i l t r a t i o n i s one of t h e simplest as well as one of t h e most r e l i a b l e of a l l t h e reclamation concepts. Reference 9 discusses such a system f o r water reclamation.

Figure 2 i s a photograph of a m u l t i f i l t r a t i o n system t h a t i s capable of rocessing humidity water. The system has no moving p a r t s and c o n s i s t s of no more than a bed of a c t i v a t e d charcoal and a p a r t i c u l a t e f i l t e r . I n c i d e n t a l l y , t h e subsystem shown i s p a r t of a complete m u l t i f i l t r a t i o n system t h a t grew out

325

of a research and development contract with General Dynamics/Electric Boat (Contract N o . NAS~-2208). The addition of a c a n i s t e r of mixed-bed ion-exchange r e s i n s (see f i g . 3 ) makes a system t h a t i s capable of processing wash water. Such a system might be used on medium-term space missions, where r e l i a b i l i t y could be a g r e a t e r f a c t o r than time-dependent weight p e n a l t i e s .
Vacuum compression d i s t i l l a t i o n . - D i s t i l l a t i o n i s u n i v e r s a l l y recognized as one of the most e f f e c t i v e ways of separating water from i t s contaminants i n solut i o n . The primary objection t o using d i s t i l l a t i o n as a reclamation technique has been t h e tremendous amount of energy required owing t o t h e l a t e n t heat of vapori(See r e f . 10.) One way t o operate zation of water, which i s about 1000 Btu/lb. a d i s t i l l a t i o n system economically i s t o u t i l i z e a vapor compressor. Since t h e process is u s u a l l y conducted under vacuum, it i s c a l l e d vacuum compression d i s t i l l a t i o n . The purpose of t h e vapor compressor i n t h e system i s t o force water vapor t o condense a t a higher temperature than when it evaporated. I n a p r a c t i c a l system, t h e evaporator and condenser are located on e i t h e r side of a common heat-transfer w a l l , and t h e heat of vaporization can then be recycled o r reused i n t h e system. It becomes possible, by t h i s technique, t o operate a water s t i l l f o r only about one-eighth t h e amount of energy t h a t i s required t o operate a conventional still. Figure 4 i s a photograph of t h e prototype vacuum compression d i s t i l l a t i o n system that w a s evaluated at t h e Langley Research Center. It stands about 2 feet high and weighs about 59 pounds. Such a system, i f operated on a nearcontinuous basis, would be capable of reclaiming approximately 97 percent of a t h e available water i n t h e urine o f 20 men. The extent t o which t h e technolo of vacuun compression d i s t i l l a t i o n f o r urine water reclamation has been advanced, through the study of t h i s system, i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 5 . The launch weight of a vacuum compression d i s t i l l a t i o n system, on a p e r man basis, i s p l o t t e d against mission duration i n days. The projected improvement over t h e s t a t e of t h e a r t during t h e coming year i s based on improving t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e vapor compressor and incorporating passive-phase-separation techniques. T h i s p l o t r e f l e c t s the a b i l i t y t o operate a vacuum compression d i s t i l l a t i o n system i n such a way as t o obtain higher y i e l d s and more economical operation, expressed as watt-hours p e r pound of water recovered. Advantages of t h i s technique would include i t s high recovery e f f i c i e n c y ( b e t t e r than 97 percent), i t s r e l a t i v e l y low power consumption (39 watt-hours per pound), and i t s a b i l i t y t o operate a t ambient temperatures. Problem a r e a s a r e primarily residue removal and zero-gravity phase separation. The system evaluated is b a s i c a l l y a batch type; a l s o , t h e evaporator i s l i n e d with a p l a s t i c bag that requires periodic removal. The objections t o t h i s type of procedure are obvious and t h e presence of t h e p l a s t i c l i n e r a f f e c t s h e a t - t r a n s f e r efficiency. The system derives i t s zero-gravity operating c a p a b i l i t y from r o t a t i n g components, which consume power and serve t o reduce i t s r e l i a b i l i t y r a t i n g . The Langley Research Center i s promoting t h e research and development of nonrotating-phase-separation techniques t h a t u t i l i z e t h e surface-tension properties o f water as w e l l as surface geometry.
A i r evaporation.- Air evaporation i s as simple i n concept as hanging c l o t out on t h e l i n e t o dry. However, when t h i s s o r t of process has t o be within a small confined area on board a s p a c e c r a f t , has t o consume a minimum

326

w
of power, and has t o be capable of operation under zero-gravity condit i o n s , t h e process can g e t r a t h e r complicated. The Langley Research Center i s evaluating t h i s technique t o t h e extent t h a t two such subsystems w i l l be included i n t h e i n t e g r a t e d life-support system discussed i n paper no. 34 by Hypes, Bruce, and Booth. One subsystem w i l l process wash water; t h e o t h e r w i l l process u r i n e . Membrane permeation.- Membrane permeation u t i l i z e s t h e s e l e c t i v e d i f f u s i o n p r o p e r t i e s of a membrane t o separate water from a waste stream. This technique (described i n r e f . li j i s c u r r e n t i y beliig evalii~,ted Lazgley thro7ah 8 rnnby t r a c t t o Radiation Applications, Inc (Contract No. NAS1-4373). The contractors a r e t o design, f a b r i c a t e , and d e l i v e r a prototype, membrane-permeation, waterreclamation system t h a t requires no expendables and has a moderate power re quirement

D i s t i l l a t i o n by waste heat.- D i s t i l l a t i o n by waste heat i s a technique t h a t can be made t o operate on t h e waste-heat energy t h a t i s given o f f from e l e c t r o n i c and o t h e r power-consuming devices on board a spacecraft. When d i s t i l l a t i o n can be e f f e c t e d i n t h i s manner, it becomes a t t r a c t i v e as a reclamation technique. The Langley Research Center has r e c e n t l y contracted (NASA Contract N o . NMl-3312) with Hamilton Standard, Division of United A i r c r a f t Corp., f o r t h e design and construction of a prototype waste-heat d i s t i l l a t i o n system t h a t i s pneumatically operated and has no moving p a r t s .

. F

E l e c t r o d i a l y s i s . - E l e c t r o d i a l y s i s is a technique t h a t u t i l i z e s an e l e c t r i c i e l d t o s e p a r a t e i o n i c c o n s t i t u e n t s from a waste stream. (See r e f . 12.) It does not separate nonionic constituents such as urea; t h e r e f o r e t h i s technique is dependent upon a pretreatment t h a t completely removes urea. But with t h e advent of e l e c t r i c a l pretreatment, e l e c t r o d i a l y s i s becomes very competitive. Unlike t h e o t h e r techniques, t h e energy requirements f o r e l e c t r o d i a l y s i s are primarily dependent upon t h e quantity o f solutes removed and not so much upon t h e q u a n t i t y of water processed. Vacuum drying.- Vacuum drying i s a technique t h a t has been proposed f o r t h e s u i t a b l e d i s p o s i t i o n of f e c a l matter on board a spacecraft. (See r e f . 13.) The Langley Research Center has obtained and evaluated a piece of prototype hardware ( f i g . 6 ) t h a t provides f o r t h e simultaneous and separate c o l l e c t i o n of u r i n e and feces. Due consideration w a s given i n t h e design of t h i s system t o providing a means of waste elimination and subsequent processing t h a t i s both s a n i t a r y and a e s t h e t i c a l l y acceptable t o t h e f l i g h t crew members. Zero-gravity capab i l i t y is incorporated through t h e use of a seat-belt arrangement coupled with induced a i r f l o w s t h a t a r e d i r e c t e d i n t o the waste receptacles. The system provides f o r t h e vacuum drying of f e c e s . Tests have shown t h a t feces d r i e d i n t h i s manner can be s t o r e d a t room temperature f o r periods of t i m e i n excess of 73 days without contaminating t h e surrounding atmosphere. Apparently, no appreciable b a c t e r i a l decomposition occurs under these conditions.
CONCLUDING REMARKS

Various techniques f o r water reclamation from man's waste products and t h e extent t o which t h e y have been investigated have been discussed. Table I11

327

surmnarizes t h e s t a t e of t h e a r t f o r a few of t h e most competitive techniques. The wa;ter-reclLm,tion techniq.Aec a r c a i r evapcration, d i s t i l l a t i o n by waste h e a t , e l e c t r o d i a l y s i s , membrane permeation, m u l t i f i l t r a t i o n , and vacuum compression d i s t i l l a t i o n . Vacuum drying i s a p r a c t i c a l technique f o r t h e s u i t a b l e disposit i o n of f e c a l m a t t e r on space missions. The length of t h e bars shown i n table I11 indicate t h e extent t o which t h e Langley Research Center has c a r r i e d t h e investigation of these techniques. Langley has determined t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of a l l these techniques and contracted f o r prototype hardware. Prototype hardware f o r several of t h e most promising of t h e s e techniques has already been obtained and evaluated. It i s a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t during t h i s next year, Langley w i l l be evaluating a l l t h e b e t t e r techniques f o r t h e reclamation of water from u r i n e on space missions of extended duration. I n addition, advanced engineering concepts w i l l be incorporated i n t o t h e construction of b e t t e r water and waste management systems.

REFERENCES 1. Popma, Dan C.; Wilson, Charles H.; and Booth, Franklin W.: L i f e Support Research f o r Manned Space S t a t i o n s . AReport on t h e Research and Technological Problems of Manned Rotating Spacecraft. NASA TN D-1504, 1962, pp. 107-120.
2 . S t e e l e , James A. : Water Management System Evaluation f o r Space F l i g h t s of n. .v--n---A:-r z D n I C ~ L u u L a b A u u u l t : ~ u p p w r tSysiem T o r Space F i i g n t s or' Zxtended Time Periods. Rept No. 64-26206 (Contract NAS 1-2934), Gen. Dyn. /Astronaut., Oct. 1, 1963.

3. Popma, D a n C.:

L i f e Support f o r Long-Duration Missions. space Eng., vol. 1, no. 7, Aug. 1963, pp. 53-56.
L i f e Support f o r Space Stations.

Astronaut. Aero-

4. Popma, D a n C . :
no.

Astronautics, v o l .

7,

9, Sept. 1962, pp. 44-47.

Paper No. CP 63-693, I n s t .

5. Popma, Dan C . :

Spacecraft L i f e Support Systems. Elec. Electron. Engr., Apr. 1963.

6. Popma, Dan C. ; and Collins, Vernon G.

tems.

: Space Vehicle Water Reclamation SysPreprint 34a, Am. I n s t . Chem. Engrs., Feb. 1963.

7. Webb, Paul, ed.:

8. Putnam, David F.:

Bioastronautics Data Book.

NASA SP-3006,

1964.
63-AV-24,
Am.

Chemical Aspects of Urine D i s t i l l a t i o n . SOC. Mech. Engrs., Mar. 1963.

9. Wallman, H.; S t e e l e , J. A.; and Lubitz, J. A.: M u l t i - F i l t e r System f o r Water Reclamation. Aerospace Med., vol. 36, no. 1, Jan. 1963, pp. 33-39.
1 . Berninger, J . F.; Charanian, T . R.; 0
and W b e n e k , R. A . : Water Reclamation V i a Compression D i s t i l l a t i o n . Paper presented a t Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs. Aviation and Space Div. Conf. (Los Angeles, C a l i f . ), Mar. 16-18, 1963.

11. Meier, E r i c A.; and Everett, Richard, Jr.: The F e a s i b i l i t y of Using Membrane f o r Urine P u r i f i c a t i o n . AMRL-TDR-63-113, U.S. A i r Force, Nov. 1963.
12. Brown, Daniel L.; Lindstrom, Robert W.; and Smith, J. Douglas: The Recovery of Water From Urine by Membrane Electrodialysis. AMRL-TDR-63-30, U.S. A i r Force, A p r . 1963.

13. Rest, J.; Hurley, T. L.; and Z e f f , J. D.: F i n a l Technical Report f o r a Waste Management Subsystem. GATC Rept. MR 1210-8090 (Contract N o . NAS 1-2193), MRD Div., Gen. Am. Transportation Corp., Dec. 1963.

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TA BlE I
MAN'S DAILY BALANCE
O
FOOD OXYGEN WATER 1.50 L B 1.92 LB 4.69 LB

TABLE II
WATER MAMGEMENT ON MANNED SPACE MISSIONS

D
2.20 LB 3.24 LB 0.29 LB 2.24 LB 0.14 LB

I
SYSTEM OF CHOICE

HUMIDITY WATER U M E 195%H201 FECES 175SH201 CARBON DIOXIDE

OTHER LOSSES

VAC COMPRESSION DISTN A I R EVAPORATION MEMBRANE PERMEAT ION D I S T N BY WASTE HEAT

TOTAL 8.11LB

TOTAL

a11 LB

ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENT (NOT ESSENTIAL TO LIFE1

4.00 LB-WASH

ELECTRODIALYSIS VACUUM DRYING

I I
I
I

WATER -4.W

LB

TABLE III
WATER RECLAMATION

TECHNIQUE

EXTENT OF INVESTIGATION A I LRC DETERMINED F E A S I B I L I T Y OF TECHNIQUE I CONTRACTED FOR PROTOTYPE HDWE.

A I R EVAPORATION

@&*j

D l S I l L L A I l O N BY WASTE HEAT + ? % EVALUATED PROTOTYPE HDWE. ELECTRODIALYSIS

7 OBTAINED PROTOTYPE HDWE. 7

330

SIGN
LAUniCH WEIGHT

F WAYER-RECLAMATION SYSTEMS

LhF W%,

MISSION DURATtOk, DAYS

Figure 1

Figure 2

L-2489-8

Figure 3

L-2489-9

Figure 4

L-2489-5

Figure 5

Figure 6

L-2489-1 0

32.

CONTAMINANT COLUCTION

AND IDENTIFICATION

By Robert M. Bethea, I r i s C Anderson, and Robert A . Bruce

SUMMARY

The portion of the manned spacecraft contaminants problem involving contaminant c o l l e c t i o n , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , and biological e f f e c t s i s discussed. A specialized laboratory chromatograph f o r the detection and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of permanent and low-molecular-weight gases present a s t r a c e contaminants i n manned spacecraft and spacecraft simulators i s described. This apparatus includes a s p e c i a l sampling device f o r use with manned simulators such a s t h e i n t e g r a t e d l i f e support system t e s t bed. The development of an inhouse i n t e g r a t e d anal y t i c a l system using combined gas chromatography, i n f r a r e d spectrophotometry, and mass spectrometry techniques f o r contaminant i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s described. A t i s s u e c u l t u r e system f o r rapid screening of e f f e c t s of t o x i c contaminants on b i o l o g i c a l systems i s discussed, and some d e t a i l s of t h e operating procedures a r e given. Techniques of contaminant control by proper selection of materials and removal devices a r e presented.
INTRODUCTION

Contaminants a r e those chemical compounds found i n t r a c e amounts i n a i r o r water which might be harmful t o man i f present i n high concentrations. They a r e l i k e l y t o b u i l d up during long-term manned space missions i n which t h e atmosphere i s being regenerated. There are three p r i n c i p a l sources of these contaminants: t h e metabolic processes of t h e inhabitants t h a t r e s u l t i n s a l i v a , urine, feces, f l a t u s , and expired a i r ; gassing products from food and supplies stored and used aboard t h e spacecraft; and gassing products r e s u l t i n g from t h e operation of t h e various systems within the spacecraft. Two other sources of contaminants a r e t h e materials from which the spacecraft i s made and any reaction products of individual gassing components. Before f u r t h e r improvements can be made i n t h e design of water and atmospheric p u r i f i c a t i o n systems, d e t a i l e d knowledge must be available concerning t h e nature and amount of t h e compounds l i k e l y t o be present a t any time. For long-term manned missions, it i s even more important t o be able t o estimate t h e e f f e c t s of t h e t r a c e contaminants on t h e human body. This r e p o r t o u t l i n e s current e f f o r t s aimed a t developing techniques f o r trace-contaminant c o l l e c t i o n and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , t i s s u e t e s t i n g t o estimate t h e t o x i c e f f e c t s of these contaminants on human systems, and contaminant control by proper s e l e c t i o n of materials and removal devices.

333

EXPERIMENTAL Table I shows a l i s t of t h e contaminants found i n manned and unmanned spacecraft a i m l a t i o n t e s t s ( r e f s . 1 t o 3 and NRL L e t t e r Rept. 6 1 1 0 - 9 6 ~ : ~ )i ,n t h e Mercury o r b i t a l missions (NRL L e t t e r Rept. 6 1 1 0 - 1 4 3 A : ~ ~ ~ ) , i n a manned and simulation t e s t of t h e t h i r d Gemini shot ( p r i v a t e c o m i c a t i o n from Maxwell W. LipBitt f NASA acecraft Center). This information i s only q u a l i t a t i v e and h d t a i n e zing t h e materials desorbed from a c t i v a t e d carbon contaminant f i l t e r s . The presence of these compounds has, except i n t h e case of one manned t e s t which had t o be aborted (NRL Letter Rept. 6 1 1 0 - 2 ~ : ~ s ) because of t h e i l l n e s s of the t e s t subjects, produced no detectable harm on t h e a s t r o nauts or t e s t subjects i n manned simulation t e s t s . Many of these compounds can produce serious harm o r even death i f allowed t o b u i l d up i n long-term missions. Sample Collector

"he l i s t of contaminants given i n t a b l e I i s far from complete. Activated charcoal will not t r a p such compounds a s methane and carbon monoxide, and a l l t h e contaminants trapped by a c t i v a t e d carbon f i l t e r s cannot be completely desorbed ( r e f . 2 ) . I n order t o obtain a more r e a l i s t i c p i c t u r e of t h e contaminants spectrum, a movable sample c o l l e c t i o n system has been designed and b u i l t . This sample c o l l e c t o r i s shown i n figure 1. The basic system contains two whole-air samplers, two particulate-type b i o l o g i c a l f i l t e r s , two adsorbent ters, and two cold t r a p s . One cold t r a p i s maintained a t -78O C by a dry-ice acetone bath; t h e other i s kept a t -196O C by l i q u i d nitrogen.
The particulate-type b i o l o g i c a l f i l t e r s and t h e adsorbent f i l t e r s have been designed with s u f f i c i e n t surface area t o maintain c o l l e c t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s over a 10-hour sampling period. The t r a p s and f i l t e r s a r e equipped with quickconnect couplings and a r e i n s e r t e d i n t h e system a s bypass samplers. During operation, any one or a l l four of t h e f i l t e r s may be used o r changed a t will. I n figure 1, the sample i n l e t i s a t t h e upper r i g h t . The sample e n t e r s , passes through one of t h e p a r t i c u l a t e f i l t e r s , through an adsorbent f i l t e r , through the dry-ice-acetone t r a p , through t h e l i q u i d nitrogen t r a p , and then through the vacuum pump t o t h e flow meter and gas volume meter. The purpose of t h e evacuated sampling b o t t l e s i s t o allow samples of t h e i n l e t atmosphere and t h e f i n a l decontaminated atmosphere t o be c o l l e c t e d f o r separate analysis. Gas Chromatography The materials contained i n t h e sampling b o t t l e s and t h e cold t r a p s w i l l be s u b j e c t e d t o analysis i n a highly v e r s a t i l e research gas chromatograph. Gasl i q u i d chromatography i s a physical separation method i n which a solute i s dist r i b u t e d between a s t a t i o n a r y sorbent phase of l a r g e surface area and a mobile gas phase flowing o v e r t h e s t a t i o n a r y phase. The sorbent i s a t h i n layer of a r e l a t i v e l y nonvolatile substance coated on a f i n e l y divided i n e r t s o l i d suppo

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k t e r i a l . The coated s o l i d support, or packing, i s placed i n a tube of appropriate dimensions t o make a column. A l l separations take place i n t h e column.

