736

IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 9,No. 2, April 1994

A Simplified Method for Calculating the Substation Grounding Grid Resistance

Y.L. Chow Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Waterloo Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1

M.M.A. Salama Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Waterloo Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1
In this paper a simple method is developed to calculate accurately the grounding resistance of the substation using hand-calculator. The proposed method utilizes the duality concept between the dc resistance of the conductor and its capacitance as in reference [l]. The moment method is then used to calculate accurately the capacitance of the grid system. The resistance of the grounding system is evaluated using the following duality concept between resistance and capacitance:
%P R =C

Abstract
A

simple and accurate formula for calculating the grounding grid resistance is proposed in this paper. This method is based on a theoretical manipulation of the numerical moment method and of the current image. The formula is dependent on the substation grounding grid design, such as grid depth, grid size, number of meshes, grid-conductor diameter, etc. A comparison study is performed to check the accuracy of the proposed formula with respect to six different formulas and methods in the literature. An excellent agreement was found between the results of this formula and the results of a sophisticated computerized method.
1. Introduction

The basic requirements for substation earthing are to dissipate the short circuit currents to the earth without heating and therefore drying out of the soil in the neighborhood of the earthing structure, and secondly to limit the potential gradient over the whole substation area and beyond so that step-and touch voltages nowhere exceed a safe value. One of the key parameters in substation earthing design is to calculate accurately the grounding resistance of the system. In an early work by Dwight [l], equations for calculating the ground resistance for different electrodes shape and size were developed. These equations were based on the duality concept between the dc resistance to ground of a conductor and its capacitance. Many formulas were afterward proposed for the calculation of the substation grounding grid resistance [ 2 - 8 1 . Most of these formulas are accurate within certain ranges of grid depths o r grid sizes. Some of these formulas [2,3] are recommended to be used for estimating the maximum fault current. Other formulas [ 7 , 8 ] are helpful in estimating the substation ground potential rise for preliminary design evaluation [9]. For accurate calculation of the ground resistance of the grid, formula such as Schwartz formula [ 6 ] should be used. On the other hand, computerized grounding grid resistance analysis is now available for uniform and two-layer soil type. These analysis are based on either one of the following methods: method of images [lo,1 2 1 , convolution and linear filter theories [13-15], spectral integration [16,171, matrix technique [18], and equivalent image Reference [15] gives a detailed methods [ 1 9 ] . discussion on the computerized grounding analysis methods. While these methods are accurate, they require powerful computers to perform the calculations.
93 SM 449-9 PlJRD A paper recommended and approved by the IEEE Substations Committee of the IEEE Power Engineering Society for presentation at the IEEE/PES 1993 Summer Meeting, Vancouver, B.C., Canada, July 18-22, 1993. Manuscript submitted December 28, 1992; made available for printing May 4, 1993.

where R is in ohms, soil resistivity p in ohm-meters, permittivity constant E, in Farads/meter, and C the capacitance in Farads. The outcome of this method is a simple formula which has the following advantages: the formula is based on a theoretical manipulation of the numerical moment method and of the current image. the grounding resistance given by this formula is function of the conductor size, mesh size, number of meshes in X and Y directions, grid depth, soil type, etc. the formula is simple and does not include any parameters that have to be evaluated from graphs or tables as many existing formulas in the literature. the results obtained by this formula are very accurate when they are compared by the computerized grounding resistance calculation.
Problem Formulation

The proposed method for calculatins the resistance a buried grid in a soil with resistivity p can explained according to the following sequence: Calculation of the resistance due to a thin plate buried in a homogeneous media. Modifying the above calculation, using the moment method, to calculate the resistance due to a grid buried in a homogeneous media. Calculation of the resistance due to a grid placed on the surface of a homogeneous soil, using the image method. Using the two-grid, source and image, model to calculate the resistance due to a grid buried at depth h from the surface of a homogeneous soil. Step 1: Calculation of the resistance due to a thin plate in a homogeneous media, "R," The capacitance of a thin plate buried in a homgeneous soil can be readily calculated using the formula developed by Chow and Yovanovich [ 2 0 ] . This capacitance is given by

PRINTED IN USA

where A is the area of the plate and cf is its shape factor. For square plate cf is equal to 0.9. Using the duality principle the resistance of the system is calculated as

