Designing with Thermocouples: Get the Most from Your Measurements

A White Paper presented by: Mike Nager Manager Industry Management, Americas Phoenix Contact P.O. Box 4100 Harrisburg, PA 17111-0100 Phone: 717-944-1300 Fax: 717-944-1625 Website: www.phoenixcontact.com

Designing with Thermocouples: Get the Most from Your Measurements

Key concepts:
Thermocouples are commonly used for measuring temperatures in industrial applications y understanding the basic principles behind thermocouple use, engineers can improve the B performance of thermocouples in their design ew, lower priced transmitters, meters and controllers can simplify and enhance N thermocouple applications

Introduction
More than 60 percent of all industrial temperature measurement applications in the U.S. use thermocouples. Despite their widespread use, there are many misconceptions about thermocouples. This paper will discuss some of the basic technical issues that engineers need to consider when applying thermocouples.

Why use thermocouples?

Some common reasons for using thermocouples include: Theyre already used in your facility The application requires a sensor that can withstand a lot of physical stress or one that is physically small he expected high and low temperature ranges and/or total span exceeds the limitations of other T sensor types Thermocouples are relatively inexpensive compared to some other sensors on the market

So how do you get the best possible thermocouple measurements? Although the thermocouple is a simple device, its small voltage signal is easily corrupted, and wiring one requires care.

How do thermocouples work?

Heat and electrical energy are related when it comes to electrical conductors, including thermocouple wires. A common misconception is that the thermocouple junction creates the voltage signal, similar to a battery. This is not true; rather, the signal is generated along the entire length of wire where there is a temperature gradient. If youve ever held one piece of a wire, and then heated the other end, you quickly discovered that the heat moves up the wire. Why? Heat moves toward the cold end because the higher kinetic energy of hot atoms imparts some of their energy to their colder neighbors, making them vibrate. The atoms vibrate faster toward the hot end. They dont move, however, because the solid structure holds the nucleus in place (Figure 1).

Figure 1: When one end of a wire is heated, the kinetic energy (heat) travels the length of the wire.

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Designing with Thermocouples: Get the Most from Your Measurements

Some of the outer electrons in metals are free to actually move, not just vibrate. As the electrons become hot, they crowd toward the cold end, helping to spread kinetic energy (heat) more effectively than other materials an example of heat conduction. Electrons have a negative charge, so their movement also creates an electrical property resulting in positive potential at the hot end and a negative potential at the cold end. The magnitude depends on the composition of the wire and the temperature difference between the hot and cold ends, not length or gage size of the wire. Thermocouples are made of two dissimilar wires connected at one end, called a hot junction, where the temperature measurement will take place. Anywhere else those wires are connectedincluding terminal blocks and measuring instrumentsis called a cold junction. A thermocouple circuit (Figure 2) can have more than one cold junction, but this is strongly discouraged and, as we will see, easily avoided. One cold junction (the place where the thermocouples connect to the measuring instrument) is unavoidable. At the instrument, a process called cold junction compensation takes place. By using another temperature sensor that monitors the temperature of the cold junction, its possible to mathematically cancel out the voltage created there. Since electrons move at different rates in the two different metals, it is possible to measure the voltage potential (or difference) between them. the raw voltage signal that represents temperature is a sum of all the hot and cold junctions. By subtracting out the effect caused by the cold junctions, we can figure out the temperature of the hot junction. One chooses which type of thermocouple to use based on temperature range and environmental conditions. Four types of thermocouples account for more than 99 percent of all applications: K, J, T and E (Figure 3).

