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The classification limited only to simple sentences and based on the occurrence of S and P and their order The communication type of a complex sentence is the same as the main clauses I should like to know (how he has managed to buy that estate.) a statement How did he manage to buy that estate (if he doesnt pay any income tax?) question According to the purpose of communication sentences may be classified into: DECLARATIVE SENTENCES /STATEMENTS states some information in the affirmative or negative form the arrangement is S P, the most common in English main and subordinate clauses falling intonation The sun shines. /Children require a lot of attention. /We do not believe you. In complex sentence the whole sentence is positive/affirmative if a main clause is, although the subordinate is negative He told her (there was no reason to worry.) + /I beg you (not to disappoint us.) + /He seemed (not to hear us.) Declarative questions: statements with S P sequence occur as questions if pronounced with raising intonation. - Expressing surprise over what we heard: They arrived on Sunday? (And I dont know anything about it.) /They have divorced? When we expect that our question expressed by the affirmative statement will be answered in the affirmative and the question expressed by a negative statement in the negative: You want to know the price? (Yes.) /I saw you nodded to the girl. You know her? (yes, I do.) / You dont believe me? (No.) / Sure you dont want any more? (no, thankyou) When we want the speaker to repeat his statement cuz we didnt hear or kent believe it :P. Usually ends with an interrogative pronoun or adverb. Youve done what? / Shes what? / He is who? INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES /QUESTIONS By the speaker to ask the listener to supply some information The arrangement is P S Verbal questions /yes no ?s: Begin with a verb, ask whether the relation between the S and P is + or -. Interrogation is expressed grammatically not lexically(with a wh-word). Require the answer yes /no or other words of affirmation /denial (absolutely, by all means, certainly, of course, surely /not at all, not in the least). How are they formed? - In statements with the verb be by reversing the position of the S and P; He is at his office now. Is he at his office now? In statements containing an auxiliary(or modal verb), the latter is placed before the S and the rest of the statement remains in its basic form; They are leaving now. Are they leaving now? / He has repaired the car. Has he repaired the car? - In statements without an auxiliary the transformation consists of supplying the auxiliary do/does/did and placing it before the S; the main verb is then changed into the bare infinitive; He learns shorthand. Does he learn shorthand? / They left for England last week. Did they leave for England last week? Rising intonation Verbal Qs in the negative form express surprise, disappointment, annoyance Havent you noticed that? (Everybody else did.) / Didnt I tell you to be back by 5? (Youre terribly late my dear.) V Qs often include reinforces AT ALL/ EVER; He doesnt know it at all. / Nobody ever stops in this village. Wh-Questions /Pronominal questions: begin with interrogative pronouns, determiners (who, whom; whose, which, what) or adverbs (when, where, why, how). Wh-word always in initial position unless the interrogative word functions as prepositional object; What have you been doing? / Why are you late? / With whom did she go dancing? The word order is P S; interrogation is expressed lexically by wh-words and grammatically by word order(inversion). Pronounced with falling intonation, the answer is always some item of information required; Whom do you expect to come? The Browns. / When are you leaving? Tonight. Transformation from statements into wh-questions; - When the Q is about the S a wh-word is placed in initial position and the sequence remains SP, interrogation is expresses lexically, no inversion Dr. Smith lives in that house. Who lives in that house? / His aunt fell ill. Who fell ill? Qs about other sentence elements wh-word in initial position + the rest of the sentence in interrogative form Wh-word + do/does/did + S + bare infinitive + remaining part of the sentence luk pej 32 in the bible Question tags: short Qs that that follow the statement and repeat its meaning. The partisans fought bravely, didnt they? / You will talk to him, wont you? / Youre not an Englishman, are you? Alternative questions indicate a choice between 2 alternatives. The speaker expects an answer one of the possibilities indicated in the question. The 2 or more are joined with the conjunction OR. 1st part pronounced with a rising intonation, the 2nd with falling. The answer is a piece of info. Do you take tea with milk or lemon? Milk. / are you tired or just bad tempered? Tired. / Are you taken or single? Single. Often 2 verbal Qs which are 2 co-ordinate clauses; Is he living or is he dead? / Are you happy here or do you want to go home? IMPERATIVE SENTENCES /COMMANDS Contain an imperative finite verb. The only type of sentence with no S expressed, the pronoun you is understood as S. Come! / Stop talking!/ Start! / Behave yourself!