0885-8977/94/$04.00 1993 IEEE 0

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737

where p i s the resistivity of the soil. S u b s t i t u t i n g e q u a t i o n (1) i n ( 2 ) a n d a p p r o x i m a t i n g $l(?txO.9) t o one, t h e resistance R, o f t h e s y s t e m i s g i v e n by

7

R, = p ( l 8

?)
to a

Step 2 : C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e due g r i d b u r i e d i n a homogeneous media,

''W

The c a p a c i t a n c e shown i n f i g u r e 1, of a g r i d b u r i e d i n a homogeneous s o i l i s g i v e n by ( a p p e n d i x A )

1 --- 1

M1 I

c, -e, +N

(4)

and

AP -where
C,

1 2Al -1n--0.8814 "-m:Al(2fi d.

(5)

t h e c a p a c i t a n c e of t h e g r i d same a r e a a s t h e g r i d t h e number of meshes i n t h e g r i d t h e l e n g t h of one s i d e of a s q u a r e mesh i n the grid

CO t h e c a p a c i t a n c e of a s o l i d t h i n p l a t e of t h e
N

Figure 2

A g r o u n d i n g g r i d i n a homogeneous s o i l .

do t h e d i a m e t e r of t h e g r i d c o n d u c t o r

AI

Step 4 :

C a l c u l a t i o n of t h e r e s i s t a n c e due t o a g r i d b u r i e d a t a d e p t h h from t h e s u r f a c e of a homogeneous s o i l , 1'Rb.Llf2''

Using t h e d u a l i t y p r i n c i p l e , t h e r e s i s t a n c e due t o t h e b u r i e d g r i d i s g i v e n by

A two g r i d model i s u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e r e s i s t a n c e due t o a g r i d b u r i e d a t a d e p t h h i n a homogeneous s o i l with resistivity p. The r e f l e c t i o n of t h e a i r - s o i l i n t e r f a c e forms a c u r r e n t image, i . e . , a second g r i d a t h e i g h t 2h above t h e o r i g i n a l g r i d . The d e t a i l d e r i v a t i o n s of t h e two g r i d model f o r m u l a i s g i v e n i n a p p e n d i x B . The r e s i s t a n c e r e s u l t e d i s g i v e n by

(9)
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e v a l u e o f F, & and r e a r r a n g i n g , i n t o equation
(9)

E q u a t i o n ( 1 0 ) g i v e s t h e e a r t h r e s i s t a n c e due t o a g r i d made o f N meshes, e a c h mesh h a s d i m e n s i o n s of A l x A l a n d c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r d, ,. The g r i d i s b u r i e d a t a d e p t h h i n a homogeneous s o i l w i t h r e s i s t i v i t y p . The o v e r a l l a r e a of t h e g r i d i s A . Figure 1

A g r o u n d i n g g r i d i n homogeneous media. Area of g r i d = A, number o f meshes = N .

Step 3:

C a l c u l a t i o n of t h e r e s i s t a n c e due t o a g r i d buried on the surface Of a homogeneous s o i l , "&f2"

3 . Comparison of Results F o r comparison p u r p o s e , t h e r e s i s t a n c e c a l c u l a t e d by t h e f o r m u l a d e v e l o p e d i n t h i s p a p e r i s compared t o t h e r e s i s t a n c e obtained b y v a r i o u s formulas i n the literature. The f o r m u l a s i n t h i s comparison study are: 1. Dwight f o r m u l a [ l ]

F i g u r e 2 showso ia g r i d prle s i s t i v i t yt h e p . o p ofThe a c e d on t a homogeneous s l of r e s i s t i v i t y of a i r f a c i n g g r i d i s assumed i n f i n i t y . grid image coinciding Therefore t h e r e s i s t a n c e given by t h e upper p a r t of t h e T h i s c o n d i t i o n forms a with original grid. due t o t h i s s y s t e m i s (7) 2 . L a u r e n t and Nieman f o r m u l a [ 3 1 . I E E E s t d 80 f o r m u l a
Also c a l l e d t h e

R,

:G+

(11)

R,,, ="
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e v a l u e of K i n t o e q u a t i o n ( 7 ) , get

3 . Nahman and S k u l e t i c h f o r m u l a I 4 1 we

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738
4. Schwartz formula [ 5 1

where h' h'

