Aero Class #4

The topics for tonight concern Airplane Performance, namely

How much power is required in level flight? (PR) How fast can this airplane fly? (Umax) What is its rate of climb? (R/C) What is its ceiling? (hmax) What is its glide distance? What is its range and endurance? What are its takeoff and landing characteristics?

Background
To formulate answers to these questions, we need to review a little more elementary Physics. I read a quotation the other day attributed to a well-known Physicist, which I paraphrase, Its either Physics or making paper airplanes. Work = Force Distance. To be more precise, only the component of force in the direction of the displacement counts as useful work.

Background
Work=Forcecos Displacement=Fcos x where: =angle between F and x Here are a couple of simple examples: Lifting a weight vertically, Wk=Wh=mgh=Wk done against gravity. Since W and h are both vertical, =0, cos =1. As an aside, the W force is a conservative force, i.e. Wk done against gravity is conserved / recoverable.

Background
Pulling a mass over a rough surface, doing work against friction, Wkf , is not conserved. This Wkf is converted to thermal energy which is reflected in an increased temperature of the mass and the surface. The friction force, f, is defined as the normal force, N, times the coefficient of friction, , i.e. f=N. And Wkf=fx. On a level surface, like a runway,

Background
N=W. The application here is slowing a landing airplane. In this case, N=W-L, so as soon as the wheels touch down, not only do you want to kill the Thrust but you also want to drop the Lift, to increase N and f. Here is another simple example: Suppose I am driving my 3000 lb car at 30 mi/hr and see a child chasing a ball across the street in front of me. I lock up the brakes and slide to a stop.

Background
How far do I skid? I convert my kinetic energy to work against friction. mU2/2=mgx, x=U2/2g=(30 mi/hr5280 ft/mi1hr/3600s)2/ (20.8032.2 ft/s2)= 37.6 ft Another concept is the rate of doing Wk which we call the Power, P=Wk/time. Note: We can also write P=FU. Another unfortunate term we are stuck with is HP. Short for HorsePower.

Background
The conversion is 1 HP=550 ft-lbs/sec or 1 HP=746 watts. Recall that 1 watt=1 Joule/sec =1 n-m/sec. So 1 HP=746 n-m/sec. One more example: A 200 lb man runs up a flight of stairs, a 20 ft vertical assent, in 6 sec. P=200 lbs20 ft/6 sec=667 ft-lbs/sec=1.21 HP. We run a lot of stairs when we train in Indiana in Feb. Better than running on ice.

Generalized Drag Coefficient

We want to make some detailed calculations of an airplanes performance so we need to define a drag coefficient we can incorporate into the analysis. This follows Anderson. CD = CD,0 + CL2 / ( e AR) where: CD,0 = parasite drag coef at zero lift, the second term includes both the induced drag and the contribution to parasite drag due to lift, e = Oswald efficiency factor, AR = aspect ratio.

Power Required & Max. Velocity

Note that Power=ForceVelocity. So when you are in level flight at a constant speed, U, you need a thrust, TR=D=W/(L/D)=W/(CL/CD), or you require a power, PR=DU=TRU. What is the maximum speed you can achieve? It is simply Umax=Pmax/D, where Pmax is the maximum power output of your engine. You dont necessarily want to operate in this mode for a number of reasons.

Rate of Climb
One last example from Classical Mechanics. Consider a car driving up an incline. For a given speed, What is the steepest incline you can climb at that speed? You are doing work against the rolling friction and the aerodynamic drag of the car and lastly you are doing work against gravity. The maximum power output of your engine is the rated

Rate of Climb
shaft HP or brake HP at a given engine speed. The power reqd. to climb a hill is mg U sin , which is the weightvertical velocity, like the man running up the stairs. The power balance is Pavail.= (froll.+D)U + mg U sin max. Solving for max yields an estimate of the steepest incline which can be climbed at that speed, U. This has application to the R/C of an airplane.

Rate of Climb
When considering a propeller driven airplane, the power available is the brake HP of the engine times the propeller efficiency. We will discuss engines and propellers in several weeks. When considering jet airplanes, it makes more sense to look at the thrust available. The jet power available is the thrust available times the airplane velocity.

Rate of Climb
The rate of climb, R/C, is determined by the difference between the power available and the power required, or the thrust available and the thrust required. Both the HPavail. and the Tavail. are functions of altitude as are the HPreqd. and the Treqd . Suppose we are climbing at an angle wrt the horizontal. Along the flight path, T=D+W sin , and normal to the

Rate of Climb
flight path, L=W cos . Rearranging the first eqn. (T-D)/W = sin , multiplying both sides by U gives [(T-D)/W]U = U sin = R/C or (TU-DU)/W = excess power / W = R/C. Graphic illustrations of the excess power for both a prop-driven and a jet-powered airplane are shown on the next slide. (a) is for a propdriven airplane and (b) is for a jet.

Ceiling
As you can see from the previous slide the power avail. for a prop-driven airplane is roughly constant vs airspeed whereas for a jet the thrust is nearly constant so the power is approx. linear with speed. The power required follows closely the drag vs speed function discussed last week. The point where the two functions, PAvail and PReqd are tangent defines where there is NO excess power, i.e. all the power avail. is reqd. to maintain altitude. This defines the ceiling.

