How-To - Convert Relative To Absolute Data

A_NEW_METHOD_TO_CONVERT_RELATIVE_TO_ABSOLUTE
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A NEW METHOD TO CONVERT RELATIVE TO ABSOLUTE DATA
By
Lee H. Sheldon, P.E.
Portland, Oregon
January 2010
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY A new method has been developed to convert relative index test data into absolute flow and absolute efficiency performance data, without actually measuring absolute flow. This is not a replacement for absolute flow testing.
http://www.actuationtestequipment.com/SheldonPages/How-To_Convert_Relative_to_Abs... 5/12/2011
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In fact, it uses data from a homologous turbine model hill curve or absolute flow data from a similitude source. Unlike previous methods off relative to absolute conversion, it does not match relative index efficiencies with model hill curve efficiencies. Instead, in an iterative procedure, it matches the relation of flow to turbine output of the tangent curve of the index test with the prototype flow to prototype turbine output of the turbine model hill curve or other prototype source. Again, unlike previous methods, this method first calibrates the Winter-Kennedy (W-K) piezometer system, with a variable exponent of the piezometric differential, to read absolute flow rate. It then uses that calibration to convert the relative index data into absolute efficiency data. Even though the same hill curve is used, the calculated W-K calibration will differ for index tests on units of even the same family. Therefore, it is probable that the calculated absolute efficiency profiles derived from index tests on units of the same family will also show some amount of individual differences. The method was applied to the relative index test data taken on Lower Granite unit #4, without fish screens, in 2004. During that test, absolute flow was also measured by acoustic scintillation and Accusonic time of flight flow meters. The method successfully derived a W-K calibration from only the relative index data that closely agreed with the average calibration from the absolute flow measurements. It then derived peak efficiency within one and two percent of that measured by the two absolute flow measurement methods. In addition, this new method provides increased accuracy in reducing index test data. Among other things, it causes the peak efficiencies of the different fixed blade profiles to form a smoother, better-defined tangent curve.
TABLE OF CONTENTS Subjects Page Introduction....1 Traditional Conversion Methods....2 Winter-Kennedy Piezometer System..3 Methodology of New Technique to Convert Index....4 Data to Absolute Performance Data Specific Turbine Index Test and Model Test to.5
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Verify and Demonstrate New Method Detailed Description of New Methodology...5 Accuracy of Converting Relative Index Data into.....8 Absolute Data Improvement in the Accuracy of Reducing Index..9 Test Data Conclusions.10 Recommendations11 References11 Tables Lower Granite Unit #4 Without ESBS Fish #1 Screens Installed Graphs Turbine Output Smooth Curves.1 Low Winter-Kennedy Flow Smooth Curves..2 Fixed Blade Efficiency Profiles.3 Reverse Calibration Equation4 Prototype Data from Turbine Model Hill Curve5 Turbine Output versus W-K Differential at6 Point of Tangency W-K Calibration Equation.7 Comparison of Winter-Kennedy Calibrations8 Comparison of Turbine Output versus Absolute9 Flow Rate Between Index Test and Turbine Model Hill Curve Blade to Gate Cam Curve.10 Turbine-Generator Efficiency and Absolute Flow versus Generator Output...11
Pg 1 INTRODUCTION An index test is a relative efficiency test of a hydraulic turbine. The efficiency is relative because the volumetric flow rate is measured by indexing it against another parameter that is actually measured in its own real terms or
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units. One such commonly used parameter is the Winter-Kennedy (W-K) piezometer system. In this system, two piezometers, one on the inside and the other on the outside radii of a spiral or semi-spiral case, measure both the difference in angular momentum across a radial plane and the difference in local velocity heads. Since each of these is a function of the square of the velocity, the square root of the piezometric differential is nominally proportional to the absolute flow rate. Therefore, power divided by the square root of the W-K differential has been used as a measure of relative efficiency. Recently, load sharing computer programs have been developed to optimize total powerhouse efficiency. However, the performance data of the generating units used in these programs must be on an absolute flow and efficiency basis in order to provide the most benefit from these programs. Unfortunately, particularly for Kaplan turbines, there are only a few techniques to measure absolute flow and all of these are expensive and time consuming to use. Several techniques to use turbine model data to convert relative flow and efficiency data into absolute data have been used in the