Verbal All the messages said or written in words make part of the verbal communication.

This way, all that appears as text in books, magazines and newspapers is part of verbal communication. Likewise, all the words heard on radio, television, telephone or any other public address system are also part of verbal communication. Again, the industry and technology based on verbal communication is enormous in size and value as well. Nonverbal Communication Another important element of the communication process is nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication is interpersonal communication through nonlinguistic means. In the verbal communication process, the verbal and nonverbal messages need to be consistent with one another, when they contradict with one another; the nonverbal message typically expresses true feelings more accurately than does the verbal element. The nonverbal element of the communication process is comprised of several factors including appearance, facial expressions, eye contrast, gestures, touch, posture, voice, silence, time, and space. Non-verbal communication is everything except your words. Appearance Appearance is one aspect of nonverbal communication that has important implications for both written and verbal communication. In verbal communication ones physical appearance affects the message. Elements such as clothing, hairstyle, overall cleanliness, jewelry, cosmetics, body size, and body shape transmit messages. A persons physical appearance can affect the impression others receive of his/her credibility, honesty, trustworthiness, competence, judgment or status. Facial Expressions Ones facial area (eyes, eye brows, forehead, mouth, and chin) is more capable of communicating nonverbally than any other part of the human body. The face sends messages about ones happiness, sadness, anger, frustration, disgust, fear, or surprise. In fact, we generally do not have to ask people if they are happy or sad their faces reveal their present emotional state. Eye contact While eyes play an important role in communicating emotions, eye contact is used in quite a different way in the communication process. Establishing and/or maintaining eye contact signals that a person desires to communicate that the communication channel is open. Eye contact can also be used to signal a persons desire to be included in a conversation, as well as to make another person somewhat uncomfortable by putting him/her under stress. Breaking eye contact also sends several signals. Among these are the telling of an untruthful statement, an uncomfortable with the communication topic or situation, a desire for the communication encounter to end, or an acknowledgement of status difference between the sender and the receiver. Direct eye contact is a compliment to most people and builds trust. But be aware of the customs of people from other countries. It may be a sign of disrespect. Eye contact is one of the most important aspects of dealing with others, especially people we've just met. Maintaining good eye contact shows respect and interest in what they have to say. Eyes can tell you a lot about someone, so watch eye movements when you ask someone a question. It is usual that if someone goes de-focused or looks up, they are going into a memory or into imagination. If they look down and to the right, they are going into a feeling. If their eyes move to the right or left, they are often talking to themselves or listening very carefully. It's useful to pick up eye clues, because it can help you know where another person is going in his thinking! Gestures The use of gestures in the verbal communication process can also add meaning to the message that the sender is transmitting. While some gestures (clenched fist, four stomping) indicate anger, others can indicate nervousness (foot tapping, finger tapping). Head nodding indicates agreement while head shaking indicates disagreement. Head nodding also signals the receivers desire for the sender to continue talking. Keeping ones arms closed tends to signal uncomfortable ness while open arms tend to reveal openness and acceptance. The thumbs-up gesture is a positive sign in most of the world, but in some cultures it considered a rude gesture. Gestures do not have universal meaning in all cultures. For example, an A-OK gesture (circle made with the thumb and forefinger) is considered by Latin Americans to be a sign of contempt. The V-shaped hand gesture with the index finger and middle finger may mean victory or peace in the United States, but in some countries it could be interpreted as an obscene gesture. Shaking your head up-and-down means "yes" in the United States and left-to-right means "no." In some parts of the world the meanings are just the opposite. Touching This involves the use of touch to impart meaning as in a handshake, a pat on the back, an arm around the shoulder, a kiss, or a hug. Touch can communicate many different things, such as affection, playfulness, hostility, decisiveness, solidarity, assurance and urgency, to name just a few. There are four universally recognized aspects of touching, all of which communicate varying emotions and intentions. The first is the professional touch, used, for example, by businesspeople, between a professor and his/her students and two people meeting for the first time. The second is the social/polite touch, used by acquaintances who wish to convey friendly but slightly detached appreciation and affection. The third is the friendly touch, which could be used by close friends or close