I n t h e gas chromatograph, t h e materials i n t h e d i f f e r e n t t r a p s a r e f r a c t i o n a t e d i n t o a s e r i e s of peaks containing i d e a l l y only one component. It i s q u i t e possible t h a t some of these peaks will contain more than one component. I n order t o make maximum use of the rapid analytical c a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e dualC O ~ ~ X E I c ? ~ z l - d e f , e c t Q r~ E h r ~ ~ ~ t o g r s p h , C ~sa;;-le ~ L l 5e irmi tiiri.uu& f o u r , ~ c C S i general purpose columns. These columns are designed t o give q u a n t i t a t i v e separ a t i o n s , i n t h e 10 p a r t s per million (ppm) range, of about 90 percent of t h e expected contaminants i n l e s s than 2 hours. These columns a r e used for t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the e t h e r s , ketones, e s t e r s , n i t r i l e s , alcohols, and halogena t e d hydrocarbons from C 1 through C8; t h e alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes above C5; the a l b l b e n z e n e s and m l t i s u b s t i t u t e d toluenes, pinenes, and carenes
through C12; t h e C2 and higher aldehydes; the C 2 and higher s u l f i d e s , mercaptans, and thiophenes; and various other miscellaneous compounds. Freons; formaldehyde; t h e low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons; t h e l o w molecular-weight mercaptans and s u l f i d e s ; organic acids; cresols; phenols; amines; amides; isocyanates; and t h e corrosive gases such a s t h e oxides of nitrogen and s u l f u r , HF, HCN, and H C 1 a r e not separated by these general purpose columns. For these specialized separations, other c o l u m s h m e been designed which separate these types of material p r e f e r e n t i a l l y .

I)

After t h e samples from the c o l l e c t i o n system have been r u n through t h e general purpose columns and t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e majority of t h e components has been determined by matching t h e i r respective r e t e n t i o n times i n a t l e a s t t h r e e of t h e columns, any unidentified peaks w i l l be trapped from t h e e f f l u e n t stream from the chromatograph and subjected t o infrared and/or mass s p e c t r a l a n a l y s i s a t t h e same time t h a t t h e f r a c t i o n s a r e being checked on t h e s p e c i a l purpose chromatographic c o l m s .

Fraction Collector

A i n l e t system has been constructed whereby t h e e f f l u e n t from t h e gas n chromatograph can be taken d i r e c t l y t o an infrared spectrophotometer or a timeo f - f l i g h t mass spectrometer without the p o s s i b i l i t y of contamination from outs i d e sources. This sample t r a n s f e r system i s shown i n f i g u r e 2. The two outl e t s from the thermal conductivity c e l l s i n t h e chromatograph a r e connected t o t h i s system through t h e t e e a t t h e bottom of t h e f i g u r e . The e f f l u e n t can be sent d i r e c t l y t o t h e i n f r a r e d spectrophotometer, t o t h e mass spectrometer, o r t o a f r a c t i o n c o l l e c t o r . I n t h e f r a c t i o n collector, t h e separated f r a c t i o n s can be trapped and held f o r subsequent analysis i n t h e mass spectrometer o r i n t h e i n f r a r e d spectrophotometer. The fraction c o l l e c t o r i s shown i n f i g u r e 3. It c o n s i s t s o f a machined aluminum block containing t h r e e 3-stopcock manifolds with male Luer lock adapters ( r e f . 4 ) . The manifolds a r e connected by r o t a t i n g i n g adapters. The e f f l u e n t from t h e chromatograph comes i n through t h e m -inch-tubing adapter on the r i g h t . I n t h i s view, t h e manifold i s positioned P t o c o l l e c t a sample i n t h e 15th sampling position which i s on t h e extreme l e f t .

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This e n t i r e assembly, except f o r t h e f r a c t i o n c o l l e c t i o n tubes and b o t t l e i s wrapped with heating t a p e and maintained a t a s u f f i c i e n t l y high temperature so t h a t no sample components will condense anywhere except i n t h e tubes o r bott l e s . The sample t r a n s f e r system i s s i m i l a r l y heated. I n operation, t h e sample tubes, needles, and b o t t l e s are immersed i n l i q u i d nitrogen which f i l l s t h e l a r g e , double-wall, evacuated s t a i n l e s s - s t e e l tank shown i n figure 3. The i n s i d e dimensions of t h i s t a n k are 2 by 8 by 30 inches. The t a n k i s placed i n a wooden box with 1 inch-thick foam p l a s t i c i n s u l a t i o n around it. The t a n k 1
2

has a foam p l a s t i c top through which l i q u i d nitrogen can be poured and t h e needles and sample r e c e i v e r s can be i n s e r t e d . These holes are l a r g e enough so t h a t the boiloff of t h e l i q u i d nitrogen w i l l not be impeded. This system pres e n t s no cryogenic s a f e t y hazard.
The f r a c t i o n c o l l e c t i o n manifold i s f i t t e d with two c o l l e c t i o n tubes, t h r e e hypodermic needles of d i f f e r e n t lengths, and two sample c o l l e c t i o n b o t t l e s . The sample collection b o t t l e s are 1 0 - m i l l i l i t e r serum b o t t l e s p a r t i a l l y f i l l e d with crushed glass and capped with a serum cap through which are i n s e r t e d two hypodermic needles f o r t h e sample i n l e t and t h e helium vent.
The b o t t l e s a r e used with preparative-scale chromatography columns t o t r a p s e l e c t i v e l y t h e major components of m a t e r i a l s used f o r c a l i b r a t i o n standards. This i s necessary because t h e majority of t h e chemicals required f o r c a l i b r a t i o n purposes are not commercially a v a i l a b l e i n t h e d e s i r e d p u r i t y . By use of t h e preparative-scale columns and t h i s c o l l e c t i o n device, adequate amounts of materials can be p u r i f i e d f o r c a l i b r a t i o n s t o 99.9+ mole percent or b e t t e r .

Figure 4 shows a d e t a i l e d sketch of t h e f r a c t i o n c o l l e c t i o n manifold and t h e f r a c t i o n c o l l e c t i o n tubes. The bottom p o r t of each of t h e three-way stopcocks i s f i t t e d with an adapter t o which a s t a i n l e s s - s t e e l hypodermic needle i s attached., This needle p i e r c e s t h e s e l f - s e a l i n g rubber serum cap on t h e top of t h e f r a c t i o n c o l l e c t i o n tube. H e l i u m and t h e sample component flow i n t o t h e f r a c t i o n c o l l e c t i o n tubes through the i n l e t hypodermic needles. The helium vents through t h e 3/4-inch, 22-gage stainless-steel needle cemented i n t h e bottom of t h e tube. The sample component condenses on t h e crushed g l a s s which p a r t i a l l y f i l l s t h e tubes. Because the amount of t h e f r a c t i o n i n each c o l l e c t i o n tube i s i n t h e microgram range, the only p r a c t i c a l method of concentrating t h e sample i s by centrifugation. After t h e samples a r e c o l l e c t e d i n t h e tubes, they are then placed i n b r a s s centrifuge holders. Figure 5 shows a centrifuge holder. The holder contains an i n f r a r e d microcell i n t h e small window. The t i p of t h e vent needle of t h e f r a c t i o n c o l l e c t i o n tube p r o j e c t s through t h e upper p o r t i o n of t h e centrifuge holder and rests on t h e t o p of t h e microcell. The microcells are tapered t o i n c r e a s e efficiency i n t h e i n f r a r e d spectrophotometer. The microcells are approximately 3/8 inch long and 1/8 inch wide. They are made of two N a C l cryst a l s cemented between two t h i n g l a s s wafers t o form a sample c a v i t y t h a t i s t r i a n g u l a r i n v e r t i c a l cross section. The width of t h e c a v i t y v a r i e s from 0 t o 0.3 m i l l i m e t e r .

336

Automatic Gas Chromatography System

A t t h e present time, it i s not f e a s i b l e t o attempt t o i d e n t i f y t h e permanent gases and the l i g h t hydrocarbons by i n f r a r e d techniques a s Langley does not have a rapid-scanning i n f r a r e d spectrophotometer. Instead, an automatic gas chromatographic system f o r t h e analysis of these gases has been designed. This system i s shown i n f i g u r e 6 and c o n s i s t s of t h r e e columns and four 4-way valves. The f i r s t column separates CO2, NH3, H2S, and S02. The second column separates t h e C2 t o C 4 hydrocarbons. The t h i r d column separates t h e permanent gases: H2, 02, N2, CH4, and CO. These separations a r e shown i n f i g u r e 7. Three columns a r e necessary, as no one of t h e columns w i l l give t h e desired separations i n t h e ppm region without serious peak overlap.
I n t h i s automatic analysis system, t h e l i n e a r sampling valves a r e operated individually by solenoids. The solenoids a r e a c t i v a t e d by a stepping switch and a timer. The solenoids, switch, and timer a r e not shown i n f i g u r e 6. The operating procedure f o r t h i s analyzer i s t o absorb t h e sample on t h e f i r s t column where part of the separations occurs. By proper switching of t h e valves, t h e remainder o f t h e sample can be routed t o t h e other two columns where t h e permanent gases and the l i g h t hydrocarbons can be separated with maximum e f f i ciency. Any of the o r i g i n a l sample remaining i n column 1 i s then "backflushed"; column 2 i s backflushed through t h e detector f o r t h e determination of t h e C 5 and higher hydrocarbons i n t h e o r i g i n a l sample. Backflushing means t o reverse t h e direction of the c a r r i e r gas flow through a column i n order t o clean it i n a minimum of time. The necessity f o r having a three-column switching system f o r these compounds i s demonstrated i n f i g u r e 8, which shows t h e sample c o q o nents e l u t e d from co'lumns 1 and 2. A comparison of these chromatograms with t h e chromatogram shown i n f i g u r e 7 shows t h a t each individual column operates poorly when used alone f o r t h e analysis of t h e atmospheric sample. Note t h e many overlapping peaks, unresolved groups of compounds, and t h e absence of N 3 and H2S (peaks 3 and 4) i n t h e column 2 chromatogram. A s i m i l a r chromatH ogram on column 3 has not been shown as t h a t column a c t s a s a t r a p f o r a l l compounds other than t h e permanent gases. Toxicity Testing

It would be most desirable t o determine a space threshold l i m i t value of those contaminants l i k e l y t o accumulate i n a spacecraft habitable environment. Unfortunately, i t has been estimated t h a t it would take up t o a year o r even longer t o determine the threshold l i m i t value f o r continuous exposure of animals t o t h e contaminants ( r e f . 5 ) . It has been suggested t h a t animals be exposed f o r a t l e a s t 90 days t o each contaminant and t h a t several concentrations of each contaminant be t e s t e d . T h i s would require more money, t r a i n e d personnel, and equipment than a r e presently available. The questions t h a t w i l l need t o be answered a r e what t e s t s should be run, how often these t e s t s should be run, and what data are s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t .
Discussions a t the "Conference on Atmospheric Contamination i n Confined Spaces'' held a t Wright-Patterson A i r Force Base indicated t h a t t h e r e i s l i t t l e

337

agreement among t o x i c o l o g i s t s as t o what t e s t s should be run. Some s c i e n t i s t s advocated t a k i n g multipoint data throughout t h e exposure; others seemed t o t h i n k t h a t t h i s would subject t h e t e s t animals t o s o much physical and emotional stress t h a t no meaningful data could be obtained. Even data on t h e space threshold l i m i t value f o r animals would have t o be extrapolated t o obtain such estimates f o r man.

C!o n t z i i i a n t S c r e e i i l n g Te c b i l que
It will be impossible t o specify an accurate space threshold l i m i t value f o r each of t h e many p o s s i b l e contaminants i n t h e habitable spacecraft environment by the t i m e of t h e f i r s t Apollo f l i g h t . A r a p i d screening procedure i s needed. Such a procedure may not be very p r e c i s e , but it will i n d i c a t e which contaminants will be t o x i c t o man. Work on such a p r o j e c t i s i n progress. The screening system e n t a i l s t h e continuous exposure of human c e l l s i n t i s s u e c u l ture t o contaminants a t various concentrations.

I n order t o get data on s p e c i f i c c e l l l i n e s t h a t may be compared with d a t a on a l i v i n g animal or human system, studies w i l l be made on only t h e c e l l s of those b a s i c pathways involved i n t h e metabolism of such n u t r i e n t s as carbohydrates, p r o t e i n s , and f a t s t h a t are found i n t h e whole system. I f such b a s i c systems are t h e s i t e s of a t t a c k by toxic materials, then t i s s u e c u l t u r e s w i l l not only show t h e e f f e c t s , but will also allow t h e mechanism of t h e e f f e c t t o be studied. Those contaminants which show an e f f e c t i n t i s s u e c u l t u r e s can be f u r t h e r s t u d i e d i n t e s t s of animals under continuous exposure.
Figure 9 shows one of t h e methods being t e s t e d f o r exposing t i s s u e c u l t u r e c e l l s t o contaminants. The c e l l s are grown i n a chemically defined n u t r i e n t m e d i u m i n spinner f l a s k s a t 37' C. Fresh n u t r i e n t medium i s continuously pumped i n , and the spent m e d i u m and c e l l s a r e pumped out a t t h e same rate. I n t h i s way, t h e c u l t u r e s cam be grown continuously under optimum conditions. "he contaminant i s introduced i n t o t h e spinner f l a s k as shown. An example i s e t h y l n i t r i t e , which i s a gas a t a temperature of 37' C . The parameters t o be f o l lowed a s endpoints of t h e e f f e c t a r e growth rate and appearance, t h e r a t e of p r o t e i n synthesis, t h e r a t e of nucleic acid synthesis, and t h e rates of enzyme catalyzed r e a c t i o n s . Growth r a t e and appearance are monitored by observation under a phase c o n t r a s t microscope. The rates of p r o t e i n and nucleic a c i d synt h e s e s are measured by t h e incorporation of s p e c i f i c C 1 4 m a t e r i a l s i n t h e n u t r i e n t medium. The rates of t h e enzyme catalyzed r e a c t i o n s a r e measured by t h e most convenient assay method a v a i l a b l e , preferably spectrophotometric. It i s f e l t that a change i n t h e r a t e of an enzyme catalyzed reaction will be one of t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t signs of t o x i c e f f e c t . Enzymes have often been c a l l e d b i o l o g i c a l c a t a l y s t s , because they allow complex reactions, such a s those involved i n t h e metabolism of carbohydrates, f a t s , and proteins, t o t a k e place a t body temperature. Table I1 gives a p a r t i a l l i s t o f t h e enzymes proposed f o r study. These enzymes were chosen mainly because they occur i n major metabolic systems. These enzymes are important i n t h e metabolism of carbohydrates, f a t s , p r o t e i n s , and phosphates, and i n r e s p i r a t i o n . These enzymes are found i n t h e s p e c i f i c a r e a s

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l i s t e d . They may a l s o be found i n other body f l u i d s . If such enzynes a r e a f f e c t e d i n t i s s u e culture, it i s hoped that s i m i l a r e f f e c t s can be studied i n animals.

Contaminant Control N mercury w i l l be used i n thermometers, switches, or other equipment i n o t h e i n t e g r a t e d l i f e support system t e s t bed. There w i l l be no chlorinated s o l o vents used f o r cleaning purposes. N v o l a t i l e t o x i c l i q u i d s will be used i n t h e thermometers or any other equipment which w i l l be exposed t o t h e habitable environment of t h e t e s t bed.

For t h e removal of contaminants generated within t h e t e s t bed, s e v e r a l techniques w i l l be followed. The airstreams through t h e a i r conditioning and waste management systems pass through activated carbon f i l t e r s i n which t h e heavier hydrocarbon contaminants a r e removed. There a r e , i n addition t o these f i l t e r s , two c a t a l y t i c burners i n t h e t e s t bed, which a r e used t o oxidize any Contaminants i n t h e chamber atmosphere which were not removed by t h e a c t i v a t e d carbon f i l t e r s .
More than 30 sampling points a r e i n the t e s t bed. Some of these a r e located upstream and downstream of each contaminant removal device. Three gas chromatographs w i l l be used t o provide real-time a n a l y s i s of t h e contaminants i n t h e t e s t bed. One of t h e gas chromatographs i s an automatic u n i t with a 12-position sampling capability. It will be used f o r determination of t h e majority of t h e contaminants i n the 1 t c 10 ppm range. The second automatic gas chromatograph uses thermal conductivity c e l l s f o r t h e routine, sequential analysis of 10 sample streams. It i s designed t o monitor these streams f o r t h e following gases: H2, 02, N2, H20, CH4, CO, and C02. I n addition, t h e r e i s a Karmen detector i n a separate gas chromatograph f o r monitoring t h e CO content down t o t h e 10 ppm range of t h e output from a Bosch r e a c t o r .
CONCLUDING REMARKS

The problems i n c o l l e c t i o n and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of contaminants have been discussed. A b r i e f description of a t i s s u e c u l t u r e system f o r rapid screening of t h e e f f e c t s of these contaminants on human systems has been presented. A b r i e f review of contaminant control i n the t e s t bed by material s e l e c t i o n and contaminant removal techniques has been given. Much has 'been done toward solving some of t h e problems i n these areas, but a great deal remains t o be done.