past. However, none of these have worked well and none have the level of accuracy required by the new load sharing computer programs. Consequently, a new method to use a turbine model hill curve has been developed to convert index test data into absolute flow and efficiency data. This method has a high degree of accuracy both to reduce index data and to convert the relative data into absolute data, and reflects the individual performance differences of each machine. pg 2 TRADITIONAL CONVERSION METHODS Previously, the most common method to use a turbine model hill curve to convert relative index data into absolute data is to first identify the peripheral speed coefficient, phi (), which is the x-axis of the turbine hill curve, corresponding to the prototype test head (and synchronous speed). Then the peak efficiency of the model at that phi is equated to the peak relative efficiency from the index test. Since relative efficiency is equal to power over the square root of the W-K difference, the square foot of the difference can be determined at the point of peak relative efficiency. Then, substituting into the formula, Q = k(D)1/2, the W-K calibration constant k can be calculated. With this calibration equation, the relative index test data
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can be converted into absolute performance data. However, there are three general sources of error associated with this procedure. First, an exact square root, an exponent of 0.500, must be assumed. Secondly, the peak relative efficiency may not occur at the same power as predicted by the hill curve. There is no means to account for this variation. Thirdly, whether an efficiency step-up is to be applied to the efficiency value of the hill curve is an unknown. However, as a method to be used to prepare data for use with the load sharing computer programs, its big draw back is that it computes the same peak absolute efficiency for every unit in a family. This eliminates any unit commitment benefit available from the load sharing computer programs. Another proposed method attempts to address this last discrepancy. It assigns the turbine hill curve efficiency corresponding to the prototype power at the point of peak efficiency. However, an analysis of the 14 units at The Dalles powerhouse found this method did not correlate with the absolute efficiencies as measured with current meters. One of the reasons was that the prototype powers at the individual peak efficiencies did not vary enough to provide for much difference in the efficiency values obtained from the hill curve. pg 3 WINTER-KENNEDY PIEZOMETER SYSTEM The Winter-Kennedy piezometer system was invented in 1933 by Ireal Winter and a Mr. Kennedy. It works on the same principle as an elbow pipe tap flow measuring system. That is, for a flow regime that is curvilinear or in a rotation, there is an increase in the angular momentum with increasing radial distance. This increased angular momentum exerts an increased force or pressure on the outer flow boundary compared to the flow boundary on the inner radius. Consequently, a piezometer tap on the outer radius of a spiral or semi-spiral case will register a higher piezometric pressure than a tap on the inner radius. If these taps are on the same radial plane from the center of fluid rotation the piezometric difference, D, will be proportional to the square of the weight flow rate and hence the square of the volumetric flow rate, Q2. These piezometric pressures will be decreased by the individual velocity heads across the orifices of each piezometer tap. However, since velocity head is a function of the square of the velocity and consequently the square of the volumetric flow rate, the square root of the piezometric difference is
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nominally proportional to the flow rate. This results in the classical calibration equation of, Q = k(D)0.5. When calibrated by any method of measuring absolute flow rates, the exponent of this piezometric difference is rarely found to be an exact square root. In fact, the test codes allow a range of 0.48 to 0.52. However, it has recently been found that the exponent is actually a variable. In reference (1), a new more accurate calibration equation is derived in the form of, Q = kDm+a (logD). The values of m and a are the coefficients of a quadratic equation, logQ = a(logD)2 + m(logD) + b, derived by plotting logQ versus logD. The calibration coefficient, k, is equal to 10b. It is hypothesized that the reason for this slight variability of the exponent is that, contrary to a long standing assumption, the center of fluid rotation is not exactly coincident with the center of mechanical rotation. pg 4 METHODOLOGY OF NEW TECHNIQUE TO CONVERT INDEX DATA TO ABSOLUTE PERFORMANCE DATA. To derive a new means to convert index test data into absolute performance data, it was evident that matching individual values of efficiency from the hill curve in any manner would not be sufficiently accurate. It was concluded that any comparison would need to be on the basis of comparing whole shapes or curves over the full performance range of the