Power Off Glide

Of interest here is the distance of a power-off glide which gives the max.-power-off range. Under this condition, D=W sin and L=W cos. Dividing the first eqn. by the second eqn. gives (W sin)/(W cos) = tan = D/L = 1/(L/D); or min@(L/D)max, i.e. max.-power-off range. This occurs at the min. drag point (ref. last weeks lecture). Rmax = h(L/D)max .

Range & Endurance

You get the max. range by flying at L/D)max power on or power off but it is pretty slow. The max. endurance speed for the longest time in the air is even slower i.e. Umax time < Umax range < Ucruise . The optimum speed for cruise is at U/D)max (about 75% power).

Mechanics
You can use the following simplified approach to solve the 4 problems on the next slide. For a constant acceleration, a, starting from rest, U0 = 0, and position x0 = 0, at t = 0, then U = at, x = at2/2, U2 = 2ax From F=ma, a=Fnet/m=(TfrD)/m, fr=rN=the force opposing the motion due to rolling friction, T: thrust, D: drag, m: mass=W/g

Problems 1 - 4
The following data is for Pbs 1-4 (SL std cond) Thrust available during takeoff = 3000 lbs Combined avg drag and rolling friction=500 lbs Gross weight = 10,000 lbs Takeoff speed = 120 knots (203 ft/sec) 1) Calculate the airplanes acceleration. 2) What should the airspeed be at the 1000-ft runway marker? 3) Calculate the no-wind takeoff distance (xTO). 4) Calculate the xTO with a 12 knot headwind.

Takeoff
An estimation of the take-off distance, xTO , is xTO =1.44W2/(g S CL,maxT). xTO ~ W2 , xTO ~ 1/ (higher density => greater lift and greater engine power, P ~ ), xTO ~ 1/S (bigger wing => greater lift), xTO ~ 1/T (greater T => higher a)

UTO = 1.2 Ustall = 1.2 (2W/SCL,max)

Landing
As was mentioned earlier, on touchdown you want to shorten the landing roll out distance. xL=1.69 W2/(gSCL,max{TR+[D+r(W-L)]0.7U(T)}) where: U(T) = 1.3 Ustall.

Acknowledgements
Slide 15 Anderson, Introduction to Flight The next slide lists the HomeWork problems due 18 April 2010 from Anderson, Ch 6 We will work Pb 6.4 parts a) & b) together during the next class, as well as give you some guidance on the approach to take to solve the remaining problems.

HomeWork Pbs #4
The following pbs are from Anderson Ch 6.
6.4 c) (i) 50,000 ft-lb/s, (ii) 110,000 ft-lb/s, (iii) 150,000 ft-lb/s 6.4 d) (i) 200 ft/s, (ii) 290 ft/s, (iii) 325 ft/s 6.6 a) (i) 24.3 ft/s, (ii) 30.5 ft/s, (iii) 42.7 ft/s 6.6 b) (i) 24.3 ft/s, (ii) 30.5 ft/s, (iii) 42.7 ft/s 6.8 (i) 20,000 ft, (ii) 28,000 ft, (iii) 36,000 ft 6.9 (i) 28,500 ft, (ii) 38,500 ft, (iii) 48,500 ft 6.17 (i) 355 ft, (ii) 424 ft, (iii) 512 ft 6.19 (i) 293 ft, (ii) 393 ft, (iii) 493 ft

Mid Term Review

Definitions you need to know
p : pressure, force/area (n/m2) or (lbs/ft2) T : temperature, a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a gas (K) or (R) : density, mass/volume (kg/m3) or (slugs/ft3) Perfect Gas Law: p = R T R(air) : 287 n-m/kg-K or 1716 ft-lb/slug-R q: dynamic pressure = U2/2

Mid Term Review

p0 : stagnation pressure, p0 = p + q = constant
The preceding is a form of Bernoullis eqn for the total energy of a flowing gas / unit volume for M < 0.3 (incompressible flow) a: speed of sound, a = RT, (air) = 1.4 M: Mach No., M = U/a, U = velocity (m/s) or (ft/s) : angle of attack, angle between the chord line of the wing and the flight path CL : lift coefficient, CL = L / q S = (L/S) /q

Mid Term Review

L: lift, the force normal to the flight path which supports the airplane, i.e. in level flight, the lift equals the weight
S: the wing area, for a rectangular wing, S = bc b: the wing span from tip to tip c: the wing chord, leading edge to trailing edge AR: aspect ratio, AR = b2/S D: drag, the force opposing motion along the flight path, D=CD q S

Mid Term Review

CD : Drag coefficient, CD=CD,0 + CL2 /( e AR)
CD,0 : Zero-lift drag coefficient e : Oswald efficiency factor T : Thrust developed by the engine, in level flight, T=D PR : Power required, PR = TR U PA : Power available, depends on the engine R/C : Rate of climb, R/C = (PA PR)/W

Mid Term Review

Ustall = 2 W /( S CL,max) Rex = U x / = Reynolds No., dynamic similarity parameter = inertial force / viscous force (T) = viscosity as a function of temperature =[4.81x10-3 T(R)+1.26]x10-7 (slugs/ft-sec) W=mg, p=mgh, k=mv2/2, F=ma xTO=1.44 W2/(g S CL,max T) Cp = (p p)/q