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1. McKee, Herbert C.; Fhoades, John W.; Wheeler, Ralph J.; and Burchfield, H. P.: Gas Chromatographic Measurement of Trace Contaminants i n a AA Simulated Space Cabin. N S TN D-1825, 1963.

2. Saunders, R. A. : Analysis of t h e Spacecraft Atmosphere. U.S. Naval Res. Lab., Oct. 23, 1962.

NRL Rept.

5816,

3. Weber, T. B.; Dickey, J . R.; Jackson, N. N.; Register, J. W.; and Conkle,
J. P.: Monitoring of Trace Constituents i n Simulated Manned Spacecraft. Aerospace Med., vol. 35, no. 2, Feb. 1964, pp. 148-152.

4. Hoffinann, R. L.; and S i l v e i r a , A., Jr.: A Multiple-Port Fraction Collector f o r Gas Chromatography. Anal. Chem., vol. 36, no. 2, Feb. 1964, pp. 447-448.

5 . Siegel, J.; and Jones, R.

A . : Long-Term Continuous Inhalation Studies a t t h e U.S. Naval Toxicology Unit. A Symposium on Toxicity i n t h e Closed Ecological System, M. H o r n and H. J. Crosby, eds., Lockheed Missiles & Space Co., [93, 16] pp. 125-134.

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TABLE I
CONTAMINANE FOUND IN MANNED AND UNMANNED SIMULATION TESTS AND ORBITAL MISSIONS

ACETIC ACID ACETONITRILE ACETALDEHYDE ACETONE ACETYLENE ALLYL ALCOHOL AMMONIA BENZENE n-BUTANE ISOBUTANE 1-BUTANOL 1-BUTENE CIS-2-BUTENE TRANS-2-BUTENE ISOBUTYLENE

n-BUTYRALDEHYDE ISOBUTYRALDEHYDE fl-BUNRIC ACID ISOBUMRIC ACID CARBON DIOXIDE CARBON DISULFIDE CARBON MONOXIDE CARBON SULFIDE CHLORINE p-CRESOL CYCLOHEXANE D ICHLOROACETYLENE D IMETHYLPENTANE 1,4-D IOXANE ETHYL ACETATE

ETHYL CHLORIDE ETHYLENE

ETHYL MERCAPTAN

FREON 114 n-HEXANE

m,'DiiOGLN

METHYLENE CHLORIDE METHYLETHYLKETONE

lVlL,"lLI>"D"I

..--...,.

.r^"..-,, Y r

1 L RLlUlllL

I_.,

I_

ETHYLENE CHLORIDE ETHYLENE GLYCOL ETHYLENE OXIDE ETHYL ALCOHOL ETHYL ETHER ETHYL FORMATE ETHYL SULFIDE FORMALDEHYDE FORMIC ACID FREON 11 FREON 12 FREON 22

HYDROGEN CHLORl DE HYDROGEN CYANIDE HYDROGEN SULFIDE INDOLE ISOPRENE METHANE METHANOL METHYL ACETATE METHYL CHLORIDE METHYL CYCLOHMANE METHYL SULFIDE

FMETHY LPENTANE 3-METHYLPENTANE MONOCHLOROACETYLENE NITRIC OXIDE NITROGEN DIOXIDE n-PENTANE ISOPENTANE 2-PENTANONE PHOSGENE 2-PROPANOL PROPIONALDEHYDE

PROPIONIC ACID ISOPROPYL ACETATE lS0PDOPVL ETUEI! ISOPROPYL FORMATE PROPYLENE SKATOLE SULFUR DIOXIDE 1.1.1-TRICHLOROETHANE 1 1 2-TRICHLOROETHANE , , TOLUENE VINYL CHLORIDE VINYLIDENE CHLORIDE 0-XYLENE m-XYLENE

SAMPLE COLLECTION SYSTEM

TABLE II
ENZYME ACTIVITY AS AN INDICATOR OF TOXICITY
EVACUATED BOTKES DRY ICEACETONE TRAP

ENZYME lRlOSt PHOSPHATE ISOMERASE GLUCOSE-bPHOSPHATL KINASE FUMARASE GLUTAMIC OXALACETIC TRANSAMINASE HISTIDASE ACElYL CoA TRANSACETYLASE CHOLINE ESTERASE CATALASE ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE

MEIA 8OL IC SYSTEM INVOLVED :ARBOHYDRAll CARBOHYDRAll CARBOHY DRAT1 PROTEIN

PROTEIN

SITE OF ENZYME

FAT FAT RESPl RATION PHOSPHATE

Figure 1

341

FfWCTION COLLECTOR

SAMPLE TRANSFER SYSTEM

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TO F 9AC

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Figure 2

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L-2488-6

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L-2488-8

342

CHROMATOGRAM
1 COMPOSITE .
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OF TYPICAL GAS SAMPLE

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Figure 1

CHROMATOGRAMS FROM INDIVIDUAL COLUMNS

COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2

CONTINUOUS SCREENING TECHNIQUE

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A I R + CONTAMINANT (ETHYL NITRITE1

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Figure 9

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343

33.

C N A I A T F O MANNED SPACECRAFT SIMULATIONS O T MN N S R M By E. &gene Mason and Cnarles I. Wilson

rGi LJI L*

The Langley Research Center recently p a r t i c i p a t e d i n two d i f f e r e n t series of simulator experiments involving t r a c e contaminant studies. One s e r i e s was performed by t h e Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, and was concerned with certain n u t r i t i o n a l and personal hygiene problems. The contaminants found during these s t u d i e s were i d e n t i c a l with those reported i n other tests, w i t h t h e exception of e t h y l mercaptan, which i s reported i n t h e present experiments f o r t h e f i r s t time. The other experiments were performed by t h e Boeing Company i n Seattle, Washington, and were concerned with t e s t i n g a completely enclosed, integrated, chemical, physicochemical, b i o l o g i c a l life-support system f o r f i v e men f o r 30 days. The events leading t o t h e aborted first t e s t stress t h e need f o r c a r e f u l m a t e r i a l selection, improved a n a l y t i c a l techniques, and thorough appraisal of t h e systems used f o r t r a c e contaminant removal. The second t e s t , though successful, points out t h a t a p o t e n t i a l l y hazardous b a c t e r i o l o g i c a l condition may r e s u l t from a very clean atmosphere and emphasizes t h e need f o r f u r t h e r study i n t h i s area.
INTRODUCTION

The Langley Research Center expects, during t h e summer of 1965, t o i n s t a l l an Integrated L i f e Support System t e s t bed ( f i g . l , which i s intended t o be ) used i n t h e evaluation of various integrated life-support systems under both unmanned and manned conditions. I n preparation f o r such t e s t i n g , and as p a r t of a continuing program t o develop experience i n t h e a r e a of t r a c e contaminants during manned t e s t i n g , t h e Langley Research Center has recently p a r t i c i p a t e d i n two d i f f e r e n t manned-spacecraft-siinulation experiments. The first experiment, which was conducted by t h e Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories (AMRL) a t Wright-Patterson A i r Force Base, Dayton, Ohio, i n conjunction with t h e Manned Spacecraft Center of Houston, Texas, was concerned with t h e f i r s t t h r e e of a s e r i e s of four-man 28-day t e s t s . These t e s t s were primarily concerned with c e r t a i n n u t r i t i o n a l and personal-hygiene problems. Langley's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h i s program w a s limited t o furnishing atmospheric sampling devices and analyses of t h e samples collected. The second experiment, which was conducted by t h e Boeing Company under Contract NASW-658 and designated a s "Manned Environmental Systems Assessment" (MESA), was concerned w i t h investigating t h e many-aspects of a closed-operation life-support system capable of supporting f i v e men f o r 30 days. The Langley Research Center w a s responsible f o r t h e o v e r a l l t e c h n i c a l d i r e c t i o n of t h e program. The systems selected f o r t h i s t e s t were not optimum with respect t o mission length, zero gravity, o r weight but instead were based on obtaining a mixture of chemical, physicochemical, and b i o l o g i c a l systems which would

345

f u r n i s h PfoBd i n t e r f a c e data when tested as an i n t e g r a t e d system. The f i r s t ' attempt 'to.'cQE&.xt a five-man 30-day t e s t w a s begun i n July, 1963, but was aborted a f t e r 4.3 days as a result of t h e onset of i l l n e s s i n t h e crew. This period of time from program start t o t h e end of t h e abort i s r e f e r r e d t o as MESA I. The period from July, 1963, through redevelopment and subsystem t e s t i n g and @.subsequent 30-day t e s t i n April, 1964, i s r e f e r r e d t o as MESA This paper, then, describes t h e sampling device and a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s obtained i n t h e AMRL program and d i s c u s s e s t h e MESA problems t h a t led t o t h e a b o r t of MESA I, t h e r e s o l u t i o n of t h e s e problems, and t h e r e s u l t s of t h e succ e s s f u l 30-day t e s t of MESA 1 . 1 DISCUSSION
The n u t r i t i o n a l and personal hygiene s t u d i e s a t AMRL were performed i n t h e i r life-support-systems evaluator. The u n i t , which i s shown i n figure 2, i s a double-walled two-compartment chamber t h a t i s 27.5 f e e t long and 7.5 f e e t i n diameter. The evaluator provides instrumentation, accomodations, s e r v i c e connections, and support f a c i l i t i e s f o r carrying out programs t o i n v e s t i g a t e l i f e support systems, n u t r i t i o n a l balance, personal hygiene, waste management, t r a c e contaminants, biomedical instrumentation, and o t h e r a s s o c i a t e d problems, i n which from one t o s i x men can be t e s t e d f o r extended periods of time. Each test, involving f o u r men, w a s f o r %-day periods. The p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h e Langley Research Center i n t h e s e t e s t s w a s l i m i t e d t o furnishing charcoal sampling devices and obtaining t h e a n a l y t i c a l results from t h e analyses of t h e s e samples. The sampler ( f i g . 3) i s a charcoal c a n i s t e r approximately 5.5 inches i n diameter by 27 inches long and houses a s m a l l blower t h a t i s capable of drawing 60 cubic f e e t of a i r per minute through t h e 3-pound a c t i v a t e d charcoal bed. Sampling devices were furnished f o r t h e first t h r e e t e s t s of t h e s e r i e s but, as y e t , the a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s of only t h e f i r s t two t e s t s are a v a i l a b l e . These r e s u l t s a r e compiled and presented i n t a b l e I:

TABLE I
AEROSPACE MEDICAL RESEARCH LABORATORIES EVALUATOR CONTAMINANTS

Methyl e t h y l ketone Methane Ethyl mercaptan n-Pent ane I sopentane Dimethyl pentane Propane Propylene Isopropanol Toluene

Isopropyl a c e t a t e Acetone Ammonia Allyl alcohol Benzene n-Butane Isobut a n e Butene Ethane Ethylene

Di-isopropyl e t h e r Trichloroethylene IsoproIJyl formate Freon-11 Freon-12 n-Hexane Cyclohexane Methyl cyclohexane Cyclohexanol Isoprene

346

There i s nothing s t a r t l i n g l y significant i n any of t h e findings except f o r t h e presence of e t h y l mercaptan. This compound i s one of t h e products of human f l a t u s and, although it i s f a i r l y conclusive t h a t t h i s gas i s present i n any environment inhabited by man, it i s t h e first time t h a t t h e Langley experimente r s have seen it reported i n spacecraft simulation studies. The second manned spacecraft simulation t e s t i n which Langley p a r t i c i p a t e d ( p r o j e c t MESA) w a s intended t o demonstrate t h e c a p a b i l i t y of a mixed chemical, pp13-sic21c~leE'ical, ZT1d = i o l @ c s l ir;tegrc',-& life-s-fippopb syst-r, to s-uppGeb men f o r a period of 30 days. The overall program, which i s reported i n r e f e r ence 1 yielded s p e c i f i c data i n many areas including those of psychology, bio, chemistry, microbiology, medicine, and toxicology. This paper, however, i s concerned only with t h e toxicological o r t r a c e contaminant d a t a and i t s assoc i a t e d problems. The experiments of both MESA I and MESA I1 were performed i n t h e higha l t i t u d e chamber of t h e Boeing Company. The chamber w a s divided i n t o two sect i o n s , as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 4. The l o n g rectangular base of t h e T-shape i s approximately 20 f e e t long, 10 f e e t wide, and 8 f e e t high. The s e c t i o n designated as t h e sleeping area i s cylindrical i n shape and measures about 8 f e e t i n diameter and 16 f e e t i n length. The chamber was chosen not because of i t s shape, but because i t s volume (approx. 2400 f t 3 ) approximated t h a t of a then-current space-station proposal, and i t s leakage r a t e was l e s s than 1 pound of a i r p e r day. Since t h e h i s t o r y of MESA I indicated t h a t t h e crew i l l n e s s of t h a t experiment w a s due t o t o x i c material i n t h e atmosphere, a review of t h e a i r p u r i f i c a t i o n system ( f i g . 3 ) i s i n order. The heart of t h e system w a s t h e sodium superoxide (Na02) beds f o r t h e oxygen generation and carbon dioxide removal and t h e c a t a l y t i c oxidizer f o r t h e oxidation of most gaseous hydrocarbons t o carbon dioxide and water. Briefly, the system worked a s follows:
(1)A i r from t h e chamber w a s passed through an a i r conditioner f o r temperature and humidity control. ( 2 ) P a r t of t h e output from t h e a i r conditioner passed through an u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t f o r s t e r i l i z a t i o n purposes, through a s i l i c a g e l bed f o r drying purposes, and through a blower t o t h e entrance of t h e sodium superoxide (Na02) beds.

(3) The dry a i r w a s mixed a t t h i s point with a i r pumped through t h e aerobic b i o l o g i c a l waste reactor. A s t h i s mixture passed through t h e yellow granular NaO2, water present i n t h e a i r from t h e waste r e a c t o r reacted with NaOg t o Any carbon dioxide produce oxygen ( g a s ) and sodium hydroxide ( s o l i d NaOH). (C02) i n t h e chamber a i r then reacted with t h e NO t o form mixtures of sodium aH bicarbonate (NaHCO3) and sodium carbonate (NapCO3).

(4) A f r a c t i o n (l/5) of the a i r from t h e Na02 beds w a s routed through t h e c a t a l y t i c oxidizer ( f i g . 6) where it was heated t o 600 F and then passed over a metal c a t a l y s t t o oxidize any hydrocarbons present.
347

( 5 ) The heated air, recombined with t h e bypassed air, passed through another s i l i c a g e l bed ( i n a desorption mode) through a second u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t and back i n t o t h e chamber.
Objectionable odors and problems i n t h e a i r p u r i f i c a t i o n system began t o appear on the second day of t h e t e s t . F i r s t , t h e concentration of hydrogen began t o increase. This hydrogen increase w a s a r e s u l t of a reaction between t h e NaOH formed i n t h e Na02 beds and t h e aluminum used i n t h e construction of t h e beds. A second problem w a s concerned with t h e overproduction of oxygen i n t h e chamber. This problem w a s due t o a g r e a t e r concentration of water i n t h e a i r from the waste-management system than w a s o r i g i n a l l y estimated. I n an e f f o r t t o diminish t h e buildup of hydrogen i n t h e chamber, t h e syst e m w a s a l t e r e d so t h a t a l l a i r passing through t h e Na02 beds passed d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e c a t a l y t i c oxidizer. This a l t e r a t i o n served t o convert a l l hydrogen formed t o water, but it a l s o lowered t h e operating temperature of t h e oxidizer t o about 350 F, as t h e heat exchanger had been designed f o r only 20 percent of t h e flow. Since the waste reactor was t h e prime suspect as t h e source of odors, t h e airstream from t h e waste-management system w a s temporarily rerouted s o t h a t it, too, passed d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e c a t a l y t i c oxidizer. It was believed t h a t t h i s procedure would s t o p t h e overproduction of oxygen and, at t h e same time, would eliminate the source of t h e nauseating odors. After t h e equipment had operated i n t h i s mode f o r approximately 6 hours, no d i s c e r n i b l e difference could be noticed i n the odors present. It was observed, however, t h a t t h e operating temperature of t h e oxidizer had dropped below 250 F and t h e concentration of hydrogen was again increasing. I n order t o bring t h e operating temperature up t o 350' F, the l i n e from t h e waste-management system w a s disconnected from t h e oxidizer and allowed t o vent i n t o t h e chamber. During t h i s period of time addit i o n a l odors were produced from overheating i n other systems. Finally, on t h e f i f t h day, 4.5 days i n t o t h e mission, a gasket on t h e s i g h t g l a s s of t h e wastemanagement tank ruptured and allowed approximately 3 gallons of r a w waste t o flow onto the chamber f l o o r . The nauseated condition of t h e men, coupled w i t h t h e waste-management malfunction, r e s u l t e d i n t h e decision t o abort t h e t e s t . After the abort, whole-air and charcoal samples were taken from t h e chamber and sent t o a number of l a b o r a t o r i e s f o r analyses. The r e s u l t s of these analys e s a r e given i n t a b l e 1 . Unfortunately, t h e symptomology of t h e crew i l l n e s s 1 d i d not f i t any known toxicological p a t t e r n f o r t h e contaminants l i s t e d , and it w a s concluded t h a t it w a s not possible t o t r a c e t h e nausea and vomiting t o any one p a r t i c u l a r compound. (Recent research has indicated t h a t as l i t t l e as 1/4 p a r t per million of t h e dichloroacetylene (C1C 5 CCl), l i s t e d i n t a b l e 1 , 1 may have been responsible f o r t h e crew i l l n e s s . It i s suspected t h a t c e r t a i n halogen compounds such as trichloroethylene may d i s s o c i a t e and recombine i n a c a t a l y t i c burner t o produce various other halogenated compounds, including phosgene and both monochloroacetylene and dichloroacetylene.) A decision was then m a d e t o remove everything from t h e chamber and t o sandblast t h e i n t e r i o r t o insure removal of a l l paint and other contaminants. Each system w a s c r i t i c a l l y reviewed and, where necessary, w a s redesigned and r e f a b r i c a t e d before being replaced i n t h e chamber.