hill curve and index test data. Secondly, efficiency curves themselves tend to be quite radical in shape. On the other hand, the shape of the curve of flow versus power tends to be very smooth, well behaved, and with a gradual change in slope with a change in power. This lead to the basic methodology of calibrating the Winter-Kennedy piezometers in absolute flow terms by matching the shape of the relative flow versus power from the index test with the shape of the prototype flow versus prototype power derived from the model hill curve. With such a calibration of the Winter-Kennedys, the relative efficiency data could then be converted into absolute efficiency data. It is pointed out that unlike previous techniques that sought to first derive an absolute efficiency profile and then an absolute W-K calibration, this new procedure first derives an absolute W-K calibration equation and then uses it to convert the relative flow and efficiency data into absolute data. A hill curve depicts the optimum performance of the model. That is, it
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depicts the model as though it were operating with its optimum 3-D blade to gate cam. Consequently, the matching of curves must be done by comparing flow versus power derived from the tangent or optimum relative efficiency curve in the index test data with the prototype flow versus prototype power curve derived from the turbine model hill curve. It is noted that since the hill curve is in terms of turbine output, the index test data used to derive this W-K calibration must also be in terms of turbine output. Pg 5 SPECIFIC TURBINE INDEX TEST AND MODEL TEST TO VERIFY AND DEMONSTRATE NEW METHOD In December 2004, performance tests were conducted on Unit #4 at Lower Granite Lock and Dam. These tests were done both with and without Extended Submerged Bar Screens (ESBS) installed. Both the high and low deflection sets of Winter-Kennedy piezometer taps were measured. High deflection denotes that of the two inner piezometers, the one closest to the center of mechanical rotation has the greater radial separation from the outer piezometer. This means it registers a larger change in angular momentum and hence a higher piezometric difference. Absolute flow was also measured by Acoustic Scintillation and Accusonic Time of Flight methods. The hill curve used for this unit was from the Snake River Model Test Report by Allis-Chalmers Corporation dated July 15, 1975. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF NEW METHODOLOGY The specifics of this new data reduction methodology are shown in the data Table 1 and Graphs 1 through 12. The first part of this procedure is the same as reducing index test data in the conventional manner. In Table 1, columns A thru F, the original index test data for the six fixed blade angles is listed. In columns G thru L this data is converted to a constant head of 100 feet by the Affinity Laws. In column J, the W-K piezometric differential is converted to absolute flow. The initial calibration equation used for this conversion is the one derived in the index test report that is an average of the calibration equations obtained from the acoustic scintillation and Accusonic time of flight flow measurements. In actuality, almost any calibration equation could be used as a starting point, since the solution is an iterative one that ultimately derives the best fit calibration equation. However, as with any iterative process, the closer the
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starting point is to the ultimate answer, the fewer the iterations that are required. In column L, the combined turbine-generator efficiency is calculated. A specific weight of water of 62.386 lbs/cuft, which is the average value from the index test report, was used. This data is used to develop the smooth curves of Graphs 1 and 2. On Graph 1, the turbine output of column G is plotted versus the wicket gate servomotor stroke of column B and on Graph 2, the absolute flow rate of column J is plotted against the same servo stroke. Since there are four data points for each fixed blade angle, the trend lines are cubic equations such that they pass through each data point. These smooth curves are used to construct the six fixed blade data tables of columns M through BB. Using the 19.75 degree fixed blade angle table as an example, in column M the servo stroke is listed for every 0.1 degree blade angle, within the range of index test recorded data. Then the smooth curve cubic equations are used to fill in the turbine output and flow columns, N and O. In column P the corresponding turbine efficiency is calculated. In column Q, the generator efficiency is calculated from the fourth order equation of generator efficiency listed in the index test report. This is used in column R to calculate the generator output from the turbine output. Finally, in column S the combined turbine and generator efficiency is calculated. On Graph 3, the turbine efficiency is plotted versus the turbine output for the first five fixed blade profiles and the tangent line constructed as shown in red. At the points of tangency, the