K,
=

for conductor buried at depth h

= 0.5 for conductor buried at depth zero = - . 4 + 1.41, 00W

=

for h = o for h

K,
K,

-0.05W+ 1.2,

=1z f i

= -0).05W+ 1.13,
= length/width
=

1 for h =$

ofthegrid for h = o

K,
Kz K,

0.15W+5.50,

= 0.10W+4.68,
= -0.05W+4.40,

1 for h = z &
1 for h = ; f i

most accurate results as compared to the other five formulas given by equations ( 1 1 - 1 5 ) . Figure 4 shows the error in the calculated grounding grid resistance as compared to EPRI results. It is clear from the figure that the error is very low ( 2 . 3 6 % at 0.25111 depth) and it decreases as the grid depth increases (0.13% at 1 m depth). Only three grid depths were available in EPRI report [ 2 1 ] for this comparison (0.251~1, 0.5m, 1.01111. Most of the other formulas show opposite trend in error as depth of the grid increases. Figure 5 shows the calculated resistances of a substation grounding grid for different grid lengths, using the seven formulas. The grid length is the total length of the conductors used in the grid. In this figure the area of the grid is varied from 20m x 20m to lOOm x loom, and the depth of the g r i d i s kept constant at 0.5m, while the conductor size of the grid is taken as 0.01m. The number of meshes in the grid is 7 x 7 . The resistances calculated from the proposed formula are the most accurate results compared to the EPRI results as shown in curves 7 and 6 in figure 5 . Figure 6 shows the effect of varying the number of meshes in a given grounding grid system as calculated by the seven different formulas. The results of the proposed formula (curve 6 in figure 6) show a very close agreement with the results obtained from the computerized EPRI report [ 2 1 1 . In this analysis, grid size = lOOm x loom, grid depth = 0.5m, and grid conductor size = 0.01m.

5 . Sverak formula [ 7 , 8 ]

32'00

3 N&S

6 . EPRI Computerized analysis results [ 2 1 ] . This method was developed by the Georgia Institute of Technology. The results of these computerized analysis was presented in the following form.

30.00

c
U

R6 = KRRW

(16)

.E 28.00
m

where IEEE Std 80 formula (equation 12) K the grid resistance correction factor [ 2 1 1 . ,
R, the resistance predicted by ,
7 . The proposed formula in this paper, equation (10)

The variables in the above seven formulas (equation 11 - 1 6 ) are as follows: p the resistivity of the soil in 0hm.m A the area of the grid in square meter L the total length of the buried conduction in meter h the depth of the buried grid in meter n the number of parallel conductors in one direction of the grid n =n'+l n the number of meshes in one direction ' In this comparison study the EPRI computerized results [ 2 1 ] are taken as a reference to check the accuracy of all other formulas, including the one proposed in this paper. Figure 3 shows the calculated resistances of a substation grounding grid buried at different depths in the soil using the above seven formulas (equations 1 0 - 1 6 ) . The grid area is 20m x 20m, the number for meshes in each direction is 4, the conductor diameter of the grid is 0.01m. The results obtained using the proposed method (equation 10) are represented by curve X7 in figure 3, while EPRI results are represented by curve X6. It is clear that the proposed method yields the

3 0

i
3 4
, , , , , (

7
* 1 HD

c3

L 22.00

20.00 , I , , , I , , , I , I 0.60 0.40

,,(,,,

( ) ,

0.40

o.$o

, , , , , , , , , , , I

. I / ,

,,,,

0.80"'1.6b"

, i.40

Grid Depth (m)

Figure 3 Grounding grid resistance versus grid depth. Grid area = 20m x 20m, the number of meshes in each direction is 4 , the grid-conductor diameter = 0.01m. Curve 1 for Dwight formula (HD), curve 2 for Laurent and Niemann formula (L&N), curve 3 f o r Nahman and Skuletich formula ( N & S ) , curve 4 for Schwartz formula ( S S ) , curve 5 for Sverak formula (JS), curve 6 for EPRI method (EPRI), curve 7 for the proposed method in the paper (PM).

