Photovoltaic Energy

happens, the energy of the photon is transferred to an electron in an atom of the cell. With its newfound energy, the electron is able to escape from its normal position associated with that atom to become part of the current in an electrical circuit. By leaving this position, the electron causes a "hole" to form. Special electrical properties of the PV cella built-in electric fieldprovide the voltage needed to drive the current through an external load. To induce the electric field within a PV cell, two separate semiconductors are sandwiched together. The "p" and "n" types of semiconductors correspond to "positive" and "negative" because of their abundance of holes or electrons. When the p-type and n-type semiconductors are sandwiched together, the excess electrons in the n-type material flow to the p-type, and the holes thereby vacated during this process flow to the n-type. Through this electron and hole flow, the two semiconductors act as a battery, creating an electric field at the surface where they meet. It's this field that causes the electrons to jump from the semiconductor out toward the surface and make them available for the electrical circuit. At this same time, the holes move in the opposite direction, toward the positive surface, where they await incoming electrons. The electrical output of solar cell is establishes at Standard Test Conditions (STC), where the irradiance is 1000W/m2 and at a cell temperature of 25C. With the cell operating at these conditions the open circuit voltage (Voc), short circuit current (Isc), voltage at maximum power point (Vmax) and current at maximum power point (Imax) are recorded. From this the maximum power delivered by the cell can be calculated as well as the fill factor (FF) the cell conversion efficiency. FF = Vmax x Imax Voc x Isc Pmax = Voc x Isc x FF Cell operating temperatures have an effect on cell conversion efficiencies an inverse linear relationship. As cell temperature increases the cell efficiency decreases. In order to make best use of a photovoltaic, one must consider the location, because the amount of sunlight available will affect the amount of energy produced. Next is the orientation. The orientation of a building and positioning of solar arrays are vital factors to maximize energy production. And the last one is the tilt angle, inclining or tilting solar panels towards the sun can increase the levels of light falling on the surface and therefore cause an increase in

1. Introduction
Photovoltaic comprises the technology to convert sunlight directly into electricity. The term photo means light and voltaic, electricity. Photovoltaic energy is produced when sunlight is converted into energy with the use of solar cells. A photovoltaic cell, also known as solar cell, is a semiconductor device that generates electricity when light falls on it . The cell consists of one or two layers of a semi-conducting material. When light shines on the cell it creates an electric field across the layers, causing electricity to flow. The greater the intensity of the light, the greater the flow of electricity is.

2. History
Nineteen-year-old Edmund Becquerel, a French experimental physicist, discovered the photovoltaic effect while experimenting with an electrolytic cell made up of two metal electrodes, in the year 1839. 1904: Hallwachs discovered that a combination of copper and cuprous oxide was photosensitive. Einstein published his paper on the photoelectric effect. In 1954 The PV effect in Cd was reported; primary work was performed by Rappaport, Loferski and Jenny at RCA. Bell Labs researchers Pearson, Chapin, and Fuller reported their discovery of 4.5% efficient silicon solar cells; this was raised to 6% only a few months later (by a work team including Mort Prince). Chapin, Fuller, Pearson (AT&T) submitted their results to the Journal of Applied Physics. AT&T demonstrated solar cells in Murray Hill, New Jersey, then at the National Academy of Science Meeting in Washington, DC. In 1960s the first serious use of photovoltaic, to provide power aboard spacecraft. And in 1970s photovoltaic technology gained recognition as a source power for non-space applications.