TABLE I1
MESA I C O X l U M I N m S

Trichloroethylene Monochloroacetylene Dichloroacetylene Ethyl chloride Vinylidene chloride Phosgene Freon-12 Methyl chloride p-Cresol Hydrogen Carbon monoxide Ammonia Nitrogen dioxide

Carbonyl s u l f i d e Carbon d i s u l f i d e Isopentane Isobutylene n-Butane Propylene n-Pentane 2 Methyl butane Ethanol Methanol Acetaldehyde Methyl e t h y l ketone Ethyl e t h e r

The development of t h e a i r purification system f o r MESA I1 w a s based on a very conservative engineering philosophy. The prime objective i n t h i s philosophy w a s t o eliminate as many sources of contaminants as possible through m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n and equipment redesign. A comparison of t h e MESA I and I1 wastemanagement systems ( f i g s . 7 and 8) i s indication of t h e extent of redesign done on t h e various systems. A second objective was t o remove completely a l l airborne contaminants as rapidly as they were generated. One method of accomplishing t h i s goal w a s t o f i t systems w i t h known contaminant-removal devices. For example, a s i l i c a g e l f i l t e r was f i t t e d t o both t h e waste-management system and t h e water-management system t o a c t as an ammonia scrubber. Other devices, shown i n t h e MESA I1 schematic ( f i g . g), were t h e separate charcoal f i l t e r s near t h e e l e c t r o n i c equipment and on t h e e x i t s i d e of t h e c a t a l y t i c oxidizer. The second method of removing contaminants w a s t o i n s t a l l a f i l t e r t h a t w a s capable of handling t h e e n t i r e f l o w of t h e a i r conditioning system (600 cu ft/min). The u n i t selected f o r t h i s purpose was a chemical-biologicalr a d i o l o g i c a l (CBR) f i l t e r with a capacity of 1000 cubic f e e t p e r minute (CFM). The e n t i r e assembly ( f i g . 10) measured 24 inches wide, 24 inches high, and 22.25 inches deep and consisted of a f i b e r - g l a s s f i l t e r element f o r p a r t i c u l a t e matter and a chemical element f o r gaseous matter. The p a r t i c u l a t e f i l t e r w a s a self-supporting "honeycomb" type fabricated by p l e a t i n g a continuous sheet of an a l l - g l a s s , microfiber, water-resistant medium. The f i l t e r was c e r t i f i e d t o remove a minimum of 99.97 percent of 0.3 micron aerosols. The chemical element w a s a folded perf orated s t e e l sheet containing approximately 43 pounds of a c t i v a t e d coconut base charcoal i n a uniform bed depth of 3/4 inch. The charcoal was "iodized" with 4-percent potassium iodide and 2-percent iodine t o improve i t s effectiveness against inorganic a c i d gases. This f i l t e r was located a t t h e i n l e t t o t h e a i r conditioner u n i t and, a t t h e prescribed flow rate of 600 cubic f e e t p e r minute, e f f e c t i v e l y f i l t e r e d t h e e n t i r e volume of t h e a i r i n t h e chamber every 4 minutes. It i s believed t h a t t h e a d d i t i o n of t h i s f i l t e r , t o g e t h e r with t h e c a t a l y t i c oxidizer, w a s responsible f o r t h e exceptionally clean atmosphere provided f o r t h e 3O-day t e s t .

349

The a i r , i n f a c t , was so clean t h a t t h e t e s t subjects developed extremely This q u a l i t y was noticed i n t h e f i r s t few days of t h e t e s t when t h e subjects complained t h a t everyone i n s i d e t h e chamber w a s reeking with body odor and h a l i t o s i s . Actually, t h e odors were no worse than usual. The f a c t t h a t they were more noticeable was due t o t h e absence of t h e normal masking odors, which had been removed by t h e a i r p u r i f i c a t i o n system. Another example of how keen t h e sense of smell had become w a s noticed during t h e use of t h e small-equipment a i r l o c k ( f i g . 11). The subjects could t e l l whether the person who had placed material i n t h e a i r l o c k was a smoker o r a nonsmoker and on several occasions could not only detect, but identify, t h e shaving lotion t h a t may have been applied as much as 7 hours e a r l i e r .
s e n s i t i v e senses of s m e l l .

Besides being highly e f f e c t i v e a t removing contaminant gases, t h e a i r p u r i f i c a t i o n system a l s o kept t h e a i r very f r e e of b a c t e r i a ( l e s s than 1/3 b a c t e r i a content per cubic foot f o r airborne b a c t e r i a ) . This condition may have been responsible, a t l e a s t i n p a r t , f o r an unusual condition t h a t developed i n t h e b a c t e r i a l f l o r a s of t h e noses and t h r o a t s of t h e t e s t subjects. This cond i t i o n i s graphically shown i n f i g u r e 12. The percentage of pathogens ( i n each case staphylococcus aureous) increased from a normal 10 t o 15 percent t o an abnormal 83 t o 100 percent. A t day 37, t h e f i n a l day t h e subjects were t e s t e d , a l l f i v e subjects showed pure cultures of staphylococcus aureous. While t h e cause of t h i s abnormal condition i s not f u l l y understood a t t h i s time, it has been suggested t h a t : (1)The atmosphere was so clean t h a t t h e r e w a s l i t t l e chance f o r t h e nonpathogens t o repopulate through normal r e s p i r a t i o n and as a consequence t h e pathogens could overgrow; ( 2 ) t h e r e w a s some b a c t e r i c i d a l contaminant present i n t h e atmosphere t h a t w a s s p e c i f i c f o r t h e nonpathogens but not f o r the pathogens; and ( 3 ) some contaminant w a s a f f e c t i n g both t h e nonpathogens and t h e pathogens but a t d i f f e r e n t r a t e s . Regardless of t h e cause, t h i s deviation from normal r a i s e s t h e question of whether such a condition should be considered p o t e n t i a l l y hazardous. To date, there has been no p o s i t i v e answer t o t h i s question, but those who have reviewed these data have indicated t h a t a danger may e x i s t , as c e r t a i n phage types of the staphylococcus aureous may manifest themselves as e i t h e r b r a i n o r lung abscesses. These b a c t e r i o l o g i c a l r e s u l t s may have been due t o peculiar1 i t i e s of the MESA 1 test, but they a r e presented here t o emphasize t h a t such a condition may arise and should be t h e subject of examination on f u t u r e longterm t e s t s . CONCLUSIONS The experiments a t both t h e Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories and t h e Boeing Company have contributed t o t h e f i e l d of toxicology. The AMRL program lends credence t o t h e existence of some of t h e contaminants already reported i n o t h e r manned simulators and, i n addition, reveals an a n a l y t i c a l capability of detecting some of t h e products of human f l a t u s i n charcoal sampling.

Specifically, t h e f i r s t manned environmental system assessment (MESA I ) of t h e Boeing Company demonstrated t h e necessity of using c a r e f u l m a t e r i a l evaluation and selection. MESA I also showed t h a t systems designed t o purify t h e air, such as t h e c a t a l y t i c oxidizer, may, instead, f u r t b e r c o n t m i n a t e t h e atmosphere with by-products more t o x i c than t h e contaminants o r i g i n a l l y present. 1 Both MESA I and MESA I c i t e a continuing need f o r more s e n s i t i v e and more r e l i a b l e , real-time a n a l y t i c a l equipment.
F i m l l y - , ~ E A reported, f o r the first time, a marked change i n t h e norv S I1 m a l b a c t e r i a l f l o r a s i n t h e noses and t h r o a t s of t h e t e s t subjects. The cause and significance of t h i s change remain t o be proven, but i t s p o t e n t i a l danger

must be considered i n f u t u r e t e s t i n g .

FEFEFENCE
1 Anon.: .

Manned Environmental System Assessment.

NASA CR-134, 1964.

Figure 1

L-2487-1

Figure 2

L-2487-2

Figure 3

L-2487-3

Figure 4

352

MESA

AIR ~ U R I F I C A ~ OS S !& N Rt Y

uimync

OXIDIZER

Figure 5

Figure 6

L-2487-10

MES

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t-2487-13.

Figure 8

L-2487-16

353

Figure 9

Figure 10

L-2487-17

Figure 11

L-2487-18

Figure 12

354

.
34.
INTERATED RGENERATIVE LIFE SUPPORT S S E YT M
I 9 3

FOR EXTENDED assroN DURATIONS

By Warren D. Hypes, Robert A. Bruce, and Franklin W. Booth

The objective of t h e Integrated Life Support System (1LSS)'project w a s t o s e l e c t , design, and develop a working model of a regenerative l i f e support system capable of supporting a 4-man crew i n a zero-gravity environment f o r a period of 1 year. Resupply a t 60- t o 90-day i n t e r v a l s was assumed.
A trade-off of a l l techniques of l i f e support was made at t h e component, subsystem, and system l e v e l s . The selected system u t i l i z e s a waste heat loop t o supply process heat. A oxygen recovery loop based on regenerable carbon n dioxide adsorption, hydrogen reduction of carbon dioxide, and e l e c t r o l y s i s of water was selected. Closed-loop a i r evaporation was chosen t o recover u s e f u l water from waste water. Vacuum-thermal dehydration with subsequent storage a t cabin temperature was chosen f o r processing s o l i d waste products.
I

The development e f f o r t has indicated t h a t t h e system i s feasible; however, a f i n a l assessment awaits a d e t a i l e d evaluation which w i l l be conducted during a planned research program.

INTRODUCTION
During t h e past 10 years, government research l a b o r a t o r i e s and p r i v a t e industry have been cooperating i n research e f f o r t s directed toward finding techniques and processes t h a t can regenerate u s e f u l products from t h e waste products a v a i l a b l e i n manned spacecraft. Most of these research e f f o r t s have consisted of a study of a promising physicochemical technique followed by t h e development of a laboratory m o d e l which was used t o demonstrate f e a s i b i l i t y of t h e technique. The majority of t h e laboratory models were individual u n i t s designed f o r s p e c i f i c i n l e t conditions of mass flow r a t e , p u r i t y of flow, pressure, and temperature. These i n l e t conditions were accurately controlled and, therefore, t h e e f f i c i e n c i e s of t h e models were not subject t o frequent change due t o v a r i a t i o n s i n i n l e t conditions. Although t h i s type of research i s necessary t o uncover and evaluate new approaches t o regenerative l i f e support processes, t h e t r u e f e a s i b i l i t y of t h e technique and embodying component cannot be established u n t i l it has been integrated i n t o a t o t a l system where i t s i n l e t conditions a r e established by t h e output of a previous component. To demonstrate f e a s i b i l i t y as a part of an integrated l i f e support system, t h e component must be integrated i n t o such a system f o r f'unctional check-out. The purpose of t h e project discussed i n t h i s paper w a s t o examine t h e l a r g e number of a v a i l a b l e l i f e support techniques and t o s e l e c t a combination of t h e

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a
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y techniques which could be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a working system. B design, develop-ment, and t e s t i n g of t h i s system, t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of a regenerative l i f e support system can be established. The system w i l l a l s o provide a technological base from which f l i g h t hardware can be developed.
T h i s prc$&&$s been a cooperative e f f o r t between t h e Langley Research Center and General Dyna.mics/Convair, San Diego, California, under contract N S 1-2934. A

SPACECRAFT AND MISSION I n order t o s e l e c t and design a regenerative l i f e support system, a t y p i c a l spacecraft and mission had t o be selected. It was desirable t h a t t h e spacecraft and mission be representative of those l i k e l y t o evolve i n t h e NASA. manned space program. The Manned O r b i t a l Research Laboratory (MORL) concept developed by Langley Research Center meets t h i s requirement. A examination of n t h e MORL spacecraft and mission revealed t h a t t h e type of l i f e support system required by t h e MORL would embody t h e physicochemical regenerative techniques applicable t o any extended mission duration. Therefore, t h e MORL concept w a s used as a f o c a l point f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n and design of t h e integrated l i f e supp o r t system. Based on t h e MORL concept, t h e spacecraft and mission models developed are defined as follows: Spacecraft model: Diameter, i n . Length, i n . Volume, cu f t Allowable leakage, lb/month Power source Maximum power available, k W Power f o r l i f e support, kW Power penalty, lb/kW Heat rejection penalty Sensible, lb/Btu/hr Latent, l b / l b H20/hr Cabin t o t a l pressure, p s i a Mission model: Operational period Mission duration, y r Resupply period, days

............................. ...................... . . . . . . .
..................... ........ ......................

220

215

.....................

4150 33.5 5
2.5
290

..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ................ .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................... ................ ........

....................

Radioisotope dynamic

00 .1 .2a

ioto15

.......................... 1967 ......................... 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 ( p l u s 17-day emergency supply) Gravity mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zero Crew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

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%ese models, along with t h e proposed configuration of t h e MORL vehicle a t t h e time t h e Integratea Life Support System (ILSS) project was i n i t i a t e d , r e s u l t e d i n t h e test-bed configuration shown i n figure 1.
CRITERIA F R S S E SEL;ECTION O YT M

With t h e spacecraft and mission models defined, t h e next s t e p i n t h e development of t h e ILSS w a s t o s e l e c t t h e techniques and components t o be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o the t o t a l system. A review of t h e s t a t e of t h e a r t i n regenerative l i f e support techniques was made. A l l p o t e n t i a l techniques were l i s t e d . After elimination of those techniques which were obviously unsuitable f o r considerat i o n because of a t e c h n i c a l o r p r a c t i c a l deficiency, t h e remaining ones were analyzed by a d e t a i l e d trade-off study. The trade-off c r i t e r i a and weighting f a c t o r s used a r e l i s t e d i n t h e following table: Criterion D sign: e Confidence i n success Degree of development Perfomance margins dvance t o s t a t e of t h e a r t eight : F i x e d . . . . . . . . . . Expendable Volume Reliability Maintainability Safety Power Weighting f a c t o r

................
................

22

3
8

..... . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... ..... ... ........... .... .. .. ...................... .......... . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... ........... Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

................

7
2

20 10 10

1 8 100

The techniques scoring highest on t h e trade-off study were then evaluated f o r i n t e g r a t i o n p o t e n t i a l . This p o t e n t i a l w a s evaluated a t a l l possible l e v e l s , t h a t is, a t t h e component, subsystem, and total-system l e v e l . The end purpose of t h e i n t e g r a t i o n study w a s t o choose and define an optimized t o t a l system of minimum weight and minimum power demand. Although an optimized system concept w a s sought, t h e a c t u a l hardware system w a s not optimized t o t h e extent t h a t a f l i g h t model would r e s u l t . The system was, however, based on p r i n c i p l e s t h a t would operate i n a zero-gravity environment. There were two requirements on the integration phase of t h e p r o j e c t that had an important impact on system selection and on t h e operating modes of t h e system. The f i r s t of these requirements was that a source of waste heat would u t i l i z e d t o supply a portion of t h e heat required f o r t h e l i f e support procsses. The source of waste heat w a s a simulated radioisotope dynamic a u x i l i a r y power system which i s a p o t e n t i a l system for f l i g h t vehicles of t h e MORL type.

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By employing t h i s source of waste heat, t h e requirement f o r e l e c t r i c a l power was reduced approximat.ely 800 watts. The i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e system and t h e process heat c i r c u i t i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 2. The second of t h e requirements w a s t h a t t h e system would be i n t e g r a t e d i n such a manner t h a t a f a i l u r e i n a primary mode of operation would not c r e a t e an abort s i t u a t i o n . The requirement s t a t e d t h a t when a primary mode f a i l u r e occurs, t h e system degrades gracefully i n t o a secondary mode of operation which permits continuation of t h e mission with only a p a r t i a l l o s s i n regenerative c a p a b i l i t y . This concept w i l l be discussed i n more d e t a i l i n a subsequent s e c t i o n of t h i s paper. DESCRIPTION O T E SELECTED SYSTEM F H Atmosphere Control Subsystem The atmosphere c o n t r o l subsystem i s one of t h e major i n t e g r a t e d loops i n t h e t o t a l system. It i s within t h i s subsystem t h a t oxygen i s recovered from carbon dioxide, makeup gases a r e added, and t h e atmosphere i s p u r i f i e d t o maint a i n a habitable environment. Carbon dioxide concentration u n i t . - The f i r s t u n i t i n t h e oxygen recovery loop i s the regenerable carbon dioxide concentrator shown i n f i g u r e 3 . The concentrator receives a continuous flow of approximately 30 cubic f e e t p e r minute of cabin air d i r e c t from t h e cabin air-conditioning u n i t . The flow t o t h e concentrator e x i t s t h e air-conditioning u n i t immediately downstream of t h e heat exchanger and air-water separator. A t t h a t location, t h e a i r i s a t i t s lowest temperature and dewpoint which a r e favorable conditions f o r t h e adsorpt i o n phenomenon t h a t follows. Adsorption occurs i n s i l i c a g e l and molecular sieve beds. The s i l i c a g e l beds remove remaining t r a c e s of moisture, and t h e molecular sieve beds s e l e c t i v e l y adsorb carbon dioxide. During operation, one s i l i c a g e l and one molecular s i e v e bed a r e adsorbing while a second p a i r of beds i s being desorbed. The s i l i c a g e l bed i s being desorbed back i n t o t h e cabin airstream t o prevent l o s s of water. I n t h e primary mode of operation, t h e molecular sieve bed i s being desorbed thermally by a hot f l u i d from t h e waste h e a t process loop. The hot f l u i d e n t e r s t h e desorbing bed a t a temperature of 375O F. The concentration u n i t a l s o contains a cooling f l u i d loop f o r maint a i n i n g proper thermal conditions i n t h e adsorbing beds and associated heat exchangers. The desorbed carbon dioxide i s s t o r e d i n an accumulator tank from which it i s a v a i l a b l e f o r processing i n t h e carbon dioxide reduction u n i t . A s a secondary mode of operation, t h e molecular sieve beds can be desorbed by a simulated space vacuum. I n t h i s mode, t h e carbon dioxide concentration u n i t remains a regenerable adsorber, but t h e adsorbed carbon dioxide i s l o s t during desorption. Carbon dioxide reduction u n i t . - From t h e accumulator tank carbon dioxide i s t r a n s f e r r e d by pressure demand regulation t o t h e reduction u n i t shown i n f i g u r e 4. I t i s mixed with hydrogen and passed i n t o a r e a c t o r where it i s reduced over i r o n c a t a l y s t p l a t e s a t a temperature of approximately l l O O o F. The reaction i s t h e Bosch type represented by t h e chemical equation
c02

+ w +c 2

2H20

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o h e c a r b o n t h a t r e s u l t s from t h i s reaction i s a waste product and i s collected i n a f i l t e r which must be periodically replaced. The product gases a r e then cooled, and t h e water vapor produced by t h e reaction i s condensed and separated from t h e gas stream by means of a passive, capillary type of separator. The gas stream, enriched with additional carbon dioxide and hydrogen, i s then recycled through t h e reactor. The recycle gas c o n s i s t s of unreacted carbon dioxide and hydrogen, together with t h e reaction by-products methane, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen which i s present as an impurity i n t h e carbon dioxide feed. The buildup of nitrogen i n t h e reaction mixture i s controlled by bleeding a small flow of t h e recycle gas out of t h e reduction system through a c a t a l y t i c burner where t h e hydrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide a r e oxidized t o water and carbon dioxide and released t o t h e cabin. A secondary mode of carbon dioxide reduction i s available i n t h e system. T h i s c a p a b i l i t y f o r a secondary mode of operation i s an example of t h e concept of graceful degradation mentioned i n t h e previous discussion of t h e integration-study phase of t h e p r o j e c t .
If t r o u b l e occurs i n t h e more complex but more e f f i c i e n t high-temperature Bosch reactor, t h e process flow can be directed t o a low-temperature Sabatier r e a c t o r where hydrogen reduction of carbon dioxide takes place as represented by t h e chemical equation
C02

4 H 2 + CH4

W20

The waste product now becomes methane which i s vented t o a simulated space acuum. Figures 5 and 6 i l l u s t r a t e t h e p r a c t i c a l differences between t h e two odes of operation. It can be observed that, of t h e 8.42 pounds of water required p e r day f o r oxygen regeneration, the Bosch reaction yields 7.6 pounds and t h e S a b a t i e r reaction yields 4.21 pounds. Neither reaction y i e l d s a l l t h e water required by t h e e l e c t r o l y s i s c e l l and, therefore, a quantity must be added on a d a i l y b a s i s from the water management subsystem.