May contain the same sentence elements as statements; P A (Come soon.), P SC(Be attentive.), P DO(Shut the door.), P IO(Help me.), P IO DO (Give me the book), P DO OC (Paint the door white.) - In imp sentences S is expressed when we make it emphatic or when we want to specify it. In this case the imp is preceded or followed by you/everybody/everyone/somebody/someone; You leave us alone. / Never you mind! / You tell him the news! / Just you dont tell me what to do! / Everybody be quiet! / Someone clean the blackboard! / Listen everybody! - Imp sentence expresses: 1)a command; Run! / Be quick! / Hurry up! 2)a request/invitation, often toned down by please; Please be patient. / Please go on! request is made emphatic by do + bare infinitive [slo: daj, dajte] Do sit down. Daj, sedi! / Do hurry up. Daj, pohiti! the longer the request is, the politer it is; I wonder if I could possibly trouble you to open the window. Vs. Open the window! 3)a wish; Have a good time. / Sleep well. negative commands express prohibition; Dont shut the window. / Dont bully me. No intensifier can be used here(nikar in slo has no counterpart in eng); Neg. commands accompanied with please express a polite request; Please dont go yet./Please dont drive so fast/Please dont take it amiss Dont may precede the verb be as well, though otherwise be is not used with this auxiliary; Dont be so clumsy. / Dont be ridiculous. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES /EXCLAMATIONS 1.) A NP with the structure: - What + a + singular countable noun; What a smart girl you are! - What + zero article + singular non countable noun; What weather we are having! - What + zero article + plural countable noun; What bad manners they have! 2.) An AdjP or AP with the PreM how: How clever you are! / How full the apple trees are! / How fast the time passes in your company! these NP, AdjP, AP may represent any sentence element ..luk pej 36 in the bible exclamations often expressed by: a) a NP with such functioning as predeterminer; He is such a bore. b) An AdjP or AP with ever (so) functioning as PreM; He is ever so dull! / You walk so slowly!
COUNTABLE NOUNS Majority are variable have 2 forms; SINGULAR(tree) &PLURAL(trees) /TWO-FORM COUNTABLE NOUNS; represent an open set. - Sing. countable nouns sually need a determiner(sing; a/one/the/this/that/every/each ..pl; the/these/those/many/few/several). Tree is green.* / A tree is green.=prou Only used in a generic sense sing.count.n. doesnt need a determiner; Trees are green. exceptional generic use of man/woman without a det.; Man is mortal. & Woman is weaker than man. NUMBER; English knows 2 numbers; singular denoting one and plural denoting more than one. the concept of Slovene dual is presented in english with: both, the numeral two and naming two persons/things. However the concept of duality can be ignored if not important. REGULAR PLURAL FORMATION 1) Nouns ending in a sibilant=sinik - (-s, -ss, -x, -sh, -ch) adding es to the sing = plural. The inflection is pronounced [iz] Gas-gases / loss-losses / box-boxes / dish-dishes / church-churches - if the final ch [k], we add s; monarchs; epochs; stomachs - doubled s; bus-busses(or buses); BUT s in unstressed us/-is never doubled; omnibus-omnibuses / crocuscrocuses / iris-irises - when the final z [z] preceded by a short vowel, z sometimes doubled; quiz-quizzes /fez-fezzes - when the mute e preceded by a sibilant, adding of the infl. s[iz]; rose-roses /price-prices /size-sizes / garagegarages / college-colleges /village-villages /bridge-bridges - in house only the final sibilant becomes voiced before the s [haus]-[hauziz] 2) Nouns in y - Final y preceded by a consonant, we add es; y becomes i; army-armies /baby-babies /fly-flies /lady-ladies /family-families /party-parties / penny-pennies BUT compounds lay-by lay-bys /stand-by stand-bys - Proper nouns s, no change; the two Henrys / the two Germanys / the Kennedys / the Davys 3) Nouns in o - When final o preceded by a consonant, we add es[z]; echo-echoes /hero-heroes /Negro-Negroes /potatopotatoes /tomato-tomatoes /torpedo-torpedoes BUT new nouns s; ghetto-ghettos /bolero-boleros /albino-albinos /fiasco-fiascos /solo-solos line between these 2 isnt clear; banjo-banjoes-banjos / same with; cargo/fresco/hallo/manifesto/mosquito/motto/volcano/tornado/zero - When final o precede by a vowel, -s ; embryo-embryos/ folio-folios /radio-radios /ratio-ratios /studio-studios - same with all nouns ending in oo; bamboo-bamboos /cuckoo-cuckoos /Hindoo-Hindoos /kangaroo-kangaroos /shampoo-shampoo /zoo-zoos - Abbreviated nouns (toe zmer spade pod nouns in o ??) -s; cello-cellos /photo-photos/piano-pianos/stylo-stylos/kilo-kilos 4) The plural of proper nouns ordinary way or s; There are 1 Margarets /Margarets figures and letters may assume a plural inflection, normally with an apostrophe; There are two 2s in our telephone number. / There are two xs in the Roman figure xx. Abbreviations and other dates indicating a period of time s; What are the pros and cons? /It did not happen in the 1930s but in the 1940s. abbr of latin words; MS-MSS / P.S.