Aero Class #3 Old Business

A question was raised last class about the nature of 3D airflow. In the following 3 slides are some examples. The first slide is a boundary layer with cross-flow simulating a skewed wing. The second slide is the flow from a simulated fuel nozzle with two annular passages containing swirl vanes and a center body. The third slide illustrates the interaction among the vortices in a turbine stator.

HomeWork #2
Review solutions to HomeWork #2.

Any other old business?

I cannot accept any homework after we go over my solutions.

Intro to Class #3
As Bill Nye The Science Guy used to say on PBS Consider the following: A symmetric wing at =0 at rest at an altitude h. We look up p, T, at h in the std. atm. table (Anderson, App. A or B). This is the p, T, at every point on the surface of the wing. Suppose we put the wing in motion to the left with velocity U. This is equivalent to the wing remaining stationary

Intro to Class #3
and air blowing at it with velocity U = U (the denotes the free stream at some distance from the wing). We need to keep track of the p, T, at altitude in the free stream so we identify them as p, T, and q =U2/2 =the kinetic energy/unit volume of the airflow. Recall that the total energy / unit volume is the stagnation or total pressure p0 = p + q= p1 + U12/2 = constant. Recall Bernoullis equation.

Intro to Class #3
1 is some location on the wing where the local velocity = U1 and the local pressure = p1 = p0 - U12/2. Note that this relationship is only good for M<0.3. The symmetric wing at =0 divides the airflow symmetrically so that the velocity distribution is the same top and bottom and the resulting pressure distribution is the same top and bottom resulting in no lift. The velocity increases and decreases over

Intro to Class #3
the wing surface as the thickness changes. In a perfect world with no friction, the airflow velocity would increase from U upstream to Umax and decrease back to U at the trailing edge with no downstream wake and no energy loss. We are interested in the local pressure distribution over the surface of the wing since in the case of a symmetric wing at or a wing with camber (curvature),

Intro to Class #3
the pressure distribution is responsible for the lift generated by the wing and permits flight. We define the pressure coefficient by Cp = (p p)/q . See the following slide for an example.

Intro to Class #3
For the velocity range, 0.3<M<0.7, the flow is compressible and the relations discussed last class must be used. T0 /T1 = 1 + [(-1)/2]M12 p0 /p1 = {1 + [(-1)/2]M12}/(-1) Referring back to the previous slide, the airflow stagnates/comes to rest at the leading edge where T=T0 and p=p0 . These are

Intro to Class #3
the highest T & p on the wing. The air temperature rise is analogous to the following experiment: A Demonstration of the Conservation of Energy. One method of determining the pressure coefficient from the local M distribution is to calculate p0/p(M) and p0/p1(M1) and form the ratio p1/p . For example, pb. 5.11.

Aero Class #3
Heavier-than-air aircraft rely on Lift (produced by wings), Thrust (produced by propellers or jets) and Control (by ailerons & elevators). The topics for tonight are:
Airfoils / Wing Sections / Symmetric / Cambered Wings / Elliptical / Rectangular / Tapered / Swept Lift / Angle of attack / Flaps Flaps / Hinged / Slotted / Retractable Drag / Parasite / Induced

Airfoils

Airfoils
Airfoils are defined by chord, thickness, and camber (slide 2). Airfoil characteristics were determined by NACA in wind tunnels where the airfoil spanned the test section width thus eliminating end effects. Wing characteristics differ from these idealized data for several reasons: changing airfoil section with span, varying chord (tapered wing), twist, and perhaps the largest effect, the wingtip vortex.

Wings
This wingtip vortex has several effects:
The lift is decreased in the region near the wingtip The vortex creates a ground effect when the wing nears the runway and the downwash gives an upward force to the airplane This vortex is bad news for any airplane in close proximity, especially a light plane following a large plane. It takes time for these vortices to dissipate.

Lift
As discussed earlier, the lift on a wing arises from the pressure being lower on the top of the wing than on the bottom of the wing. Another view is that the airflow over the wing is deflected downward (sometimes referred to as downwash) and this momentum change of the air gives an upward force on the wing. Although the details of the mechanisms which create lift are complicated, it is calculated by

Lift
L = CL q S, where: CL = fct(, M, Re)=lift coef., q = dynamic pressure = U2/2, S = wing area (rectangular wing, S = spanchord = bc) CL() is shown on the next slide. Note CL(0) is not equal to zero because of the airfoil camber. For a symmetric airfoil CL(0)=0. Several features are notable: 1) the variation of CL with is linear and 2) CL maximizes just before the airflow separates from the wing.