3. Operation/ Process
The "photovoltaic effect" is the basic physical process through which a PV cell converts sunlight into electricity. Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy. These photons contain various amounts of energy corresponding to the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When photons strike a PV cell, they may be reflected or absorbed, or they may pass right through. Only the absorbed photons generate electricity. When this

electricity output. The appropriate angle of inclination will depend upon the latitude of the proposed site solar modules located on the equator will produce the most energy when they are laid horizontally. Optimum tilt angles will vary from city to city around the world. As discussed silicon is the most common material used for PV applications, partly due to the large surplus from the electronics industry. Monocrystalline are PV cells that are made from pure mono-crystalline silicon with almost no defects or impurities, efficiency approximately 15%. Polycrystalline PV produced using numerous grades of mono-crystalline silicon. This is less expensive to manufacturing due to simpler processes involved in production compared with mono-crystalline, efficiency approximately 12%. Amorphous Silicon composed of silicon atoms in a thin layer rather than a crystal structure. It absorbs light more effectively than crystalline so cells can be thinner. Thin film technology can be used in rigid, flexible, curved and foldaway modules. They have a lower cost than crystalline cells but have a lower efficiency. Thin-film PV the most efficient material in poor light conditions, whilst also being an extremely sturdy, vandal-proof PV, efficiency approximately 6%. Thick-film PV, an efficient cell in poor light conditions with very low embodied energy, it is most environmentally-friendly form of PV.

4. Applications
Photovoltaic can be used in housing. And there are some main components in a PV system. First a Charge Controller regulates the flow of electricity from the PV modules to the battery and the load. This helps keep the battery fully charged without overcharging it. Batteries are sometimes necessary to store electricity for use during times when it is needed, or to help meet loads when PV modules are not generating sufficient power to meet load requirements. An Inverter is needed to convert direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC). The power produced tends to be at a low voltage (12V) and household application requires 240V. A Meter is required to ensure that the system owner is credited for any excess power that is generated by the PV system and fed into the mains grid. PV can be used also in stand-alone systems, especially in remote areas. In grid connections, also in buildings.

The fuel is free. The sun is the only resource needed to power solar panels. And the sun will keep shining until the worlds end. It produces no noise, harmful emissions or polluting gases. The burning of natural resources for energy can create smoke, cause acid rain, pollute water and pollute the air. Carbon dioxide CO2 , a leading greenhouse gas, is also produced. Solar power uses only the power of the sun as its fuel. It creates no harmful byproduct and contributes actively to reduce the global warming. No CO2 emissions in use 1kWp of solar cells displaces 1000 kg of CO2. PV systems are very safe and highly reliable. The estimated lifetime of a PV module is 30 years. Furthermore, the modules performance is very high providing over 80% of the initial power after 25 years which makes photovoltaics a very reliable technology in the long term. PV Modules can be recycled and therefore the materials used in the production process (silicon, glass, aluminium, etc.) can be reused. Recycling is not only beneficial for the environment but also for helping to reduce the energy needed to produce those materials and therefore the cost of fabrication. It requires low maintenance.Solar modules are almost maintenance-free and offer an easy installation It brings electricity to remote rural areas.Solar systems give an added value to rural areas (especially in developing countries where electricity is not available). House lighting, hospital refrigeration systems and water pumping are some of the many applications for off-grid systems. Telecommunication systems in remote areas are also well-known users of PV systems.

Disadvantages
Photovoltaic technology itself is still expensive due to lack of demand and also due to lack of information available. Despite this obvious price disadvantage

5. Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

other obstacles have to be overcome for PV technologies: Conversion efficiencies are currently low only 5-18% but may improve with further research and development. Domestic PV systems do not necessarily deliver power when it is needed. Electricity is generated during the day when occupants are out and not during the evening when families are at home. Storage costs are high but can be avoided by connection to the mains whereby surplus can be exported to the grid but the number of new connections the grid could cope with is not clear assuming it is of a high enough quality. PV electricity is DC, not AC and as such an inverter is required for conversion adding further costs to the system.

If PV cells get hot electricity generation falls significantly. Integrated PV arrays need ventilation to cool then at the back, typically natural draught. Grid Connection currently has associated problems and permission is required from the local distribution network operator the quality of electricity has to be considered when exporting to the grid.

6. References
http://www.esru.strath.ac.uk/EandE/Web_sites/0102/RE_info/photovoltaics.htm#Navigation http://www.epia.org/fileadmin/EPIA_docs/publicatio ns/epia/Epia_Techno_leaflet_FINAL_WEB.pdf