739

30.0s

c _z! 25.00
V J

1. HD 2 . L&N

3 . N&S
4.

ss

'Z

$ 20.GC

1 3

5 . JS 6 . EPRI 7. P M

- 5 00

: 4
,

-15%

3.30

1,

/(

0 40

0 80

Grid Dep';h (rn)

:y,,
L&N

1 20

F i g u r e 4 The e r r o r i n p e r c e n t as compared t o EPRI method for t h e r e s u l t s shown i n F i g u r e 3 . Grid dimensions as in Figure 3. D e f i n i t i o n s of c u r v e s 1-7 a r e i n F i g u r e
3 .

F i g u r e 6 Grounding g r i d r e s i s t a n c e v e r s u s t h e number of meshes. Grid s i z e lOOm x l o o m , g r i d d e p t h = 0.5m, g r i d c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r 0.01m. D e f i n i t i o n s of c u r v e s 1-7 a r e i n F i g u r e 3.

1. HD
2.

3 . N&S 4 . ss 5 . JS
6. EPRI 7 . PM

32.00

3 N&S

F i g u r e 5 Grounding g r i d r e s i s t a n c e v e r s u s g r i d length. Grid depth 0.5m, c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r = 0.01m. t h e number of meshes = 7 x 7 . D e f i n i t i o n s of c u r v e s 1-7 a r e i n F i g u r e 3.

F i g u r e 7 Grounding g r i d r e s i s t a n c e v e r s u s t h e conductor d i a m e t e r . G r i d s i z e = l O O m x l o o m , t h e number of meshes = 7 x 7 , g r i d d e p t h = 0.5m. D e f i n i t i o n s of c u r v e s a r e i n F i g u r e 3 .

The e f f e c t of w i r e d i a m e t e r on t h e g r o u n d i n g g r i d r e s i s t a n c e i s shown i n f i g u r e 7 . Only one EPRI r e s u l t was a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s comparison s t u d y a n d it i s shown i n t h e f i g u r e . The r e s u l t s of S c h w a r t z ' s formula and t h e proposed f o r m u l a have shown a dependancy of t h e c a l c u l a t e d r e s i s t a n c e on t h e conductor s i z e of t h e g r i d ( t h e d i a m e t e r d o ) . I n t h i s a n a l y s i s t h e g r i d a r e a = lOOm x l o o m , t h e I , the grid number o f meshes i n one d i r e c t i o n d e p t h = 0.5m.

Conclusion s i m p l e and a c c u r a t e f o r m u l a f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e g r o u n d i n g g r i d r e s i s t a n c e i s proposed i n t h i s paper. T h i s method i s based on a t h e o r e t i c a l m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e n u m e r i c a l moment method a n d of t h e c u r r e n t image. T h e e f f e c t of g r o u n d i n g g r i d d e p t h , g r i d s i z e , number of meshes, g r i d - c o n d u c t o r diameter a n d s o i l t y p e can be r e a d i l y d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g t h e proposed f o r m u l a .
4.
A

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740
The grounding grid resistances calculated using the proposed formula are very accurate when compared to a sophisticated computer-based method [ 2 1 ] . The formula is simple and easy to use with hand calculator. Since this formula is based on rigorous theoretical basis, it can be modified, to This modification ac ount for two-layer soil. wi 1 be presented in a future paper.
5 . References

H.B. Dwight, "Calculations of Resistances to Ground", AIEE Transactions, December 1936, pp. 1319-1328. [2 J. Niemann, "Unstellung von Hochstspannungs Erdungsanlagen AufDen Betrieb Mit Starr Geerdetem Sternpunkt", E-2, vol. 73, No. 10, 1952, pp. 333-337. 131 "IEEE Guide for Safety in Substation Grounding", IEEE Standard 80, 1976. [41 J. Nohman and S. Skuletich, "Irregularity Correction Factors for Mesh and Step Voltages of Grounding Grids", IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-99, No. 1, 1980, pp. 174-180. [51 S. J. Schwartz, "Analytical Expression for Resistance of Grounding Systems", AIEE Transactions, vol. 73, Part 111-B, 1954, pp. 1011-1016. 161 Substation Committee Working Group 78 .l, "Safe Substation Grounding - Part II", IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-101, 1982, pp. 4006-4023. [71 J.G. Sverak, "Optimized Grounding Grid Design Using Variable Spacing Technique", IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-95, 1976, pp. 362-374. [ 8 ] J.G. Sverak, "Simplified Analysis of Electrical Gradients Above a Ground Grid: Part I - how Good is the Present IEEE Method?", IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-103, 1984, pp. 7-25. [9] "IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Grounding", ANSI/IEEE Standard 80