businesspeople and colleagues congratulating one another on an accomplishment. The fourth and most intense touch is known as intimate touch, which is usually reserved for couples expressing love and affection through kissing, hugging, or caressing. The amount and nature of touching considered appropriate for the situation varies from culture to culture. Individuals from an English, German or Swedish culture tend to use touch less as a rule, and rely upon the physical setting to set the tone of a given situation. However, those with Asian, African American, Italian or Latino heritage incorporate a much larger amount of touch into their personal exchanges, using elaborate, extended handshakes, embraces or even kisses to convey their affection and gratitude. Many misunderstandings and much discomfort can arise from a situation that places two people from drastically different cultures together. It is always best to attempt to adapt oneself as comfortably as possible to a situation to decrease the possibility of personal insult and awkwardness. Posture The posture displayed by individuals in the communication process also transmits signals about a variety of things, including status, confidence, interest, and openness. Higher-stature people often stand more erect and hold their heads higher than do lower-status people. In a sitting position, however, higher-status people are likely to have a more relaxed posture than lower-status people who tend to sit in a rather rigid, erect position. Self-confident individuals usually stand more erect than those lacking confidence. Those interested in a conversation tend to lean forward toward those with whom they are communicating, while those lacking interest may slump down. Voice The meaning of words can be altered significantly by changing the intonation of one's voice. Think of how many ways you can say "no"-you could express mild doubt, terror, amazement, and anger among other emotions. Vocal meanings vary across cultures. In many cases, voice mannerism pitch, rhythm, range, rate, non words (such as ah, um, uh), and pauses communicate more than the actual words. Voice mannerism also communicates messages about the senders emotional state. Excitement is communicated by a high-pitched voice and rapid rate of speaking. Messages communicated in anger are often accompanied by a loud speaking voice, while seriousness and sadness are communicated by a lowpitched voice. Pauses may indicate uncertainty on the part of the sender. The nonverbal messages communicated by the sound of the human voice can provide valuable information during communication. There are eight attributes of speech that provide especially important vocal cues to the listener; Loudness. Without enough loudness you cannot be heard. However shouting or a harsh voice may be perceived as disruptive or insulting. Many times, lowering your voice almost to a whisper will help you make a point better than shouting. Pitch Most factual communication includes moderate changes in the pitch of your voice. A monotone involves little or no change and may be perceived as indicating apathy or boredom. A high pitch voice may be perceived as indication excitement. A low-pitched voice may be perceived as indicating anger. Rate A slow rate of speech may frustrate the listener. An increasing rate may be perceived as the result of increasing intensity. A fast rate may be perceived as an indicator of nervousness and it may be difficult to understand. Quality This is the characteristic that permits you to differentiate one voice from another. Regularity The regular or rhythmic voice will normally make you sound more confident or authoritative. Irregular speech might be perceived as more thoughtful or uncertain depending on your words and other nonverbal messages. Articulation Speaking each word clearly makes you easier to understand. Pronunciation To be understood, you must also use the correct sounds and emphasis in pronouncing each word. Mispronouncing a word might be perceived as indicator of ignorance or incompetence. Silence The absence of sound can also send a strong message. Silence gives you an opportunity to listen. You can obtain useful information from the listening to what one says and how he/she says it. Silence As a type of nonverbal communication, silence has implications for both written and verbal messages. In verbal encounters, silence on the part of the receiver can communicate several things. It can communicate that the receiver wishes the sender to continue talking. A receiver who outranks the sender in the organization might use silence to make the sender feel uncomfortable. A receivers silence can also signal that he/she is contemplating a response before verbalizing it. Time The way individuals use their time also communicates nonverbally. Arriving late for an appointment may diminish the importance that the visitor is perceived to attach to the appointment. Making someone wait for a scheduled appointment can also be interpreted to mean that the visitor is not very important to the person with whom he/she has the appointment. Cultures vary widely in the way they interpret the meaning attached to the use of time. Americans believe in arriving on time for an appointment. People of some other cultures are not affected by a visitor who arrives an hour late for an appointment. Space People in different cultures require different amounts of physical distance for communication. Too little or too much space between people can have a negative effect. A space closer than 1.5 feet is

normally considered to be for intimate communication. If you attempt to conduct any significant communication from any distance closer than 1.5 feet with somebody not very close could annoy or even make him/her nervous. Allow a distance of 1.5 to 4.0 feet for close interpersonal contact only. Allow a distance of 4.0 to 12.0 feet for most business transactions or consultations. Note that four feet is about the distance across the typical conference table. Communicate only briefly or formally at a distance beyond 12.0 feet.