Water e l e c t r o l y s i s unit.- The water e l e c t r o l y s i s u n i t i s shown i n f i g ure 7. The u n i t includes 3 modules, each of which contains 16 c e l l s . The c e l l s contain a 23-percent- solution- of s u l f u r i c a c i d e l e c t r o l y t e and water between two ion-exchange membranes. The electrodes a r e mde by coating t h e outer surfaces of t h e membranes with a platinum black c a t a l y s t powder i n cont a c t with a current-distributing screen mesh. The oxygen produced a t t h e posit i v e electrodes i s released i n t o t h e cabin f o r crew consumption. The hydrogen evolved a t t h e negative electrodes i s used i n t h e carbon dioxide reduction u n i t . Figures 5 and 6 i l l u s t r a t e t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of hydrogen and t h e f i g u r e s a l s o i l l u s t r a t e t h e materials balance associated with t h e e n t i r e oxygen recovery loop. Stored gases.- Quantities of stored oxygen and nitrogen must be supplied t o f u r n i s h makeup gases f o r the following requirements during a 90-day resupply Cycle: leakage, one cabin repressurization, f i v e a i r lock repressurizations, and a 17-day emergency supply of metabolic oxygen. The system s t u d i e s indicated t h a t t h i s storage would be most desirable i n t h e form of s u b c r i t i c a l cryogenic l i q u i d s . The tankage f o r these f l u i d s was not procured under the contract entioned previously.

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Contaminant control.- There a r e t h r e e types o f contaminant control devic i n t h e system. Fiber-glass part.icul&e f i l t e r s a r e located a t t h e i n l e t s of t h e upper and lower f l o o r cabin v e n t i l a t i o n ducts. They remove p a r t i c u l a t e matter and aerosols from t h e cabin a i r . Activated charcoal f i l t e r s a r e located immediately downstream of t h e p a r t i c u l a t e f i l t e r s t o remove t h e high-molecularweight organics. Activated charcoal f i l t e r s a r e a l s o located i n t h e airstreams w i n t h e water recovery and waste management process loops. T o c a t a l y t i c oxid i z e r s are included as a f i n a l contaminant control technique. They oxidize many of the p o t e n t i a l contaminants i n t o water and carbon dioxide. Oxidation takes place across a c a t a l y s t bed maintained a t approximately 730 F by a regenerative heat exchanger which g r e a t l y increases t h e efficiency of t h e process. The oxidizers, called burners, can be operated independently, i n s e r i e s , o r i n p a r a l l e l . Three d i f f e r e n t c a t a l y s t s a r e being furnished with t h e two oxidizers. Water Management Subsystem

'a

The water management subsystem i s another of t h e major i n t e g r a t e d loops i n t h e t o t a l system. It i s within t h i s subsystem t h a t usable water i s recovered from urine, wash water, and humidity condensate. This subsystem a l s o serves a collection, holding, and dispensing function f o r water throughout t h e e n t i r e system. The t o t a l water required and water recovered f o r t h e e n t i r e system on a d a i l y basis i s l i s t e d i n t h e following table: Quantity, lb/day/4 men Water required: Drinking and food preparation Wash water Ele c t rolys is makeup Total..

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.................

30.0 13.2

44.0

0.8

Water recovered: Urine water Wash water Humidity condensate Total

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13.2 13.2 19.6

46.0

The d a t a i n t h e t a b l e apply only i f t h e primary mode of operation i s successf u l and i f 100 percent of t h e recovered water i s of s u f f i c i e n t p u r i t y f o r use. The e n t i r e water management subsystem i s shown i n f i g u r e 8. Wick-type a i r evaporation u n i t s . - The water recovery process occurs i n t h e wick-type a i r evaporation u n i t s , one of which i s shown i n f i g u r e 9. A flow of a i r heated t o approximately 1800 F i s passed over a wick saturated with waste 1 l i q u i d s . The water i n t h e l i q u i d s i s vaporized, condensed, and separated by a

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'centrifugal separator. The water i s then pumped t o t h e holding tanks f o r p u r i t y analysis. The airstream i s reheated and passed i n t o t h e wick f o r another cycle. Pretreatment chemicals, chromic a c i d and s u l f u r i c acid, are added t o t h e waste water p r i o r t o processing t o lower the pH, f i x ammonia, and prevent t h e growth of micro-organisms. M u l t i f i l t r a t i o n unit.- A m u l t i f i l t r a t i o n u n i t i s included i n t h e system as a StaEZby fer eEergPECy Ed-e nperntLQns E r g 12nit -!!BPS activated chn_rcnnl f i l t e r s and ion-exchange r e s i n beds t o process humidity condensate t o potable water. The u n i t i s sized f o r a 17-day capacity. Modes of operation.- The two types of recovery u n i t s discussed a r e capable of t h r e e modes of operation. The normal processing mode i s represented i n f i g u r e 10. I n t h i s mode of operation, one air evaporation u n i t i s processing urine t o wash water and t h e other u n i t is processing wash water and humidity condensate t o potable water. Thus, t o process urine t o potable water two processing cycles must be completed. A second mode of operation, t h e m i n i m u m continuous mode, i s represented i n f i g u r e 1 . I n t h i s mode of operation, one 1 a i r evaporation u n i t has f a i l e d and t h e other u n i t i s processing urine, humidity condensate, and a portion of t h e wash water. There i s only one process cycle from u r i n e t o potable water, and t h e amount of water f o r personal hygiene i s reduced. The t h i r d mode of operation, t h e emergency mode, i s represented i n f i g u r e 12. I n t h i s mode of operation o n l y t h e humidity condensate i s processed y t h e emergency m u l t i f i l t r a t i o n u n i t and makeup water i s added from t h e stored Water f o r washing i s no longer available.

The c a p a b i l i t y of t h e water management subsystem f o r t h e t h r e e modes of operation i s an example of t h e concept of graceful degradation discussed previously. Nutritional Support Subsystem N u t r i t i o n a l support i s provided by freeze dried, s t a b l e conventional, and frozen foods. These foods are t o be stored, prepared, and dispensed with t h e a i d of t h e console shown i n f i g u r e 13 and a supplementary f r e e z e r not currently a p a r t of t h e system. The d i e t requires warm water a t 180 F and cool water a t 40 F f o r r e c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e d r i e d foods. The reconstitution t a k e s place i n s m a l l p l a s t i c packages which a r e used a s dispensing a i d s . The d i e t provides a c a l o r i c value of 2,800 kcal/day/man and i s composed of 60 percent carbohydrate, 15 percent protein, and 25 percent fat. Two percent of t h i s d i e t i s crude f i b e r . Waste Management Subsystem The waste management subsystem provides f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n of a l l wastes, he processing of s o l i d body wastes, and the storage of waste s o l i d s f o r t h e n t i r e system. The waste collection and processing u n i t i s shown i n f i g u r e 14. Urine i s c o l l e c t e d i n a r e l i e f tube with t h e a i d of a s m a l l flow of cabin air.

After being separated from t h e airstream, t h e u r i n e i s pumped t o t h e water management subsystem f o r processing. #The airstream i s returned t o t h e cabin. The f e c a l m a t e r i a l i s c o l l e c t e d i n a permeable bag placed i n a metal c a n i s t e r . During the c o l l e c t i o n process ( i n a zero-gravity environment), a s m a l l flow of cabin a i r prevents escape of noxious odors and helps t o d i r e c t t h e f e c a l mater i a l i n t o t h e bag. Since t h e bag i s permeable, t h e a i r s t r e a m passes through t h e bag. The a i r i s then f i l t e r e d and returned t o t h e cabin. The bag cont a i n i n g the f e c a l m a t e r i a l and cleaning t i s s u e i s manually t r a n s f e r r e d t o a processing c a n i s t e r i n which it i s vacuum d r i e d by a simulated space vacuum with t h e a i d of heat from t h e waste-heat process c i r c u i t . The d r i e d m a t e r i a l i s then placed i n a nonpermeable bag and s t o r e d i n one of t h e l a r g e storage containers placed adjacent t o t h e c o l l e c t i o n u n i t . The vacuum drying c a n i s t e r s and t h e storage containers a r e a l s o used t o process s o l i d waste m a t e r i a l s from t h e n u t r i t i o n a l support and personal hygiene subsystems. The functions provided and t h e q u a n t i t y of wastes handled by t h e waste management subsystem a r e as follows: @ant i t y handled, Ib/day/b men

Waste Feces Urine Refuse : Food and packaging Personal hygiene Carbon from r e a c t o r

System function Collection, processing, storage Collection, t r a n s f e r Processing, storage Processing, storage Storage

........... .......... . ... .... ...

1.3
13.2

1.6 0.5
2.5

Personal Hygiene Subsystem The personal hygiene subsystem provides sponge bathing f a c i l i t i e s and e s s e n t i a l l y conventional d e n t a l cleansing and shaving f a c i l i t i e s . Warm water t r e a t e d with benzalkonium chloride a t a d i l u t i o n of 1:2000 i s furnished f o r body cleansing and r i n s i n g of personal hygiene a i d s . A c y l i n d r i c a l chamber with a thumb-operated removable p i s t o n provides a container f o r w e t t i n g , drying, and cleansing t h e sponges. Dental cleansing i s provided by a c o n v e n t i o n a l t o o t h brush and i n g e s t i b l e d e n t i f r i c e . Shaving i s accomplished with a conventional e l e c t r i c razor although, i n a f l i g h t system, t h e r a z o r would be modified t o house a small induction blower and whisker c o l l e c t i o n bag.

Thermal Control Subsystem

The thermal c o n t r o l subsystem includes t h r e e separate, but integrated, f l u i d loops. They a r e t h e process heat c i r c u i t previously discussed, t h e primary cooling c i r c u i t , and t h e cabin a i r c i r c u i t . The i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e s e c i r c u i t s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 13.

Primary cooling c i r c u i t . - The primary cooling c i r c u i t u t i l i z e s a heat t r a n s p o r t f l u i d which i s a mixture of 40 percent propylene glycol and 60 percent water. Heat i s r e j e c t e d by a simulated space r a d i a t o r which a c t s as a heat sink. The cooling c i r c u i t provides coolant f l u i d , and therefore heat exchange capability, a t numerous locations throughout t h e system. The cooling c i r c u i t provides a means of r e j e c t i n g heat generated from e l e c t r i c a l power, t h e waste heat process c i r c u i t , and crew metabolic heat l o a d s .
Cabin a i r c i r c u i t . - The cabin a i r c i r c u i t shown i n f i g u r e 16 provides a t r a n s f e r function f o r many of t h e materials associated with t h e process loops; however, as part of t h e thermal control subsystem, i t s primary function i s t o t r a n s f e r sensible and l a t e n t heat loads from t h e cabin atmosphere t o t h e cabin a i r heat exchanger. The cabin environment i s maintained a t a selected temperat u r e i n t h e range from 68O F t o 80 F and a r e l a t i v e humidity between 40 and 60 percent. Condensation and removal of excess humidity i s accomplished i n t h e cabin air c i r c u i t with t h e heat exchanger and a passive type of air-water separ a t o r which u t i l i z e s c a p i l l a r y a c t i o n across porous p l a t e s as t h e phase separat i o n technique.
CONCLUDING REMELRKS

6u

Much of the advance i n technology t o be gained from t h e Integrated L i f e pport System (ILSS) project was gained during t h e study and development phases f t h e p r o j e c t . These phases represented a f i r s t attempt t o select, design, and develop a working model of an integrated, regenerative l i f e support system. The development e f f o r t has proved t h a t regenerative techniques can be successn f u l l y i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a working system. A oxygen recovery loop based on regenerable carbon dioxide adsorption, hydrogen reduction of carbon dioxide, and e l e c t r o l y s i s of water appears f e a s i b l e . The f e a s i b i l i t y of using a source of waste heat t o supply process heat f o r the l i f e support system has been demonstrated although a f i n a l assessment of t h i s technique cannot be m a d e u n t i l a functional evaluation has been completed. The development e f f o r t has proved t h a t an i n t e g r a t e d system can be designed t o operate i n secondary modes with only a s l i g h t degradation i n performance. The ILSS p r o j e c t has g r e a t l y advanced the technology on regenerative l i f e support systems. Additional advances w i l l r e s u l t from t h e d e t a i l e d engineering evaluations and t h e man-system relationship s t u d i e s t h a t w i l l be conducted during t h e research program t o follow.

363

PROCESS HEAT CIRCUIT

Figure 1

L- 2490-2

Figure 2

Figure 3

L-2490-9

Figure 4

L-2490-10

364

EXCESS COz TO VACUUM 3.13 LUOAY

DAY
5 I5 LE DAY

CABIN A I R

Figure 5

Figure 6

Figure I

L-2490-11

Figure 8

L-2490-16

NORMAL PROCESSING MODE

-----IUtlfCTROL

Figure 9

t-2490-12

Figure 10

~ I ~ I CONTINUOlJS MODE M U ~

EMERGENCY MODE

FMLRENLY ftlTtK IJYll SfANDiZt

1
CWASH

-COLECTlOFJ URINE

---WASH

TO PERSONAL HYGIENE

-C . CMIDEP15ATt

-COLECTIOh URINE

A
TANK

WASH

Figure 11

Figure 12

Figure 13

1-2490-6

Figure 14

L-2490-7

iNTEGRATiON OF THE THERMAL CONTROL CIRCUITS

CABIN AIR C(RCUI1

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t
Figure 15

"2'

WATER SEPARATOR

Figure 16

367

By Charles I. !Pynan, Jr.

SUMMARY
A c o n t r a c t u a l and innouse research e f f o r t t o develop t h e t z c k a ~ l ~ f oj r g extending man's s t a y t i m e on t h e lunar surface i s discussed. Parameters such a s t h e lunar environment, crew s i z e , s t a y time, mission objectives, and i n t e g r a t i o n with l o g i s t i c vehicles have been considered with respect t o t h e i r e f f e c t on t h e configuration and design of expandable modules and supporting subsystems. An expandable lunar s h e l t e r , r e f e r r e d t o as a s t a y t i m e extension module (STEM), has been designed and a f u l l - s c a l e laboratory model of t h e s h e l t e r i s being fabr i c a t e d . The s h e l t e r s t r u c t u r e , subsystems, and expendables t o support two men on t h e lunar surface f o r 8 days should weigh 1,276 pounds and be capable of being packaged i n c a n i s t e r s attached t o the base of a manned lunar excursion module (LEM) f o r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o t h e lunar surface. T e s t programs t o be conducted with t h e f u l l - s c a l e s h e l t e r model and samples of i t s w a l l s t r u c t u r e should make s i g n i f i c a n t contributions t o the advancement of expandable s t r u c t u r e s technology f o r lunar s h e l t e r s and o t h e r space s t r u c t u r e s applications.

INTRODUCTION

Advanced lunar programs i n d i c a t e a requirement f o r portable lightweight modules t o house personnel and equipment on t h e lunar surface f o r extended periods of time. These modules could be used f o r t h e following functions: Extending Apollo s t a y t i m e Ehergency s h e l t e r f o r t h e Apollo crew An astronaut s u i t changing f a c i l i t y Ehergency s h e l t e r f o r t h e crew of a l a r g e lunar roving v e h i c l e Supplement t o a l a r g e r permanent s h e l t e r Equipment storage f a c i l i t y Maintenance hangar Ekperiment f a c i l i t y t o be l e f t on t h e lunar surface f o r some period of time

Previous research on expandable structures f o r manned earth-orbiting space s t a t i o n s demonstrated a possible application of t h i s f a b r i c a t i o n technique t o t h e l u n a r s h e l t e r requirement. I n o r d e r t o develop t h e technology for extending man's s t a y time c a p a b i l i t y on t h e l u n a r surface, Contract No. NAS1-4277 w a s awarded t o t h e Goodyear Aerospace Corporation i n August 1 6 f o r a f e a s i b i l i t y study and systems i n t e g r a t i o n 94 e f f o r t which would l e a d t o t h e conceptual design and construction of a f u l l - s c a l e laboratory model of an expandable lunar module.