turbine output is accurately determined such that the fixed blade data line of a given wicket gate servo stroke can be identified. For the highest fixed blade angle, the efficiency profile never reached a peak or turned over such that the efficiency would decrease with increasing power. Therefore, it was omitted from the plots. Now at this point, the new methodology begins to enter the picture. In columns BC and BD, the turbine output and flow rate for the five individual points of tangency are listed. Then in column BE, the piezometric differential of the tangent point is calculated. This is done by using a reverse calibration curve of Graph 4. That is, flow is plotted on the x-axis and the W-K differential on the y-axis. Actually, as will be described later, the logarithms of these values are the plotted arguments. A quadratic equation is calculated as a trend line which is the reverse of the actual calibration equation. However, the logarithm form of the equation can be used in this application to calculate the W-K difference by simply using the equation as an exponent to
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the power ten. This is because of the identity that ten to the logarithm of anything is anything. In columns BF through BI, the data from the turbine hill curve is entered. The prototype turbines are 312 inches in diameter and rotate at 90 rpm. For the index test head of 100 feet, this would equate to a peripheral speed coefficient, phi, of = 1.527. At every intersection of the phi line and the iso-efficiency contours of column BF the turbine model power is read and entered in column BG. The Affinity Law is used to step this up to prototype power in column BH and the prototype flow is calculated in column BI from the power, head, and turbine efficiency. The curve of prototype power and prototype flow from the hill curve is shown on Graph 5. As noted previously, this is a very well behaved curve. The essence of this new methodology is shown in columns BJ through BL. On Graph 6, the point of tangency turbine output of column BC is plotted versus the point of tangency W-K differential of column BE and a trend line of a cubic equation is calculated. This equation is then used to calculate the W-K deflection corresponding to the prototype turbine output from the turbine hill curve in column BJ. Finally, in columns BK and BL, absolute flow values and W-K differential values are listed for the identical same values of turbine output. The logarithms of these values are entered in columns BK and BL. When plotted on Graph 7, the quadratic equation calculated by the trend line, logQ = a(logD)2 + m(logD) + b, becomes a new W-K calibration equation, Q = 10bDm a(logD). This equation is then taken back to the beginning of the spread sheet and entered in column J to recompute the absolute flow rates of the original index test data and new flow smooth curves are replotted on Graph 2 and the entire process repeated. It was found that only about six to eight of these iterations were required for the solution to converge. The final quadratic W-K calibration equation was, logQ = -0.1342(logD)2 + 0.5665 (logD) + 4.0579, which transformed to the more familiar format of, Q = 11,426D0.5665 0.1342(logD). This meant that over the full range of index tested flow rates, the W-K exponent varied from 0.542 at the lowest flow to 0.497 at the highest. This compares with the calibration coefficient derived in the index test report of 11,739 and a constant exponent of 0.4954 for scintillation, and 11,847 and 0.4982 respectively for time of flight. pg 8
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ACCURACY OF CONVERTING RELATIVE INDEX DATA INTO ABSOLUTE DATA The accuracy of this new method may be judged from two different aspects. The first is how accurate is it as a method to convert relative flow data into absolute flow data. The second is how much it improves the conventional method of reducing relative index test data. With regards to the accuracy of converting relative flow data into absolute flow data, it was considered that the best comparison would be by comparing the W-K calibration resulting from this new method with the absolute flow values from both scintillation and time of flight. Further, for uniformity of this comparison it was decided to use the first index test runs of 1 thru 55, which were the initial on cam runs. In this manner, comparisons could be made at the same operating points and the comparisons would be made near the optimum efficiency points. The later is significant because there has long been a suspicion that the Winter-Kennedy calibrations change for significantly off cam operating points. These comparisons are listed in columns BM thru BP and shown on Graph 8. On Graph 9, which is a reprint of Graph 6, the absolute flow rate versus turbine output resulting from this new method for the five points of tangency is plotted on top of the prototype absolute flow rate versus prototype turbine output resulting from the hill curve. As noted, there is very good agreement showing the iterative process had correctly converged. One of the underlying questions is