171 T. Takahashi, T. Kawase, "Calculation of Earth Resistance f o r a Deep Driven Rod in a Multi-Layer Earth Structure", IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 6, 1991, pp. 608-614. 18lD.L. Garrett, H. J. Holley, "Calculation of Substation Grounding System Resistance Using Matrix Technique", IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-99, No. 5, 1980, pp. 2008-2011. [19]Y.L. Chow, J.J. Yang, K.D. Srivastava, "Grounding Resistance of Buried Electrodes in Multi-Layer Earth Predicted by Simple Voltage Measurements Along Earth Surface - A Theoretical Discussion", Paper presented at the IEEE Summer Meeting, 1992, Seattle. l2OlY.L. Chow, M.M. Yovanovich, "The Shape Factor of the Capacitance of a Conductor", Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 53, no. 12, 1982, pp. 8470-8475. [21lEPRI report, "Analysis Techniques of Power Substation Grounding Systems; volume 1: Design Methodology and Tests", EPRI EL-2682, October 1982. L22lR.F. Harrington, "Field Computation by Moment Methods", Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, Florida, 1968. f23lY.L. Chow, K.D. Srivastava, "Non-Uniform Electric Field Induced Voltage Calculations". Revised. Report No. 117 T 317 Canadian Electric Association, Research and Development Dept., February 1988.

Appendix A: Calculation of the Capacitance of a

Grid Buried in a Homogeneous Medium a Theoretical Manipulation of the Numerical Moment Method.
Foxmulation of the Solid Plate

Substation 1986.

[lO]P.J. Lagace, J.L. Houle, Y. Gervais and D. Mukhedkar, "Computer Aided Design of a Toroidal Ground Electrodes in a Two Layer Soil", IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 2, No. 3, 1987, pp. 744-749. [11]P.J. Lagace, D. Mukhedkar, H.H. Hoang, H. Greiss, "Evaluation of the Effect of Vertical Faults on the Voltage Distribution Around HVDC Electrodes Using a Super-Computer", IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 5, 1990, pp. 1309-1313. [ 1 2 ] F . Dawalibi, C.J. Blattner, "Earth Resistivity Measurement Interpretation Techniques", IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-103, 1984, pp. 374-382. [13]D.P. Ghosh, "The Application of Linear Filter Theory to Direct Interpretation Of Geoelectrical Resistivity Ground Measurements", Geophysical Prospecting 19, 1971, pp. 192-217. [14]J. Lazzara, N. Barbieto, "Simplified Two Layer Model Substation Ground Grid Design Methodology", IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 5 , 1990, pp. 1741-1750. [15]F. Dawalibi, N. Barbeito, "Measurements and Computations of the Performance of Grounding System Buried in Multilayer Soils", IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, No. 6, 1991, pp. 1483-1490. [16]T. Takahashi, T. Kawase, "Analysis of Apparent Resistivity in a Multi-layer Earth Structure", IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 5, 1990, pp. 604-610.

The capacitance of a grid is derived from the capacitance of a solid plate of the same dimensions. The moment method divides the solid plate of area A in N equal sub-areas: AAo. Each AAo has the same potential V, (a constant) and different sub-areas and charge q,, the resulted matrix is:

Following [23], the self potential term is given by p..

'-

- (0.8814)
41E0.\l;iAa
(A -3)

and mutual potential term is

distance between centers of sub-areas i and j. The charges q, of (A-1) can be solved by matrix inversion. The total charge and the capacitance of the solid plate are then given by
= N
Qo=i:l

r, ,

qi

(A -4)

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74 1
and where d, is diameter of the wire [ Z Z ] . There are two wire segments in a sub-area. Following the fact [ 2 3 ] that the capacitance C, is proportional to the square root of the surface area and that P,i = we have the self potential term of a
= i

C O =Q v,
If the charges q, were known, the capacitance can be written by simple matrix multiplication without matrix inversion through the variational principle
[231t

sub-area as
P,
= PJfi =

--

2l A

(A -14)

The variational principle is an accurate formulation that tolerates errors at the input. That is if the values of the input q, are only approximately known, with a first order error, the resulted output l/Co, or C , is very accurate, with , only a second order error.
Adjustment or the Pseudo-Grid

Following the procedure of the pseudo-grid we can (A-8) and get the substitute (A-14) with capacitance C from ( A - 1 2 ) .