NORMATIVE THEORIES OF THE MEDIA Authoritarian Theory Long before the democratic societies could think of matters pertaining to freedom of speech, there existed a thought that the emergence of media should not challenge the writ of the government which were more in dictatorial form and less they looked like democracies. The media was forced to remain under state control. It had following features which, in non democratic governments still rule on media. Direct governmental control of the media. Typical to pre-democratic societies, where the government consists of a very limited and small ruling-class. No printing that could undermine the established authority No offense to existing political set up The government may punish anyone who questions the state's ideology. Media professionals are not allowed to have any independence within the media organization. Registration of the media by the state. This approach is designed to protect the established social order, setting clear limits to media freedom and ensure that it is not the media which must talk about people and their problems in any manner. Libertarian Theory Libertarian theory arose in opposition to Authoritarian theory- an idea that placed all forms of communication under the control of a governing elite or authorities Here media enjoys an absolute freedom of expression. Early Libertarian argued that if individuals could be freed from arbitrary limits on communication imposed by church and state, they would naturally follow the dictates of their conscience, seek truth, engage in public debate, and ultimately create a better life for themselves and others. They believed strongly in the power of unrestricted public debate and discussion to create more natural way of structuring society. Its prominent features go like this: Competitive exposure of alternative viewpoints. Attacks on the government's policies are accepted and even encouraged: the media as a watchdog Journalists and media professionals ought to have full autonomy within the media organization. There is no explicit connection between the government and the media. The press is free from censorship It is accountable to the law for any consequences of its activities that infringe other individuals rights or the legitimate claims of the society. The protection of dignity, reputation, property, privacy, moral development of individuals, groups, minorities, evens the security of the state no infringement accepted from media. Such an extensive freedom is also a problem as all people have the right to speak and receive information freely, but no one takes responsibility of the wrong doings. The ethics in multicultural or pluralistic societies vary from place to place; hence there is always complaint against the media of each others society. Soviet Theory With the revolution in Russia in 1917, and practice of Marxism, there appeared a very different approach to deal with media. The media was tied to overall communist ideas and defined in a very different way. The theory to control media possessed following features:

 Closely tied to the communist ideology. The media is collective agitator, propagandist and educator in the building of communism. No private ownership of the media. The government is superior to the media institutions. The media is supposed to be serious The soviet theory does not favor free expression, but proposes a positive role for the media, the society and the world. Social Responsibility Theory This theory keeps certain areas free for the Press but at the same time puts lot of responsibility on media. As discussed in the beginning that the media is not just seen as an enterprise like others in the business sector of any society, but due to its unique nature, society expects a particular role which media must play in getting rid of social evils, educating people, criticizing government policies and exposing other wrong doings in a society. The sense of responsibility has been emphasized more in this theory as compared to any other. Media has certain obligations to society: It must show truth, accuracy, objectivity, and balance The media should be free but self-regulated (codes of conduct, and ethics) The media is pluralistic: diversity of society, various points of view, forum for ideas The media ownership is a public trust. The journalist is accountable to his audience / readers. Democratic-Participant Theory Democratic-participant theory was proposed in recognition of new media developments and of increasing criticism of the dominance of the main mass media by private or public monopolies. From the 1960s onwards call could be heard for alternative, grass-roots media, expressing the needs of citizens. The theory supports the right to relevant local information, the right to answer back and the right to use the new means of communication for interaction and social action in small-scale settings of community, interest groups or subculture. This theory challenged the necessity for and desirability of uniform, centralized, high-cost, commercialized, professionalized or state-controlled media. In their place should be encouraged multiple, small-scale, local, non-institutional, committed media which link senders to receivers and also favor horizontal patterns of interaction. The practical expressions of the theory are many and varied, including the underground or alternative press, community cable television, micro-media in rural settings, wall posters Media for women and ethnic minorities. The theory reflects the market as a suitable institutional form, as well as all topdown professional provision and control. Participation and interaction are key concepts. Democraticparticipant theory advocates media support for cultural pluralism at a grass-root level. Media are to be used to stimulate and empower pluralistic groups. Unlike social responsibility theory, which assumes that mass media can perform this function, democratic-participant theory call for development of innovative, small media that can be directly controlled by group members. Development Media Theory Development media theory was intended to recognize the fact that societies undergoing a transition from underdevelopment and colonialism to independence and better material conditions often lack the infrastructure, the money, the traditions, the professional skills and even the audiences needed to sustain media institutions comparable to those of the First world or Second world , in which the four theories could take root. Goals of development media theory It emphasizes the following goals: 1. The primacy of the national development task 2. The pursuit of cultural and informational autonomy 3. Support for democracy 4. Solidarity with other developing countries. This theory advocates media support for an existing political regime and its efforts to bring about national economic development. By supporting government development efforts , media aid society at large. This theory argues that unless a nation is well-established and its economic development well

underway, media must be supportive rather than critical of government. Journalists must not pick apart government efforts to promote development but rather assist government in implementing such policies. This theory recognizes the need for some form of government intervention into the operation of media. Criticism An updated version of authoritarian theory and that media should never surrender the power to criticize government policies even if it risks causing the policies to fail.