Lift / Stall
This separation of the airflow from the top of the wing is called stall - a potentially dangerous condition since the loss of lift can result in a loss of control. The simple remedy is to decrease , regain speed, and regain control. Several methods are used to forestall stall: suction off the upper surface boundary layer or inject a jet of air energizing the boundary layer.

Lift / Stall
The stall speed, Ustall, can be formulated from L = CL q S = CL (U2/2) S, solving for U U = (2 L / CL S)1/2 . In level flight L = W, so Ustall = (2 W / S CL,max)1/2.

Lift
The lift coefficient may be corrected for compressibility (0.3<M<0.7) by CL=CL0/(1-M2) The critical M for a wing occurs when at some point on the surface the flow goes sonic. The critical M may be increased by 1/cos by sweeping the wing at an angle . The wing is sensitive to the velocity component normal to the leading edge.

Lift
The nature of the boundary layer (BL) on the upper wing surface affects its performance. A laminar BL is thinner and produces less skin friction than a turbulent BL, however, the laminar BL is prone to separate in an adverse pressure gradient much sooner than a turbulent BL.

Flaps
A low landing speed produces less stress on the structure of the airplane, less wear on the tires and brakes, and less rollout on the runway but the loss of lift at low speed can only be partially overcome by increasing since there is the danger of stalling. Hence the use of flaps which can increase the wing area and increase the camber, increasing the lift at low speeds and decreasing the stall speed.

Flaps

Problems 1, 2, 3
Why does a cambered airfoil produce a pitching moment when it produces lift and in what direction is the moment? What is the area of a wing that has an aspect ratio of 8 and a span of 30 feet? Suppose that a wing stalls at =14. With the flaps down would stall occur at the same, higher, or lower ?

Drag
Drag is a force in the streamwise direction which opposes the aircrafts forward motion. It has two major components referred to as Parasite Drag and Induced Drag. Parasite Drag is in turn split into Form or Profile Drag and Skin Friction Drag. Profile Drag results from the pressure difference from fore to aft as the airflow separates over a blunt body such as the fuselage, generating a wake.

Drag
Skin Friction Drag occurs on every wetted surface, in the boundary layer (BL) over the surface. The air velocity is the free stream velocity at the outer edge of the BL and zero at the surface. This gradient of velocity gives rise to shear in the BL as layers of air at different velocities slide across each other. The air flow usually transitions from laminar to turbulent over every surface before leaving the trailing edge.

Drag
Once the BL becomes turbulent the thickness grows rapidly and the friction coefficient becomes much larger. The laminar BL if maintained gives less friction drag but easily separates from the surface to give profile drag The Induced Drag arises as a result of the airflow over the wing being deflected downward referred to as downwash. The effect of this deflection is to rotate the

Drag
Lift vector to the rear giving a component of lift in the streamwise direction which adds to the drag. This effect is largest at high lift, during takeoff and landing. At level flight it is minimal. The overall drag is calculated from D=CD q S. A typical drag vs. speed function is shown in the next slide.

Drag
The (L/D) ratio or (CL/CD) vs. has a large effect on aircraft performance and will be discussed next week. The aerodynamic forces act through an aerodynamic center which is not necessarily the center of mass of the airplane giving rise to a torque or pitching moment. This has an affect on the stability and control and will be discussed in several weeks.

Problems 4, 5, 6
Why do golf balls have dimples? An antenna of 0.05 ft2 of cross-sectional area produces 1 lb of drag in an airflow with a dynamic pressure of 25 lbs/ft2. What is the drag coefficient? If an airplanes gross weight was increased by 20%, what effect would this have on the induced drag?

Acknowledgements
Slide 11 Anderson, Introduction to Flight Slide 15 Anderson, Ibid Slide 17 Hurt, Aero. for Naval Aviators Slide 21 Anderson, Ibid Slide 27 Anderson, Ibid Slide 33 Hurt, Ibid