Before we construct the wire mesh, let us construct a pseudo-grid by shrinking the sub-areas from AA, to AA leaving gaps between sub-areas. Evidentally, the capacitance C of such pseudo-grid can again be found from the above equations except that the self potential is increased to

---I---+-- I + -

I I
AAo

i ; n ir I

If we let change in the self potential term be

Mv = P;;-P;b = M O
(A - 8)

where MO is a constant independent of i. In matrix form we have

[Pol = IPI-IM,l
(A -9)

where [AP] is a diagonal matrix of the form

(A - IO)

[API =

Substituting (A-10) into (A-6) we get

1 1 = -(4T{[Pl CO Q :

[Mllq)

Figure A-1 Configurations of the sub-area (a) sub-area of the solid plate, (b) sub-area of pseudo grid, (c) sub-area of a grid.

The first term is a variational approximation to 1/C of the pseudo-grid and therefore is accurate even if (q,) are the original (ql) of the solid plate. In the second term, the qi is changed and set to a constant q, causing a slightly larger error in the variational expression. With such change and making use of (A-lo), we get

Appendix B: The Resistance of a Grid Buried at a

Depth h Below Ground Surfaces Grid Model.

the Two

1 _ = 1 - A_

CO

P N

The CEA report of Chow and Srivastava [231 shows that in a two equal parallel and thin plate structure, the mutual potential function from one plate to the other is

(A - 12)

P,
where

= p,,

-Z

1
P

(B - 1)

The above is a relation of the capacitances C Of the pseudo grid, CO of the solid plate, the change AP in the self potential term due to surface reduction in the sub-area AA, and the number N of the sub-areas. The Adjustment from the Pseudo-Grid t o 8 Wire Grid. As shown in the figure (A-1). a sub-area of the wire grid contains a pair of wire segments of length A1 at right angle. Each wire segment has a self term.
(A - 13)

cp
A

E , -

@ -2)

the area of one plate t the plate separation P , the self potential function of the plate , and is given by,
P,, = 1/
(E,

0.94z

(B -3)

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742
I f t h e two p l a t e s a r e a t t h e p o t e n t i a l V and , , e a c h w i t h a c h a r g e Q,, t h e r e l a t i o n between V a n d

Q is ,
vo

= (PI, +P1zBe,

(E -4)

t h e t o t a l c h a r g e of t h e two p l a t e i s 2. t h e r e f o r e Q, t h e c a p a c i t a n c e of t h e s e two p l a t e s t o i n f i n i t y i s

c,
S u b s t i t u t i n g PI, of

2 (PI1 + P2 I1
i n t o (B-51, we g e t

(E - 5 )

(B-1)

(E - 6 )
T r a n s l a t e d i n t o a homogeneous ground medium w i t h resistivity p, after some s t r a i g h t forward r e a r r a n g e m e n t s u s i n g (B-1) t o (B-5), we g e t from (B-6) t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e two p l a t e s of e q u a l p o t e n t i a l as

R,

%P C,

I f t h e s o i l i s n o t homogeneous b u t a s y m m e t r i c a l h a l f s p a c e w i t h a i r above, t h e second p l a t e i s simply a n image due t o t h e a i r - s o i l i n t e r f a c e , hence t h e r e s i s t a n c e d o u b l e s . T h i s means t h a t

where

R,

2P 4.512fi

i s t h e r e s i s t a n c e of one p l a t e i n a homogeneous
ground. From t h e above d e s c r i p t i o n o f geometry, it i s e a s y t o see t h a t (B-8) i s a c t u a l l y t h e r e s i s t a n c e of a t h i n p l a t e b u r i e d i n a d e p t h o f h, with t = 2h. I f t h e t h i n p l a t e i s r e p l a c e d by a g r i d o f ground r e s i s t a n c e of Rnrl,* and s t i l l b u r i e d a t a d e p t h h , t h e n (B-8) can be w r i t t e n a s

(E - 10)
This i s equation ( 9 ) .

F i g u r e B-1 Two t h i n p a r a l l e l p l a t e c o n f i g u r a t i o n .

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