-PPS /p.-pp. IRREGULAR PLURAL FORMATION 1) The mutation plural; nouns which formed their pl. by mutation/change of stem vowel; Man-men /woman-women /goose-geese /louse-lice /mouse-mice /tooth-teeth /foot-feet 2) The en plural; have the OE plural inflection en Ox-oxen /child-children /brother-brethren(bratovina) [tudent-tudenti/tudentje & fant-fanti/fantje no change of meaning] 3) Voicing + -s plural; the final voiceless fricative in the base changes to voiced one before the s/-es[z] - f v before es[vz] when final f/-fe is preceded by l, a long vowel or diphthong, -f becomes v before es; calf-calves /elf-elves /halfhalves /knife-knives /leaf-leaves /life-lives /loaf-loaves /sheaf(op)-sheaves /shelf-shelves /thief-thieves /wifewives /wolf-wolves beef-beeves /still life-still lifes /self-selves when used as a separate noun or in compounds BUT; belief-beliefs /chief-chiefs /grief-griefs /proof-proofs /roof-roofs /safe-safes /strife-strifes both forms; dwarf-dwarfs/dwarves; same with hoof/scarf/wharf - th[ ] [ ] s [z] (dopi ker moj word kr naenkrat nima ve fonetinih raziritev k jih je meu do zdej normalno oO) some nouns with final th preceded by a long vowel or diphthong th[ ][ ] before s(only pronunciation not spelling); bath-baths/ mouth-mouths / path-paths/ youth-youths/ BUT some have reg pl.[ ]; oath-oaths /sheathsheaths /truth-truths /wreath-wreaths reg.pl; berth-berths /birth/hearth/length/month/moth/smith cloth has 2 pl forms; cloths(krpe) &clothes(obleke)
4) The zero plural; take the zero plural &have the same form /one-form countable nouns. Also have the -
5) -
same type of determiners in sing&pl Animal names; deer, sheep, grouse The wolf tore three sheep. Fish and nouns denoting some kinds of fish; cod, carp, dace, mackerel, plaice, salmon, trout He caught 8 fish. / Carp said to live to a great age. BUT fishes, trouts, carps to denote the variety of the kind; There were many fishes in the net. ALSO regular form; anchovy-anchovies /herring/sardine/sprat/sole/eel AND other sea animals also reg.f; crabs/lobsters/shrimps/sea urchins/sea-horses In hunting context zero pl; to hunt big game;rhinoceros/zebra/lion/to shoot wild duck BUT to hunt foxes/hares In other context these nouns have reg.f. Quantitave nouns; hundred/thousand/million/brace/dozen/gross/head/score/yoke when premodified. Two hundred people./15 head of cattle./Two yoke of oxen. Pound/stone/footzero pl. when followed by a smaller unit; two pound fifty(2pounds)/three stone four(3stones) Nouns in (e)s; alms/barracks/cross-roads/gallows/headquarters/means/series; He asked for alms./Napoleon won a series of victories. The plural of compound nouns; 3 ways of pluralizing compound nouns 2ND WORD is pluralized whether its a noun or some other part of speech; lady-birds/fellow-passengers/boyfriends/maid-servants/school-mates/tooth-brushes/woman-haters In compounds ending in man -men, pronunciation the same; policemen/firemen/Frenchmen BOTH WORDS pluralized :: When 1st noun is man/woman on condition that it denotes the sex of the compound; man friend-men friends/woman doctor-women doctors(lady! doctors)/Lords Justices /Lords Chancellors When the 1st noun is classifying genitive; mens clubs/ debtors prisons /printers errors
6) The plural of titles 7) The plural of foreign nouns NON-COUNTABLE NOUNS SINGULAR NON-COUNTABLE NOUNS 1) Material / mass nouns 2) Abstract non-countable nouns PLURAL NON-COUNTABLE NOUNS NOUNS OF MALTITUDE PLURALS WITH DIFFERENT MEANINGS CASE 1) The 2) The 3) The 4) The genitive case / the possessive case group genitive post genitive / the double possessive independent genitive / the absence of the H
1) 2) -
Universal pronouns All Both Each Every Partitive pronouns Assertive pronouns SOME USES OF SOME AND ANY Non-assertive pronouns ANY Negative pronouns NO NONE NOBODY / NO ONE / NOTHING NEITHER / EITHER 3) Quantifying pronouns The multal group: MUCH, MANY MORE, MOST The paucal group: LITTLE LESS LEAST FEW A LITTLE, A FEW Several Enumerative quantifiers; numerals CARDINAL NUMERALS ORDINAL NUMERALS 4) Other, another