369

The three phases of t h e c o n t r a c t o r ' s study a r e presented i n f i g u r e 1. Cer t a i n study requirements and c o n s t r a i n t s were s p e c i f i e d i n t h e environmental, mission, and l o g i s t i c s areas. A p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t l o g i s t i c c o n s t r a i n t was t h a t the l u n a r s h e l t e r should be capable of being packaged so t h a t it could be c a r r i e d i n ca i s t e r s t o t h e l u n a r surface by a manned LEM. S t u d i e s on t h e *&ere* i f e support, power, and communications subsystems were conducA systenf t e g r a t i o n e f f o r t insured t h a t t h e s e l e c t e d subsystems w e r e compatible with, and adequate t o meet, t h e study c o n s t r a i n t s . Phase I of t h e study ended w i t h t h e conceptual d e f i n i t i o n of t h e STEM design. The IEM subsystems w e r e i n v e s t i g a t e d i n phase I1 i n order t o compare a comp l e t e l y independent STEM w i t h a S E t h a t could be connected t o t h e manned LEM TM by umbilicals i n order t o u t i l i z e t h e LEM l i f e support, thermal c o n t r o l , power, and communications systems. Supporting analyses were conducted i n t h e thermal, s t r u c t u r e s , l o g i s t i c s , materials, and environmental e f f e c t s areas. The subsystems d e f i n i t i o n and systems i n t e g r a t i o n e f f o r t s of phase I were continued i n 1 phase 1 . The S E preliminary design w a s based on a system which could support TM two men on t h e lunar s u r f a c e f o r 8 days. Parametric analyses i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e S E system required t o support a crew of two t o six men on t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e TM f o r periods up t o 30 days. The contractor i s now i n phase I11 of t h e study and t h e f a b r i c a t i o n of t h e f u l l - s c a l e l a b o r a t o r y model of t h e STESI should be completed i n J u l y 1965. This module w i l l undergo minimum-leak-rate acceptance t e s t s a t t h e c o n t r a c t o r ' s T e s t procedures a r e now being developed f o r programs t o be c a r r i e d o u t a t t h e Langley Research Center when t h e f u l l - s c a l e S E i s received from t h e TM

DISCUSSION S E Operational Concept TM Figure 2 shows a manned LEM on t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e and two of t h e f o u r S E TM packaging c a n i s t e r s can be seen a t t a c h e d t o t h e base of t h e LFSII. The l a r g e s t c a n i s t e r would have a volume of 80 f t 3 and contain t h e s h e l t e r - a i r l o c k , a t h e r m a l m a t , and s t a b i l i z i n g chocks. One 54-ft3 and two 27-ft3 c a n i s t e r s would cont a i n t h e remainder of t h e STEM equipment and s u p p l i e s . The h e a v i e s t c a n i s t e r would weigh 300 e a r t h pounds, equivalent t o 50 pounds on t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e . Therefore, one man should be a b l e t o e r e c t t h e STEM and have it o p e r a t i o n a l within 2 hours. I n f i g u r e 3 , t h e method of deploying t h e s h e l t e r - a i r l o c k on t o p of t h e 44-foot-diameter thermal m a t i s i l l u s t r a t e d . The s t o r e d p o t e n t i a l energy of t h e compressed foam i n t h e w a l l s t r u c t u r e of t h e s h e l t e r would cause t h e s h e l t e r t o e r e c t i t s e l f without i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r i z a t i o n . I n f i g u r e 4, t h e s h e l t e r - a i r l o c k i s deployed and an a s t r o n a u t i s p l a c i n g t h e s t a b i l i z i n g chocks on one s i d e of t h e s h e l t e r . Overall l e n g t h of t h e s h e l t e r - a i r l o c k i s 17.5 feet and t h e diameter i s 80 inches. I n t e r n a l volumes o t h e s h e l t e r and a i r l o c k are 410 f t 3 and lo5 ft3, r e s p e c t i v e l y .

370

Attachment of the three communications mtennas i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 5. Communications would be provided (1)t o the e a r t h by means of t h e deep-space i n s t m e n t a t i o n f a c i l i t y ( X I F ) network, ( 2 ) t o a n o r b i t i n g command module, and ( 3 ) t o an astronaut walking about on the lunar surface. The storage of cryogens outside the s h e l t e r i s a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 5. The cryogenic c a n i s t e r on the l e f t would contain oxygen f o r the l i f e support system and t h e o t h e r two c a n i s t e r s would contain oxygen and hydrogen f o r t h e f u e l - c e l l power supply. A f u l l y operational STEM i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n figure 6 . Although t h e s t r u c t u r a l aspects of the lunar s h e l t e r a r e of primary i n t e r e s t , it w a s necessary t o consider a l l i t s m a j o r subsystems i n order t o d e t e r mine t h e e f f e c t o f these subsystems on the design of t h e s t r u c t u r e i t s e l f . A l l t h e selected subsystem components a r e e s s e n t i a l l y s t a t e of t h e a r t . Wall Construction
A cross-sectional view of t h e composite wall s t r u c t u r e i s presented i n f i g u r e 7. The o u t e r surface thermal coating of zinc oxide i n s i l i c o n e r e s i n would provide a d i f f u s e reflectance f o r thermal control. The outer bumper of Dacron f a b r i c and Mylar f i l m laminate would provide microrneteroid protection. The 2-inch-thick l a y e r of f l e x i b l e polyurethane foam would provide a d d i t i o n a l micrometearoid protection. Since the foam would be an excellent insulator, 5-mil-diameter copper drop threads embedded i n the wall s t r u c t u r e would provide thermal conductivity from i t s inner surface t o i t s outer surface. The struct u r a l l a y e r of s t a i n l e s s s t e e l would be filament wound over t h e inner pressure bladder which i s the f i r s t l a y e r of the composite s t r u c t u r e t o be applied t o a mandrel of r i g i d i z e d foam. The r e s u l t a n t composite s t r u c t u r e would be f l e x i b l e and weigh only 0.613 l b / f t 2 .

Inhouse t e s t programs have been i n i t i a t e d a t t h e Langley Research Center using samples of t h e proposed STESI wall s t r u c t u r e which have been provided by the contractor. These t e s t programs w i l l i n v e s t i g a t e (1)the effectiveness of t h e s t r u c t u r e t o withstand micrometeoroid impacts, ( 2 ) the thermal conductivity through the s h e l t e r wall, ( 3 ) the e f f e c t of a vacuum environment on the s e l f erection c a p a b i l i t y on the lunar surface of t h e compressed foam i n the w a l l structure, and ( 4 ) the e f f e c t s of folding and compression on t h e s t r u c t u r a l i n t e g r i t y of t h e w a l l structure. Thermal Control
The lunar temperature environment varies from 2500 F t o -3OOO F. A unique approach t o the thermal-control problem has been incorporated i n t o t h e STEM design. This threefold approach would be t o (1)moderate the 2500 F temperat u r e of t h e lunar surface, ( 2 ) i n s u l a t e the s h e l t e r against t h e -3000 F lunar night, and (3) design t h e s h e l t e r as a space r a d i a t o r . The thermal-control concept i s presented i n f i g u r e 8. The t h e m 1 mat, with a maximum temperature on i t s upper surface of 710 F, would insulate t h e s h e l t e r from the heat of t h e lunar surface. The s h e l t e r thermal coating would c o n t r o l t h e e x t e r i o r surface temperature t o a maximum of 490 F. The previously mentioned copper drop threads imbedded i n t h e w a l l s t r u c t u r e would permit t h e t r a n s f e r and r e j e c t i o n of the

371

i n t e r n a l heat load. An e x t e r i o r insulation blanket composed of superinsulating material would be folded alongside the base of the s h e l t e r during the lunar and during t h e cold lunar night would be pulled up and over t h e s h e l t e r w a l l s t o hold the i n t e r n a l l y generated heat within the s h e l t e r . Movement of t h e insul a t i o n blanket would be manually controlled by cables and a hand crank within t h e s h e l t e r . Position of the insulation blanket would vary t h e s h e l t e r exposure area and thereby maintain a comfortable i n t e r i o r temperature.

Life Support System The S E would u t i l i z e a 100-percent oxygen atmosphere a t 5 psia. T o gas TM w systems were investigated but 100 percent oxygen w a s selected because of i t s l i g h t weight and compatibility with the present Apollo l i f e support system. Lithium hydroxide would be used t o remove carbon dioxide. A waste-water evapo r a t o r would be used f o r humidity control. An a l t e r n a t e means of humidity cont r o l would u t i l i z e a space r a d i a t o r which can be seen r e s t i n g on t h e thermal mat i n t h e shadow of t h e s h e l t e r i n f i g u r e 6. Activated charcoal would be used f o r odor control and t r a c e contaminant removal. A temperature of 7 5 O F and a relat i v e humidity of 50 percent would be maintained. Water consumption would be 41.2 pounds per day and water production would be 24.4 pounds per day. Planned water management i s presented i n t a b l e I. A 3,000-calorie d i e t (1.7 pounds of food per man-day) would be provided. Feces and urine would be stored i n sealed containers. Power System STEM power requirements f o r cooking, communications, lighting, instrument a t i o n , and the environmental c o n t r o l system would t o t a l 290 watts per day. After consideration of several power systems, it was concluded t h a t storage b a t t e r i e s would be too heavy, s o l a r power systems would be incompatible with day-night operation, and nuclear systems would be beyond t h e l i m i t of current technology. A hydrogen-oxygen f u e l - c e l l power system was t h e r e f o r e selected t o be u t i l i z e d i n t h e STEM. Two 300-watt f u e l c e l l s would be provided f o r 100-percent redundancy. Reactant consumption f o r continuous output of 300 w a t t s would be 6.8 pounds per day of oxygen and 0.8 pound per day of hydrogen. Fuelc e l l operation would provide 7.6 pounds per day of drinkable water. A membraneelectrolyte-type c e l l was selected over a liquid-electrolyte-type c e l l because of a lower operating temperature and s e l f - s t a r t i n g capability. The selected f u e l - c e l l operating temperature would vary between 80 F and 140 F, and the c e l l would have a s e l f - s t a r t i n g c a p a b i l i t y a t temperatures a s low a s 40 F. Since t h e f u e l c e l l would be located inside the s h e l t e r , it would r e j e c t heat t o t h e s h e l t e r i n t e r i o r a t a r a t e of about 2,000 Btu per hour.

STEM Weights From table I1 it i s seen t h a t the t o t a l weight of a STEM system supporting 2 men on t h e lunar surface f o r 8 days would be 1276 pounds. Parametric analyses were conducted t o determine t h e weight of a STEM system t h a t would be required t o support 2 4, and 6-man crews f o r lunar surface s t a y times from 6 t o 30 days. ,

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The r e s u l t s of these analyses a r e presented i n f i g u r e 9. A STEM system weight of 6,100 pounds would be required t o support a 6-man crew f o r a s t a y t i m e of 30 days. For longer s t a y times there would be crossover points a t vhich chaiges i n t h e base l i n e design 2-man, 8-day subsystems would be made f o r example, molecular sieves would replace lithium hydroxide f o r carbon dioxide removal because of t h e i r weight advantage f o r the longer s t a y times.

Umbilical STEM The umbilical STEM system i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 10. A comparison was made between the independent STEN and a STEM which would be connected with the manned LEM by umbilicals so t h a t the shelter-airlock would u t i l i z e t h e LEN environmental control, power, and communications systems. A weight summary f o r 1. t h e umbilical STEM i s presented i n t a b l e 1 1 From a comparison of t a b l e s I1 and 1 1 it i s seen t h a t t h e fixed weight of t h e umbilical STIB i s less than 1, t h a t of the independent STEM. However, t h e expendable weights f o r t h e umbilical STEM a r e considerably higher than those of t h e independent STEM. The l a r g e difference i n expendable weights i s due t o the f a c t t h a t t h e independent STEM w a s considered t o use t h e previously described quasi-passive thermal c o n t r o l system, whereas t h e umbilical STEM w a s considered t o r e l y completely on t h e a c t i v e environmental control system of the LEM. The weight d i f f e r e n t i a l between 1 t h e two systems i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n figure 1 from which the weight advantage of a quasi-passive thermal control system is seen. A n optimized STEN system incorporating t h e quasi-passive thermal control system and a n umbilical attachment t o the LEM w i l l be investigated.

CONCLUDING REMARKS
Operationally, an independent lunar s h e l t e r would have a s a f e t y advantage over a s h e l t e r which would u t i l i z e t h e subsystems of i t s l o g i s t i c vehicle f o r environmental control, power, and communications. A breakdown i n t h e l a g i s t i c vehicle subsystems would most l i k e l y place f u r t h e r operation of both t h e s h e l t e r n and i t s l o g i s t i c vehicle on an emergency basis. A independent s h e l t e r would provide redundant habitable l i v i n g quarters i n t h e event of a subsystem breakdown i n e i t h e r t h e lunar s h e l t e r o r i t s l o g i s t i c vehicle. The STEM concept has p o t e n t i a l for f u l f i l l i n g t h e requirement f o r portable lightweight lunar s h e l t e r s . "he f u l l - s c a l e module now under construction w i l l be used t o study packaging and deployment techniques and t o determine i t s struct u r a l i n t e g r i t y . The inhouse t e s t programs with t h e f u l l - s c a l e STEM and t h e s m a l l samples of i t s wall s t r u c t u r e should make s i g n i f i c a n t contributions t o t h e advancement of expandable s t r u c t u r e s technology f o r lunar s h e l t e r s and o t h e r space s t r u c t u r e s applications.

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TABLE I
WATER M . A E ! T AN G MB

E men;

8-day s t a y t m i g

Water production : Potable w a t e r Fuel c e l l s Contaminated w a t e r Expired and transpired From l i t h i u m hydroxide c a r t r i d g e s Urine Sanitation

.... ......................... 60 ........................ 36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 ................................ 53 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *32

195 1b

Water consumption: Potable w a t e r Drinking.. Food reconstitution Sanitation.. Back pack cooling* Perspiration l o s t while outside shelter** Contaminated water Waste-water evaporator***

............................. 35 ......................... 43 ............................ 32 .......................... 96 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 ...................... 100

330 I b trip of t r i p trip of t r i p

Water balance: Potable water a t s t a r t of Contaminated water a t end Potable water a t s t a r t of Contaminated water a t end

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 l b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 l b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6 lb/man-day

..............

2.2 lb/man-day

*%ch astronaut on one outside t r i p each day would use 80 percent of t h e

7.3-lb water supply o f back pack.

**During lunar exploration, water generated by perspiration and r e s p i r a t i o n a t approximately 1.5 l b per t r i p i s not recovered. This water loss i s replaced when t h e astronauts return t o t h e s h e l t e r . ***Waste-water evaporator, 30 percent e f f i c i e n t .

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TABLF, I1
WEIGHT SUMMARY F R INDEPENDENT STEM O

Fixed weights: Shelter- a i r lock Furnishings Life-support Power system Communications Thermal control Packaging c a n i s t e r ( s h e l t e r - a i r l o c k ) Packaging c a n i s t e r (equipment)
1

........................... ............................. ............................ ............................ ........................... ........................... ................ ...................

116 86
32

326 67

70 52 68 817 l b

Expendable weights (57.4 lb/day) : Life support Oxygen Lithium hydroxide Food Water.. Power Oxygen Hydrogen

.............................. ......................... ............................... .............................

113 50
24

189

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .....................
..................

64 19 459
1,276 l b

Total weight (2-man, 8-day system)

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TABLE I11 W I H SUMMARY FOR UMBILICAL STEM EG T Fixed weights: Shelter-airlock Furnishings Umbilical equipment Packaging c a n i s t e r ( s h e l t e r - a i r l o c k ) Packaging c a n i s t e r s (expendables) Expendable weights ( 4 3 5 lb/day) : Thermal control Water and t a n k s Hydrogen and tanks Life support Oxygen and tanks Lithium hydroxide Food Water and tanks Power Oxygen and tanks Hydrogen and tanks Total weight (2.man.

........................... ............................. ......................... ................ ..................

632

.......................... ........................ ......................... ......................... ............................... .......................... ......................... ........................

8-day system)

84

57 1 8
1 620 lb .

..................

376

Figure 1

Figure 2

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Figure 3

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Figure 4

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377

Figure 5

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Figure 6

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Figure 7

Figure 8

PARAMETRIC STEM WEIGHTS

WEIGHT

SYSTEM LB

14

22

30

STAY TIME,

DAYS

Figure 9

Figure 10

L-2485-15

STEM WEIGHT COMPARISON

8
STAY

TIME, DAYS

379

L .

-36. WATER-IMMERSION TECHNIQUE FOR SIMULATION OF

INGRESS-EGRESS MANEWERS UNDER
C0M)ITIONS OF WE1GITCL;ESSNESS

By Otto F. Trout, Jr.

SUMMARY
A water-immersion technique has been developed whereby a pressure-suited subject, unrestrained by connecting lines and hoses, can simulate maneuvers under conditions of weightlessness in six degrees of freedom. This simulation has been applied to a series of ingress-egress experiments, and some of the results are described in this paper. The results of these experiments indicate that the technique has application to the study of human factors and capabilities in extravehicular space operations and to a determination of design criteria for advanced manned space vehicles and related equipment.

INTRODUCTION

Current NASA studies of manned space stations and other extended-mission space vehicles include requirements for extravehicular astronaut performance in the 'hard-vacuum, zero-gravity environment of space while encumbered by a full pressure suit. These tasks w i l l include ingress-egress through airlocks, intervehicular crew and cargo transfer, assembly of external equipment and experimental hardware, inspection and maintenance of equipment, and performance of various extravehicular scientific tasks and measurements. Assessment of available means of simulation of these tasks has shown a definite need for the development of additional techniques. A n investigation was therefore undertaken to examine the feasibility of a pressure-suited subject operating in a neutrally buoyant condition in water to study weightless ingress-egress maneuvers through airlock systems. The feasibility of the technique was demonstrated and used to determine problem axeas associated with ingress-egress operations. It has proven to be a valuable research tool for zero-gravity simulation where the pressure-suited subject is required to work in confined spaces and where the velocities of the subject are low. This simulation technique is primarily designed to investigate the external motion performance characteristics of the suited subject in a weightless state, in six degrees of freedom, unrestrained b connecting lines and hoses but does y not provide for assessment of internal physiological effects at zero gravity. The simulation has been applied to a number of ingress-egress problems that 'include operation through airlock systems, examination of problem areas, motion aids, workspace limitations, equipment sizes, and the study of human factors and astronaut capabilities in a weightless, pnvironment.