Figure 2: example of a thermocouple circuit

Figure 3: Recommended maximum ranges for 14 AWG thermocouples

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Designing with Thermocouples: Get the Most from Your Measurements

Getting accurate thermocouple measurements
Thermocouples create a very small voltage signal (often less than 30 V/F). Noise can easily corrupt this signal. To convert the low-level microvolt signal into robust process signal, such as the popular 4-20 mA signal, use a transmitter. These transmitters have become very cost-effective, and this low price even makes them practical in non-critical applications. in process thermocouple applications, which have runs of many hundreds of feet, it is common to use a transmitter that fits into a thermowell probe, which is basically a closed metal tube. The hockey puck style of transmitter is well suited for the hazardous areas (such as Class I, Div. 2) common in process applications. The transmitters are mounted in metal probes with metal covers and connect securely to metal conduit that meets the various encapsulation or explosion-proof requirements. Even if intrinsically safe circuits are used, the conduit fittings are convenient to protect the wires mechanically. The hockey pucks are generally output loop-powered, meaning that they get their energy source from the 4-20 mA signal that is being sourced by a power supply back in the control cabinet.

Figure 4: example of a thermocouple application

Thermocouples in hazardous areas

When using thermocouples in hazardous locations, such as Division I or Zone 1 areas, additional precautions are necessary.The system design must prevent sparks or heat from causing an explosion in an area that contains dangerous gases or other substances.Transmitters used in these areas must indicate their approvals (ATEX, UL, etc.) on their labels. Although thermocouples and RTDs are passive devices that do not generate enough electrical energy or heat to cause an explosion, the designer must take care to prevent outside energy (such as from the control cabinet) from entering the hazardous area and traveling along the wires to the sensor in the hazardous location. For example, if the wiring in the cabinet is removed, it could accidentally come in contact with 24 V DC or 120 V line voltages. One popular method is to use specially designed transmitters that not only perform linearization and ground loop prevention, but contain additional circuitry to make the temperature loop intrinsically safe.These transmitters limit the current and voltage available on the field side of the isolator to such low levels that it prevents the creation of a spark or heat capable of igniting the gases that could potentially be in the area.These intrinsically safe transmitters are available in DIN rail or head-mount configurations and can be either line- or loop-powered.

Figure 5: A variety of transmitter types are available for different applications

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Designing with Thermocouples: Get the Most from Your Measurements

In automation applications, such as sealing operations on packaging machines, the DIN rail-mounted transmitters are most popular. Because the length of wire needed is often just a fraction of that found in process applications, it is reasonable to run the wires back to a control cabinet or junction box for conversion. Embedded thermocouples are often used inside machine components, often with tape or bolt-on connections. When deciding on a transmitter, it is very important to consider electrical isolation. On loop-powered devices, isolation between the thermocouple input and the output circuit prevents ground loops from degrading the temperature signal. Typical isolation values range from about 1,000 to 2,000 volts. If an external DC power supply is the power source, the transmitter will need additional isolation. Three-way isolation will provide protection between input/output, input/power supply and output/power supply. If the thermocouple touches a high-voltage source in the control cabinet, this will also provide additional protection for the measuring device.

Best practices:Thermocouples in the field

If it is not possible to use a transmitter in the field or on the machine, another option might be extending the length of the thermocouples by using special terminals mounted in the thermowell or surface-mounted on the machine. The area where they are connected is away from the extreme process temperatures and should be similar to the temperature at the controller. Using a single length of thermocouple wire can be impractical, so thermocouples are wired to these terminals. They are specially constructed to minimize any temperature difference between their two ends and between each individual wire and are sometimes referred to as isotherm blocks. Isotherm blocks allow the Law of Intermediate Metals to operate. This law says if all of the connection points on the isotherm blocks are of equal temperature, the addition of a third metal in both wires of the circuit wont degrade the signal. Connected to the other side of those terminals is wire called either extension or compensation wire. Technically, extension wires typically have the same chemical composition as their thermocouples, while compensation wires have a different composition. In practice, though, it seems that the term extension cable is used most often, regardless of the wire composition. Extension cables are often half the price of the thermocouples themselves and are available in sizes up to 14 AWG. The large wire size reduces the loop resistance in long runs. They work because at temperatures between 0 and 200 F, they exhibit the exact same electrical properties as the thermocouples themselves and are electrically indistinguishable from the thermocouples. To prevent extension wire from inadvertently being used as thermocouple wire, the outer insulation jacket on the extension wires is different than those on the thermocouples. The individual wire insulation color matches those of the thermocouples. Convention for both thermocouples and extension wires calls for a P to be used to indicate the positive leg and an N for the negative. Extension wires are also designated by an X. So if JP is written, it refers to the positive leg of a Type J thermocouple, and if KNX is written, it refers to the negative leg of a Type K extension cable.
Table 1: Thermocouple Extension Cables Type KPX KNX JPX JNX TPX TNX EPX ENX Composition Nickel chromium Nickel aluminum silicon Iron Copper nickel Copper Copper nickel Nickel chromium Copper nickel Conductor insulation Yellow Red White Red Blue Red Purple Red Purple Blue Black Outer jacket Yellow Temperature range 0 to 200 C (32 to 392 F) 0 to 200 C (32 to 392F) 0 to 100 C (32 to 212 F) 0 to 200 C (32 to 392 F)