the extent to which this new method will reflect the differences in efficiency between individual units. In other words, will it provide data with sufficient individual differences in unit efficiencies to allow for an accurate unit commitment solution by the load sharing optimization computer programs. Although the question can not be unequivocally answered at this time, it can be stated that there is a good likelihood that there will be differences in efficiencies between individual units. This is because as the turbine output points of tangency change for the same fixed blade angles among units, the W-K piezometric differences at the points of tangency will change, which will result in different W-K calibration equations and therefore differences in efficiencies at the points of tangency. pg 9 IMPROVEMENT IN THE ACCURACY OF REDUCING INDEX TEST DATA
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A separate improvement became evident in applying this new technique. That is, without reference to converting to absolute data, the accuracy of reducing the relative index test data was improved. In the relative efficiency profiles of the individual fixed blades, it is common for some to tend to have excessively high or low peaks such that a tangent curve can not be accurately drawn through them. The placement of the tangent curve is often at the discretion of the data reduction engineer. In this particular data set, two of the five blade profiles were low in comparison to the tangent curve drawn through the other four. However, in this instance it was noted that with each iteration, the peaks came more to form a well defined tangent curve. The reason this misalignment has usually been encountered in the past is now perceived to be due to treating the W-K piezometric differential as a fixed exact square root rather than as a defined variable exponent. The calculation of the variable exponent, in this instance, had another benefit. It is noted that the exponent decreases with increasing flow. This means there is proportionally less flow in the higher power regimes. Therefore the absolute efficiency is increased at higher powers. This, in turn, means that the turbine output is increased before an efficiency decrease of one percent is encountered. In fact, in this case it is increased about 10 MW. For record purposes, Graph 10 shows the blade to gate cam curve resulting from this new data reduction/conversion method. It is a reasonably good curve even though the middle two tangent points are off the curve by about one percent of servo stroke each. The final graph of this report is Graph 11 which shows the combined turbine-generator efficiency and absolute flow rate versus the generator output. This new methodology, without reference to any absolute flow information, would calculate a peak efficiency of 89.13% occurring at 124,500 MW. The average of the scintillation and time of flight calibration of the Winter-Kennedys measures 87.85% at 116 MW. Pg 10 CONCLUSIONS A new method has been developed to convert relative index test data into absolute flow and efficiency data. It is an iterative procedure that derives a Winter-Kennedy calibration equation, with a variable exponent, such that the relation of flow to power from the index test exactly matches the same relation obtained from the turbine model hill curve. Actually, a model hill curve is not necessary. What is required is the relation of flow to power from
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any similitude source. This could be from a test in which absolute flow is measured on another unit in the same family. Then, the W-K calibration equation is used to convert the relative index test data into absolute performance data. Aside from the conversion to absolute data, this new method provides a more accurate means to reduce index test data. When applied to actual relative index test data, the method produced a W-K calibration equation very close to the calibration from real absolute flow measurements. This calibration equation was used to produce an absolute efficiency profile from the index test data whose peak efficiency was less than one and a quarter percent over the actual peak efficiency determined by the average of absolute flow measurements. Pg 11 RECOMMENDATIONS There are two basic recommendations resulting from this study. First, it is recommended that this data reduction method be adopted as the method to reduce regular index test data. Second, the extent to which this method reflects the individuality of units within the same family that share a common model test, needs to be quantified. REFERENCES 1. Sheldon, L. H., A New Form of the Calibration Equation for the WinterKennedy Piezometer System, presented to Session 1A and published in the transactions of Waterpower 2007, Chattanooga, Tennessee, July 2007. Table#1 is accessed by clicking this link to the Demonstration Spreadsheet

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A_NEW_METHOD_TO_CONVERT_RELATIVE_TO_ABSOLUTE

A NEW METHOD TO CONVERT RELATIVE TO ABSOLUTE DATA

Lee H. Sheldon, P.E.

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