ZERO-GRAVITY SIMULATION TECEIIQUES

The recent.Gemini and Voskhod f l i g h t s have shown some of t h e value and f e a s i b i l i t y of operations of an astronaut on t h e e x t e r i o r of a vehicle. Figu r e 1 i s an a r t i s t ' s concept of an astronaut making egress from t h e a i r l o c k of a manned space vehicle i n t o t h e hard-vacuum environment i n a pressurized s u i t . The extravehicular operations i n which man can e f f e c t i v e l y be u t i l i z e d on extended missions include i n g r e s s and e g r e s s operations through a i r l o c k maintenance of equipment, crew and cargo t r a n s f e r func, assembly ob servat i d inspection tasks, and manned experimentation i n research en eavors. An important f a c t o r i n t h e success of extended manned space missions w i l l be t h e extravehicular operational performance of s u i t e d a s t r o n a u t s i n both the routine and emergency modes.

:sSs

The operational c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and work output c a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e s u i t e d a s t r o n a u t s i n the zero-gravity and p a r t i a l - g r a v i t y environments need t o be assessed i n order t o define and develop operational procedures, t o obtain anthropometric d a t a f o r design purposes, t o provide s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r systems design, and t o determine man-machine r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The i n t e r a c t i o n of vehicle systems, the s i z e and configuration of a i r l o c k systems, t h e choice of supporting hardware, and t h e design of extravehicular equipment cannot be s p e c i f i e d u n t i l t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s of the pressure-suited astronaut a r e determined.

Examination of manned experiments has shown an apparent l a c k of f a c i l i t i e s t o develop design d a t a and t o simulate t h e s u i t e d astronaut i n a t r a c t i o n l e s s o r reduced-traction environment. The p r i n c i p a l means of simulation a v a i l a b l e f o r studying t h e s e extravehicular operations include a i r c r a f t Keplerian t r a j e c t o r y , cable and suspension systems, air-bearing platforms, and water-immersion n e u t r a l buoyancy. Each of t h e s e means of simulation i s a valuable t o o l but has d e f i n i t e l i m i t a t i o n s . The a i r c r a f t f l y i n g a Keplerian t r a j e c t o r y i s l i m i t e d t o t e s t durations of 10 t o 30 seconds. Cable suspension systems and air-bearing platforms r e s t r i c t performance, i n confined spaces, t o s i n g l e planes o r t o l i m i t e d degrees of freedom. Water immersion i s l i m i t e d t o low v e l o c i t i e s because of drag e f f e c t s . Actual o r b i t a l experiments a r e obviously t o o c o s t l y and complex for obtaining preliminary data. The s e v e r a l means of simulation a r e often complementary, and valuable d a t a may thus be obtained by performing similar t e s t s by more than one method.

APPARATUS AND TESTS

Because t h e water-immersion technique appeared t o o f f e r advantages f o r studying ingress-egress operations and w a s t h e l e a s t developed, an i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s undertaken t o a s s e s s the f e a s i b i l i t y of operating a pressure-suited subject n e u t r a l l y buoyant i n water w i t h a self-contained breathing apparatus. This research has r e s u l t e d i n a successful technique wherein a subject using a modiak f i e d Navy M r I V pressure s u i t has been able t o operate under water i n s i x degrees of freedom f o r extended periods of time up t o 11 hours, unrestrained by 2 connecting l i n e s and hoses. Weightless simulation by water immersion has o f t e n ) ( been suggested i n t h e past, b u t t h i s e f f o r t i s believed t o b e t h e f i r s t time

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that it has been successfully used with a t e s t subject i n a f u l l y pressurized suit.

Figure 2 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e pressurization and breathing systen! of t h e s u i t used i n t h e s e t e s t s . The Navy Mark I V s u i t w a s used because of i t s a v a i l a b i l i t y . It was modified by blocking t h e v e n t i l a t i o n system and replacing t h e oxygen system with a self-contained a i r supply. High-pressure a i r i s supplied by a 2500-psi storage b o t t l e on t h e s u b j e c t ' s back t o which first- and secondstage regulators are connected. A demand r e g u l a t o r i n t h e helmet provides a flow of a i r i n t o t h e f a c i a l area of t h e helmet when t h e subject inhales. Exhal a t i o n by t h e subject causes t h e demand regulator t o close, and a i r i s expelled i n t o t h e t o r s o of t h e s u i t by a valve located i n t h e neck s e a l . T h i s expelled a i r a c t s t o pressurize t h e s u i t t o t h e level p r e s e t on t h e r e l i e f valve. This system e f f e c t i v e l y provides f o r breathing and s u i t p r e s s u r i z a t i o n both under water and on t h e ground. The v a l i d i t y of t h e water-immersion simulation was examined by performing a s e r i e s of water-immersion experiments and comparing them with s i m i l a r experiments by zero-gravity a i r c r a f t flights and ground t e s t s . The a i r c r a f t - t e s t r e s u l t s were shown t o be comparable t o the water-immersion-test r e s u l t s when t h e movements of t h e subject were not rapid. Comparable experiments on t h e ground a t f u l l - g r a v i t y conditions with t h e same subjects and equipment have shown t h a t t h e ground r e s u l t s a r e not comparable f o r s t u d i e s of the weightless ingress-egress problems, y e t much of t h e design d a t a f o r equipment used by pressure-suited a s t r o n a u t s i s p r e s e n t l y obtained from f u l l - g r a v i t y ground t e s t s . The water-immersion tests were made i n a swimming pool approximately I1 f e e t deep. A t r a n s p a r e n t t e s t model of an a i r l o c k 4 f e e t i n diameter and 6 f e e t long with hatch doors a t each end was used t o provide simulation of ingress-egress performance. (See f i g . 3 . ) During t h e water-immersion t e s t s the subject was balanced t o n e u t r a l buoyancy and s t a b i l i z e d i n p i t c h and r o l l . A scuba-equipped s a f e t y man accompanied t h e t e s t subject during each experiment.
A complete photographic record of the s u b j e c t ' s maneuvers was made by an immersed 1 6 - m i ~ i m e t e rcamera positioned normal t o t h e a i r l o c k . A standard n frame r a t e of 24 frames per second was used i n a l l t e s t s . A o p t i c a l g r i d positioned behind t h e a i r l o c k and dimensioned markings 2 f e e t a p a r t on t h e outside of t h e a i r l o c k t e s t model were used i n conjunction with t h e motion p i c t u r e s t o measure v e l o c i t i e s of the test subject, time t o perform s p e c i f i c t a s k s and subtasks, and body p o s i t i o n . The dimensioned markings b u t not t h e o p t i c a l g r i d were used a l s o i n t h e ground and a i r c r a f t t e s t s .

DISCUSSION

A comparison of t e s t s performed on the ground, aboard a zero-gravity a i r c r a f t , and b y water immersion was provided from t h e motion p i c t u r e s of t h e subj e c t undergoing t h e t e s t s . The discussion t h a t follows i s based on t h e s e f i l m sequences (Langley Research Center f i l m No. L-879).

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For the ground t e s t s , t h e subject performed various t a s k s a t fill g r a v i t y i n t h e same transparent model of a space-vehicle a i r l o c k previously described. The t a s k s assigned may simulate those of an astronaut working i n an a r t i f i c i a l g r a v i t y f i e l d aboard a space v e h i c l e . The subject had d i f f i c u l t y i n moving h i s hands and knees with 3$ pounds of pressure i n t h e s u i t . I n one t a s k he was required t o pass over a 6-inch ledge t o e n t e r t h e a i r l o c k through the hatch and found it necessary t o perform a pushup t o get h i s l e g s over t h e ledge; even then, he scraped t h e l e g s of t h e s u i t . Forward motion on t h e hands and knees required considerable e f f o r t . Because t h e pressure tends t o s t r a i g h t e n out t h e knees of the s u i t , t h e subject reported t h a t he had t h e f e e l i n g t h a t he was going t o be thrown on h i s face i f he relaxed. A turnaround i n t h e c y l i n d r i c a l a i r l o c k was obviously a strenuous maneuver. F i f t e e n minutes of operation on t h e ground t i r e d t h e subject more than a s i m i l a r period working under t h e water. The subject a l s o used t h e same a i r l o c k model t o perform a similar set of maneuvers aboard t h e C-131 a i r p l a n e a t Wright-Patterson A i r Force Base during zero-gravity t r a j e c t o r i e s . Because of t h e s h o r t duration of each t r a j e c t o r y , t h e ingress-egress t e s t s were broken down i n t o s i x t e s t sequences. The subject showed g r e a t e r incentive i n t h e s e t e s t s t o move r a p i d l y t o avoid being draped 1 over a sharp edge on t h e 2-g pullout. During t h e pullout a t t h i s a c c e l e r a t i o n
2

he l a y on h i s side. H appeared t o have some d i f f i c u l t y i n making a turnaround e during another t r a j e c t o r y . He was sometimes unable t o complete t h i s maneuver i n t h e a l l o t t e d time.

I n t h e tests performed under water, before t h e maneuvers are attempted t h e subject i s balanced t o n e u t r a l buoyancy and n e u t r a l i n p i t c h and r o l l . I n t h e sequences showing t h e subject making a passage through t h e same a i r l o c k underwater, he tended t o move forward i n an i n c l i n e d p o s i t i o n i n order t o maintain forward vision through t h e helmet, as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 4. Motion through t h e water appeared almost e f f o r t l e s s i n t h e s e t e s t s . The subject i n making an e x i t through t h e hatch eases h i s g r i p on t u r n i n g around and f l o a t s off i n t h e water. This maneuver i l l u s t r a t e s t h e n e c e s s i t y of t e t h e r i n g an astronaut t o t h e e x t e r i o r of t h e vehicle. The s u b j e c t ' s a b i l i t y t o s w i m i s very poor i n the pressurized suit. I n one t e s t , t h e subject attempted t o apply torque on a hatch handle which w a s tightened, b u t h i s body turned i n s t e a d of the hatch handle.

I n a n o t h e r assignment, t h e subject, i n making an e x i t , caught one of h i s s u i t s t r a p s on t h e hatch. I n t h i s t e s t , t h e s a f e t y man had t o rescue h i m , s i n c e he was not capable of loosening himself i n t h e pressurized s u i t . This limitat i o n on maneuverability might have s e r i o u s consequences i n a space vehicle, s i n c e it i s conceivable t h a t t h e e n t i r e v e h i c l e might have t o be depressurized i n order t o perform a rescue on t h e o u t s i d e hatch of an a i r l o c k . Once, when t h e subject was attempting an egress maneuver without t h e use of motion aids, he t r i e d , i n desperation, t o use t h e hatch t o c o n t r o l h i s body p o s i t i o n . Because t h e hatch was not f i x e d he had only p a r t i a l c o n t r o l of h i s body p o s i t i o n . The hands are not t h e only u s e f u l p a r t of t h e body f o r t h e s u i t e d a s t r o naut. The subject i n one t e s t learned t o use h i s feet t o execute a turnaround' on e x i t . I n t h e weightless environment of space t h e a s t r o n a u t s w i l l quickly

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l e a r n t o perform a c r o b a t i c maneuvers, because such maneuvers a r e not l i m i t e d by g r a v i t y and t h e movements need not be rapid.
A turnaround executed by t h e subject w i t h t h e use of an i n t e r i o r handhold indicated t h a t such handholds gave h i m only s l i g h t l y more c o n t r o l than he could normally g e t by bracing himself between two surfaces, as shown i n figure 5. On two occasions, t h e subject damaged t h e helmet o r f a c e p l a t e of the s u i t i n performing a turnaround. I n one t e s t t h e subject made use of a h a n d r a i l on e x i t f r m t h e airlzck. 1 1 this m e w e r , the s11bbject apFeared t o have e x c e l l e n t x c o n t r o l over his body position; he w a s able t o maneuver with r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e e f f o r t and i n some cases could change h i s a t t i t u d e merely by t h e use of h i s wrists. Hand r a i l s on t h e e x t e r i o r of a space vehicle w i l l permit e a s i l y cont r o l l e d physical p o s i t i o n s and p o s t u r a l a t t i t u d e of t h e crewmen during e x t r a vehicular t a s k performance.

A t e s t was made t o demonstrate t h e use of a s a f e t y t e t h e r l i n e during egress. The l i n e i s fastened t o t h e end of t h e a i r l o c k and t h e subject shoves o f f . The l i n e was drawn between h i s legs when he attempted t o r e e l back; then he worked himself i n t o such an awkward position t h a t he almost smashed h i s h e l met i n t o t h e s i d e of t h e a i r l o c k , but he was able f i n a l l y t o maneuver himself out of t h i s p o s i t i o n without help. This t e s t showed t h a t it i s possible t o a t t a i n a dangerous v e l o c i t y and a t t i t u d e on r e e l i n g i n . A t a s k t h a t t h e subject performed successfully was t h a t of f a s t e n i n g h i s s a f e t y l i n e on an eye on t h e e x t e r i o r of t h e lock.

One assignment given t h e subject was t h a t of examining t h e workspace l i m i t a t i o n s and h i s a b i l i t y t o reach control p o i n t s . This problem w a s s t u d i e d by requiring t h e subject t o i n s e r t a phone jack i n various l o c a t i o n s on t h e i n s i d e of t h e a i r l o c k . By t h i s means, workspace l i m i t a t i o n s , t a s k a l l o c a t i o n t i m e s , work cycles, and c o n t r o l l o c a t i o n s can be e s t a b l i s h e d . During t h e waterimmersion t e s t s t h e subject w a s a b l e t o reach a l l p o s i t i o n s within t h e a i r l o c k model, b u t during s i m i l a r ground t e s t s he was not a b l e t o reach some of the overhead p o s i t i o n s .

EVALUATION OF TECHNIQUE
The v a l i d i t y , advantages, and disadvantages of t h e water-immersion technique w i l l be discussed b r i e f l y . Figure 6 p r e s e n t s a p l o t of t h e maximum and minimum whole-body drag as a function of v e l o c i t y a s observed f r o m t h e s u b j e c t ' s performance of ingress-egress maneuvers similar t o those j u s t discussed. During t h e s e maneuvers t h e average v e l o c i t y was about 0.3 f o o t per second, with t h e m a x i m u m seldom exceeding 1 . 3 t o 1.8 f e e t per second. Subjective comments i n d i cated t h a t the f o r c e s necessary t o overcome t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e pressure s u i t were much g r e a t e r than those required t o overcome t h e drag of t h e water; When t h e v e l o c i t i e s a r e low, t h i s technique appears t o be s u i t a b l e f o r evaluating astronaut capabilities

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The advantages of t h e water-immersion simulation a r e i t s s i m p l i c i t y , relat i v e l y low cost, t h e a b i l i t y t o work i n s i x degrees of freedom, and t h e addit i o n a l time a v a i l a b l e t o conduct d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s . The r e s u l t s of t h e present ingress-egress s t u d i e s can be summarized according t o t h e following categories:
(1) Astronaut capability: The water-immersion simulation technique has been shown t o be a u s e f u l t o o l i n studying t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e pressures u i t e d astronaut under conditions of weightlessness. The t e s t s u b j e c t s were able t o perform most ingress-egress t a s k s with r e l a t i v e ease and t o develop quickly new s k i l l s and procedures.
( 2 ) Spacecraft configurations and sizes: The a i r l o c k used i n t h e s e simulat i o n s w a s 48 inches i n diameter, which was marginal f o r turnaround by t h e pressure-suited subject, who was 5 f e e t 10 inches t a l l . Measurements from t h e photographs of t h e 6-foot-long a i r l o c k showed t h a t a turnaround could be executed within a length of k$ f e e t , which would leave s u f f i c i e n t space f o r an

'

inward opening hatch. This type of hatch o f f e r e d few problems t o t h e s u b j e c t S u b s t a n t i a l s t r u c t u r a l weight savings and reduced i f it could be opened 90'. l a t c h i n g complexity a r e possible on a i r l o c k systems i f hatches can be opened inward and seated with pressure. The 32-inch-diameter c i r c u l a r hatch w a s suff i c i e n t l y l a r g e f o r easy passage of t h e s u b j e c t i n t h e weightless s t a t e and d i d not begin t o pose a problem with t h i s pressure s u i t u n t i l t h e diameter w a s reduced t o l e s s than 26 inches. The outward opening hatch was o f t e n i n t h e way f o r maneuvers on t h e e x t e r i o r of t h e a i r l o c k .

( 3 ) Handholds, handrails, and motion a i d s : The experiments have shown t h a t handholds a r e not advantageous i n confined spaces where t r a c t i o n can be a t t a i n e d by other means. Protrusions i n a confined space a r e a d e f i n i t e hazard from t h e standpoint of entanglement with t h e s u i t s t r a p s and damage t o t h e h e l met. However handholds on t h e e x t e r i o r a r e a necessity, since no o t h e r means of t r a c t i o n are a v a i l a b l e . Handrails a r e advantageous f o r easy locomotion and f o r c o n t r o l l i n g body a t t i t u d e . It i s conceivable t h a t h a n d r a i l s could be a most d e s i r a b l e motion a i d t o frequently v i s i t e d l o c a t i o n s on t h e e x t e r i o r of a space vehicle. For torque application, hand o r f o o t braces a r e a n e c e s s i t y if body o r i e n t a t i o n i s t o be maintained.

(4) Tether l i n e s : Experiments with t h e s a f e t y t e t h e r l i n e have shown t h a t t h e subject i s able t o r e e l himself back t o t h e attachment location; however, he has no a x i a l control of a t t i t u d e perpendicular t o t h e t e t h e r . I n t h e present s t u d i e s t h e l i n e w a s considered only a s a s a f e t y device t o prevent l o s s of t h e a s t r o n a u t . T o t a l simulation of t h e dynamics of a t e t h e r e d astronaut i s not possible with t h i s technique because of t h e damping e f f e c t s of t h e water; however, comparison of t h e s e t e s t s with recent f l i g h t experiments shows considera b l e s i m i l a r i t y i n a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l and t h e c a p a b i l i t y of t h e astronaut t o recover on a s h o r t s a f e t y l i n e . Cargo t r a n s f e r by t h e astronaut on a t e t h e r l i n e appears t o be a r e a l problem and r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r study.