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Designing with Thermocouples: Get the Most from Your Measurements

Best practices:Thermocouples in the cabinet
Back at the control cabinet, extension wires are run into some sort of distributed control system, PLC or analyzer. Ideally, a user would run one continuous piece of wire from the hot junction to the terminals on the measuring instrument. But we are discussing practical considerations and, often, this isnt practical. Cabinets built off-site and by third-party companies cant be wired directly. Therefore, terminal blocks are used to facilitate easier wiring. The panel shop wires from the controller to the terminal block, leaving the other side open for the field connection of extension wire. Unfortunately, many engineers believe they can simply connect thermocouples to standard terminal blocks without degrading the signal, using the Law of Intermediate Metals as the rationale. The contact area and current bar in most terminal blocks is made of steel, or in the highest quality ones, nickel-plated copper. In both cases, this material doesnt match the chemical composition of the thermocouple, so a cold junction is formed. As mentioned earlier, you could theoretically use terminal blocks without making a cold-junction correction, but only if the temperatures on both sides of the blocks remain the same or change at exactly the same rate. In control cabinets, this isnt likely because they are packed with heat-producing equipment, fans and other devices that block airflow and heat the interior unevenly. Standard terminal blocks are not designed to minimize temperature differentials like isotherm terminals do. This introduces unpredictability to the measurement whenever a heat-generating device is switched or the cabinet is opened. The solution is to use thermocouple blocks whose metal parts match the composition of the thermocouple extension wire. Because the materials match, there is no cold junction. To the thermocouple circuit, it looks like a continuous piece of extension wire. If temperatures change, the errors wont be introduced. While thermocouple blocks cost more than a standard terminal block, they eliminate the potentially tedious source of errors, making them worth the extra cost.

Power Supplies in Temperature Measurement

Power supplies are an important part of a successful temperature loop. A steady and reliable 24 V DC is required for all the other components to work correctly.The switch-mode power supplies now common have several advantages including: low purchase price light weight long life

The key to choosing the proper power supply is to find one that accepts a convenient input voltage and provides sufficient amperage to drive all loads. Supplies with wide-range inputs help reduce inventory. Current outputs are available from under 1 A up to 40 A. Installation locations play an important role in power supply selection. Power supplies listed to UL 1604 Class 1, Div. 2 are common in process applications. By limiting the electrical and heat energy that can escape, these power supplies increase the safety in potentially explosive areas. For machine applications, NEC Class 2 power supplies are often the better choice. This National Electrical Code standard limits the amount of output energy that can be produced by power supplies to 100 W or less (about 4.2 A of 24 DC power).This eliminates the requirement to place that wire in conduit. Finally, the uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is becoming more common. The UPS combines a power supply, a battery and a charging circuit. In the event of power loss, the UPS maintains control voltage long enough to ride through the outage. Or, if the outage lasts too long, the UPS will provide an orderly shutdown.