( 5 ) Workspace l i m i t a t i o n s : The study of workspace l i m i t a t i o n s i n d i c a t e d t h a t working i n a confined space i n t h e weightless s t a t e i s l e s s of a problem t h a n a n t i c i p a t e d . The l o c a t i o n of controls i n an a i r l o c k can be determined by similar t e s t s . Working with pressurized gloves requires handles of a t l e a s t 1-inch diameter t o provide t h e necessary f e e l and d e x t e r i t y .
( 6 ) Operational procedures: It i s apparent from these s t u d i e s t h a t many operational procedures can be developed by t h e water-immersion simulation technjqde. &ricg e a r l y e x p r i , ~ e n t r h e cfibjects t lit.t.1~ EI i j ~ e of l e g s o r f e e t ; however, they quickly learned t o perform maneuvers with t h e i r f e e t and t o brace themselves with t h e i r l e g s i n applying torque.
This continuing experimental program shows promise of providing a b e t t e r understanding of human f a c t o r s and c a p a b i l i t i e s i n extravehicular operations; it c o n t r i b u t e s d a t a applicable t o f u t u r e configurations, t o manipulation and c o n t r o l devices and safety-design f e a t u r e s for a i r l o c k systems, and t o o t h e r extravehicular equipment f o r advanced manned space vehicles.
CONCLUDING R3 A K JM R S A technique has been developed and validated wherein a pressure-suited subj e c t i s immersed i n water and maintained i n a n e u t r a l l y buoyant condition t o simulate t h e e x t e r n a l t r a c t i o n l e s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e zero-gravity environment i n s i x degrees of freedom.

The water-immersion technique can be applied i n many c u r r e n t and f u t u r e s t u d i e s of extravehicular space missions and t a s k s , such a s t h e i n g r e s s o r egress through a i r l o c k s , evaluation of the a s t r o n a u t ' s e x t r a v e h i c u l a r work capab i l i t i e s , development of procedures f o r crew and cargo t r a n s f e r techniques, and provision of design d a t a f o r f u t u r e vehicles and r e l a t e d equipment. S i m i l a r experiments performed by water immersion and from zero-gravity a i r c r a f t f l i g h t s have shown that t h e water-immersion and a i r c r a f t t e s t s a r e comparable when t h e v e l o c i t i e s a r e low. The two simulation techniques a r e complementary and i n f o r m t i o n from each should supplement t h a t from t h e o t h e r t o i n c r e a s e understanding of t h e o v e r a l l problem.

SUIT PRESSURIZATION AND BREATHING SYSTEM

Figure 1

L-2491-1

Figure 2

Figure 3

1-2491- 7

Figure 4

L-2491-8

WHOLE-BODY DRAG ROTTED AGAINST MLOCITY

Figure 5

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Figure 6

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37. SPACE TETBERING

By Gary P Beasley and Roy F. Brissenden .

SUMMARY
Extensive analytical and simulation studies have been conducted at Langley Research Center on problems of extravehicular maneuvering and astronaut retrieval involving tether lines. Several techniques for using tethers as a primary means of motion were developed. The studies indicate that the concept of a simplified integrated maneuvering system made up of a low-powered thruster and a tether provides adequate capability for extravehicular operations in space. INTRODUCTION The manned spaceflights and orbital missions which are anticipated for the near future involve a limited number of men and are experimental in nature. During these missions it is not expected that the astronaut will venture far from his spacecraft nor remain long in the space environment. This expectation was illustrated by the short extravehicular excursion on the Gemini-Titan 4 ssion. Future requirements, however, are more challenging, particularly when facJlities such as the manned orbital research laboratory (MORL) and the manned orbital telescope (MOT) become operational.
LONGTERM ORBITAL OPERATIONS

Long-term orbiting facilities will require certain functions to be performed by men to sustain them over long periods of time. The first function is that of orbital assembly which includes, for example, assembly of the orbiting facility itself and erecting of antennas, solar panels, and so forth. Another function is that of maintenance and includes inspection for preventative maintenance, repair of large components, and replacement of parts such as film, rocket nozzles, and s o forth. Next there is the function of orbit keeping required to overcome drag and other effects to insure a constant orbit over long periods of time. Before these tasks can be done, the astronaut must be provided with some extravehicular maneuvering capability; if the astronaut does maneuver about in space to perform these jobs, some sort of retrieval capability is required for emergencies. TETHER STUDIES Most of the early studies at the Langley Research Center on extravehicular activities (refs. 1 and 2) covered the problem of retrieving the astronaut from

an emergency situation, and these retrievals involved the use of the tether which is associated with ext,ravehicular astronauts as a safety device. These early studies showed that the situations encountered by the extravehicular astronaut made tethered retrieval quite complex. This complexity was due in part to conditions dictated by some of the maneuvering systems that have been developed and which ca generate large velocities, and thus trouble for the astronaut primarily du o ' & the problem of angular momentum. Figure 1 illustrates First the equation for angular momentum is shown and indicates this problem. that the angular momentum H is proportional to the product of the distance to the astronaut r, the mass of the astronaut my and the tangential velocity vt at this distance, and that at large distances small velocities can create a large amount of angular momentum. Figure 1 also shows a typical example where the astronaut is initially at a distance ro of 500 feet with a tangential . of 2 5 feet per second, which is considered an upper limit for velocity vt, reasons that will be discussed later. Earlier studies indicate that these values are reasonable for extravehicular operation. A s the astronaut is reeled 0 in to a final distance rf of 1 feet with no momentum transferred to the spacecraft, his angular velocity w increases to 1 0 rpm and he has a centrifugal 2 force a acting on him of about 50 g because of the conservation of angular , momentum. These extreme conditions are due to the fact that, for direct-reel-in systems which conserve angular momentum, the angular velocity increases as a function of the inverse square of the distance to the astronaut, and the tether tension increases as a function of the inverse cube of the distance. Thus, from these considerations, it is obvious that this type of retrieval is not generally 1 satisfactory.
TECHNIQUES FOR MCMENTUM T A S R R Nm

Thus since the astronaut cannot be brought in safely while conserving angular momentum, the undesired momentum must be eliminated from the system. Various methods of eliminating momentum from the system have been studied and include rotating and translating the spacecraft, thrusting at the astronaut, and so forth. These techniques are reasonable and probably include the method that will be used. However, from these studies one interesting technique, which may have limited application and which involves transferring angular momentum to a third body, was developed. This technique is illustrated in figure 2 As . before, the astronaut is connected to the spacecraft by a tether and a third body is connected to the astronaut by another tether. This third body could have been included as part of his equipment or possibly could be some used-up equipment. The transfer of a large portion of the total system angular momentum to the third body occurs because as the astronaut is reeled in he tends to speed up and thus causes the anchor mass to lag. This lag creates a component of tension which opposes the astronaut's direction of rotation and thus slows him down and almost allows the third body to catch up. However as the astronaut continues to be pulled in, he tends to rotate ahead and start the whole process again. This slow oscillation that occurs is the mechanism through which the angular momentum transfer is accomplished, the astronaut never being subjected to high angular velocities. This transfer continues until the astronaut is brought i n t o near proximity of the spacecraft,. at which time the anchor mass is released and

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c a r r i e s t h e acquired angular momentum out of the,sYStem; then some other retrieval t e c b - i q w i s req-dred t o bring the astronaut i n completely. The implementation of t h i s automatic system requires t h a t a complex r e t r i e v a l mechanism be available and it i s f e l t t h a t i n a c t u a l operations t h e problems t h a t make t h i s complex system necessary can be avoided.
ORBITAL MECHANICS CONSIDERATIONS

Figures 1 and 2 t r e a t the r e t r i e v a l problem i n f r e e space. Figure 3 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e problem i f o r b i t a l mechanics e f f e c t s a r e considered. This f i g u r e shows a r o t a t i n g coordinate system r o t a t i n g i n a clockwise d i r e c t i o n with a space s t a t i o n located a t t h e o r i g i n and with t h e astronaut on t h e end of a 500-foot tether. Now if it i s assumed t h a t the space s t a t i o n pulls on t h e t e t h e r and creates a r a d i a l v e l o c i t y V r of 2.5 f e e t per second, it i s found t h a t because of o r b i t a l mechanics e f f e c t s , and w i t h t h e t e t h e r slack, t h e astronaut misses the space s t a t i o n a t t h e end of 200 seconds by about 116 f e e t . And i f he were allowed t o go on t o t h e end of h i s t e t h e r he would rebound r a d i a l l y and continue o s c i l l a t i n g i n t h i s manner with l i t t l e chance of h i t t i n g t h e space s t a t i o n . This, of course, i s the s i t u a t i o n occurring i n a n emergency r e t r i e v a l where t h e astronaut cannot return and t h e t e t h e r i s used j u s t t o start him back. It i s necessary then a s he approaches t h a t t h e space s t a t i o n move t o dock with him. But no problem e x i s t s because of t h e r e l a t i v e l y long t i m e s and low veloci t i e s involved; thus, it i s desirable t o keep t h e v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e system low. To go 8 step f u r t h e r i n investigating t h e e f f e c t s of o r b i t a l mechanics f i g ure 4 shows a case i n which a man i s operating a t the end of a t e t h e r without propulsion. For t h i s s i t u a t i o n t h e astronaut leaves t h e Spacecraft a t 2.5 feet per second w i t h no t h r u s t and i s e s s e n t i a l l y constrained t o leave r a d i a l l y with l i t t l e angular momentum. O r b i t a l mechanics e f f e c t s , a s shown before i n f i g u r e 3, cause him t o t r a v e l up t o 116 f e e t above and 480 f e e t along t h e o r b i t a l path i n 200 seconds. A t t h i s time he reaches t h e end of h i s l i n e and t e t h e r r e c o i l occurs, t h e t e t h e r giving a v e l o c i t y along the astronaut-spacecraft l i n e . This velocity, along with some of t h e v e l o c i t y the t e t h e r did not take out, gives a r e t u r n t r a j e c t o r y as shown i n f i g u r e 4 with a f i n a l m i s s distance of approximately 15 f e e t which i s e a s i l y taken care of by moving t h e spacecraft. In t h e o r b i t a l plane t h i s s i t u a t i o n approximately holds regardless of t h e d i r e c t i o n i n which t h e astronaut leaves; out-of-plane e f f e c t s are small. Figure 4 a l s o indicates t h a t when t h e astronaut jumps off t h e spacecraft he causes it t o move i n the opposite d i r e c t i o n approximately 25 f e e t i n t h e f i r s t 200 seconds and then when t h e r e c o i l occurs t h e spacecraft i s returned essent i a l l y t o i t s o r i g i n a l position. Thus t h e figure shows t h a t t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s good, providing almost automatic r e t r i e v a l c a p a b i l i t y as long as the astronaut does not t h r u s t and develop v e l o c i t i e s t h a t cause angular momentum problems.
With these considerations i n mind, operationally t h e r e i s no point i n a r b i t r a r i l y maneuvering i n space. I n any r e a l i s t i c opwation a man has a d e f i n i t e t a r g e t at which t o a i m and t h e r e i s never a need f o r him t o generate l a r g e transverse v e l o c i t i e s .

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TYPICAL EXTRAVEBICULAR MISSION Figure 5 represents a t y p i c a l operational si%ua%ion %hct follows t h e development t o t h i s point. The astronaut i n the MORL i s required t o go t o t h e MOT 500 f e e t away with a v e l o c i t y of 2.5 f e e t per second. he 2.5 feet per second i s a desirable v e l o c i t y because it allows t r a n s f e r s t o occur i n reasonable times, and any tumbling or other perturbation associated with t h e v e l o c i t y can be handled e a s i l y by simple low-power t h r u s t i n g devices; also, t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y of t h i s v e l o c i t y a t these ranges has been borne out repeatedly i n p i l o t e d simulat i o n s of rendezvous and docking conducted a t Langley Research Center ( r e f s . 3 and 4) involving astronauts. For these reasons t h e astronaut departs a t 2.5 f e e t per second a t a calculated angle t o t h e o r b i t a l path of 13.j0. This maneuver, as seen i n t h e figure, gives a good i n t e r c e p t t r a j e c t o r y w i t h only s m a l l corrections required.
If f o r some reason the astronaut sees t h a t he i s going t o m i s s h i s t a r g e t , then he has plenty of t i m e t o provide l a t e r a l c o n t r o l t o correct t h e e r r o r . This c o n t r o l can be provided by a system as shown i n the lower p a r t of f i g u r e 5 where t h e t e t h e r i s used t o provide range c o n t r o l and t h e t h r u s t e r t o provide l a t e r a l changes. The corrections associated with t h e v e l o c i t i e s considered can be provided by a simple maneuvering system simpler even than t h e one Astronaut requiring only 1 or 2 pounds of t h r u s t . White used i n t h e Gemini-Titan 4 f l i g h t But even i f contact was made a t the maximum possible velocity, simulations i n lunar g r a v i t y a t Langley Research Center (refs. 5 and 6) show that t h e astronaut would not be hurt.

While i n o r b i t , t h e r e are effects (including ballistic-number e f f e c t s ) t h a t cause the MORL and MOT t o separate; but it i s d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h e vehicles maint a i n t h e i r o r b i t a l r e l a t i o n during the time the astronaut i s performing h i s tasks. This r e l a t i o n could be provided by a t e t h e r perhaps even t h e one t h a t t h e astronaut used i n t r a n s f e r . I n t h i s manner the conditions t h a t allow h i m t o r e t u r n i n a near mirror-image t r a j e c t o r y are preserved, and thus t h e number of operational considerations required are reduced. If pushing on the MOT c r e a t e s undesirable perturbations, o r if t h e astronaut cannot jump off a t t h e proper angle, then t h e 2.5-foot-per-second velocity can be provided by t h r u s t i n g .

Figure 5 a l s o shows t h e emergency r e t r i e v a l c a p a b i l i t y a s discussed earlier i n f i g u r e 3 with f i n a l docking performed by the space s t a t i o n . DISCUSSION OF S U Y RESULTS TD Operational trade-offs Sased on a n a l y t i c a l s t u d i e s and on simulation s t u d i e s including low gravity, rendezvous, and docking t h a t were conducted a t Langley Research Center have l e d t o t h e l o g i c a l conclusion t h a t a t e t h e r used with a low-power t h r u s t i n g device provides the necessary astronaut maneuvering capab i l i t i e s . However, more questions remain: Can an astronaut c o n t r o l h i s veloci t y t o 2.5 f e e t per second? Can he launch himself a t a preselected angle from t h e surface of a spacecraft? What are t h e dynamics of t h e t e t h e r e d MORL-MOT

394

b y s t e m due to distrubances on either of the bodies? In which research is continuing.

These are the directions

Figure 6 illustrates one way in which these answers are being obtained. This figure illustrates a simulation setup in which the cable suspension technique, used for low-g simulation (refs. 5 and 6 , is used in conjunction with ) By using a T camera mounted on the V the rendezvous docking simulator (RDS) translational portion of the RD6 the motion of the subject can be tracked with

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ics, in an essentially zero-gravity environment in the horizontal plane for distances up to 200 feet for a relatively long time. With this setup man's ability to control push-off velocities, his ability to jump at an angle, and the rotations created by these maneuvers can be determined as well as his ability to use low thrust devices. This simulation recently began and is continuing. Preliminary results indicated that it was rather difficult at first to keep the velocities l o w in zero-g but that with practice it could consistently be done. It was particularly difficult to keep low velocities in a shirt-sleeve environment but further investigation showed that with the additional mass and restriction of a pressure suit and a life-support system the problem became easier. It was also learned that a man could jump at an angle but that the restraint required to give traction and aid in jumping at this angle created undesirable tumbling rates. On the other hand, it was very easy to jump normal to the surface while keeping tumble rates from occurring. From this it was concluded that it would be desirable for the spacecraft to be pointed so that the astronaut could jump normal to the surface and at the desired angle.
A detailed digital computer program is being used to conduct analytical studies of the'dynamics of two bodies connected by a tether and the effects of orbital mechanics and drag.

&sed on the concept of a simplified integrated maneuvering system made up of a low-powered thruster and a tether, research in extravehicular activities is continuing with simulations and with development of a simplified thrusting system. Preliminary design shows that a simple cold-gas maneuvering unit with only 6 pounds of gas provides a 500-foot operation with about a 200-percent fuel reserve.

CONCLUSION
The basic conclusion to be drawn fromthese studies in extravehicular motion is that a simplified integrated system composed of a low-powered thrust unit combined with a flexible tether line provides adequate astronaut maneuvering capability

395

REFERENCES
1.

t r a l y , Warren H ; and Adlhoch, Robert W.: Study of the Retrieval of an . Astronaut From an Extra-Vehicular Assignment. NASA CR-185,1965.

2 Beasley, Gary P.; and Brissenden, Roy F.: The Dynamics of Retrieval of . Tethered Astronauts. Paper No. 64-393,Am. Inst. Aeron. Astronaut., July 1964.

3. Pennington, Jack E.; Hatch, Howard G., Jr.; Long, Edward R.; and Cobb,
J e r e B : Visual Aspects of a Full-Size Pilot-Controlled Simulation of the . Gemini-Agena Docking. NASA TN D-2632, 1965.

4. Pennington, Jack E ; and Brissenden, Roy F.: Visual Capability of Pilots as .

Applied to Rendezvous Operations. Paper No. 63-15, Inst. Aerospace Sci., Jan. 1963.

5. Hewes, Donald E.; and Spady, Amos A., Jr.: Evaluation of a GravitySimulation Technique for Studies of Man's Self-Locomotion in Lunar Fhvimnment. NASA TN D-2176, 1964.

6. Spady, Amos A., Jr.; and Krasnow, William D : Exploratory Study of Man's .
Self-Locomotion Capabilities With a Space Suit in Lunar Gravity.
NASA !t'N D-2641,

1965.

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EXCHANGE RETRIEVAL SYSTEM

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397

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L-243-7

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