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Designing with Thermocouples: Get the Most from Your Measurements

Simple temperature control
Resources in the main controller, whether PLC, PC or DCS, may not be needed to perform temperature control. In some cases it may be preferable to outsource or distribute that control to another device. Today, even low-cost products provide excellent solutions. For example, the DIN rail-mounted temperature transmitters mentioned earlier convert the low-level thermocouple signal to a 4-20 mA one. It also electrically isolates the circuit from ground loops. Some allow for ON/OFF control with programmable dead bands using a transistor or relay output and cost $300 or less. Others incorporate displays too.

More sophisticated control and bus systems

Other devices measure several thermocouples at once and have sophisticated control algorithms that allow them to do more advanced control than simple ON/OFF. PID (Proportional, Integral, Derivative) control has been used for decades in process industries and is rapidly finding applications in the discrete world. In applications like heat-seal packaging and extrusion processes, temperatures need to be controlled extremely rapidly and precisely. In these applications, heat has to be added and removed in fractions of a second. The device in figure 6 is a PID controller that accepts thermocouple inputs. It accepts up to eight thermocouple inputs, and the control program resides within its plastic body. There are also outputs that can be used to trigger a heating or cooling control action. In this case, the temperature data isnt converted into a high-level analog signalit goes directly to a digital value. There are three very useful things about bus-enabled devices: 1. ecause they can be mounted in a junction box on B standard DIN rail, they can be located very close to the thermocouples, reducing possible sources of error. 2. he input filtering, control logic, and process T output are all performed in the device, meaning that PLC resources are not stretched trying to process the PID loops. 3. ince the device is part of a bus network, the S information can be sent out via ethernet, INTERBUS, Profibus or DeviceNet. Other I/O signals for analog, digital or serial devices can be added as well.

Figure 6: PID controller used in temperature application

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Designing with Thermocouples: Get the Most from Your Measurements

Common problems and solutions
There are a few problems that show up regularly in thermocouple applications. They include: 1. amaged or broken wires Rough installation, vibration or stress can damage wires, so inspect your wires regularly. D 2. witched polarity somewhere in the thermocouple loop Remember that the negative leg has red insulation (according to USA S standard ASTM E 230), and its symbol is the thicker wire. The first named element is always positive. 3. ncompensated cold junctions Very few locations can guarantee stable temperatures. Only use thermocouple or extension wire in U the circuit. Be suspicious of any standard non-isotherm or non-thermocouple terminal blocks in the loop. 4. igh loop resistance Lower wire resistance is better. Remember that total length is twice the actual length, since the resistance of H the return leg has to be measured too. Use tables or test the cable to determine the resistance. 5. nterference from radio frequency noise Keep thermocouple wires away from other current carrying conductors, motors, I and sources of radio frequency noise. Its best to convert to a more robust signal like a 4-20 mA loop. 6. nternational color-coding differences If you are I using thermocouples from outside the United States, verify that the color coding is correct. Europe and Japan use different conventions than the standards that originated in the U.S. The varying conventions have been used for more than 60 years in their respective countries, so there is little chance of further harmonization in the future.

Figure 7: Thermocouple color codes (ANSI)

Conclusion Despite the prevalence of thermocouples, engineers still encounter many problems when using them. In the past, temperature measurement might have been too expensive or complicated. In other cases, the transmission distance of the application caused difficulties. However, by understanding the basics of thermocouple theory and taking advantage of lower priced accessories, engineers can simplify and enhance their thermocouple design. About Phoenix Contact Phoenix Contact is a leading developer of industrial electrical and electronic technology. The companys diverse product range includes components and system solutions for industrial and device connection, automation, electronic interface and surge protection. Phoenix Contact GmbH & Co. KG, Blomberg, Germany, operates 47 international subsidiaries, including Phoenix Contact USA in Middletown, Pa. Phoenix Contacts formal Integrated Management System is registered to ISO quality, environmental and safety standards (ISO 9001:2008,14001:2004 and 18001:2007).

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