Galactic Supercluster

Superclusters are large groups of smaller galaxy groups and clusters and are among the largest structures of the cosmos.The existence of superclusters indicates that the galaxies in our Universe are not uniformly distributed; most of them are drawn together in groups and clusters, with groups containing up to 50 galaxies and clusters up to several thousand. Those groups and clusters and additional isolated galaxies in turn form even larger structures called superclusters. Once thought to be the largest structures in nature, superclusters are now understood to be subordinate to enormous walls or sheets, usually called "filaments", sometimes called "supercluster complexes", "walls" or "sheets", that can span a billion light-years in length, more than 5% of the observable universe. Superclusters themselves can span several hundred million light-years. The typical speed of a galaxy is about 1000 km/s. Hubble's law implies that typical galaxies would only move about 30 million light-years at that speed in a Hubble time of 1/H, which is approximately the age of the universe. While this is a huge distance in human terms, it is much smaller than the size of superclusters. In an expanding universe, saying that the distance d an object has moved equals its present velocity v times the elapsed time t underestimates d when t is not small compared to 1/H. The calculation above still gives some idea of how long it would take the normal movements of galaxies to form or obliterate these structures, and thus indicates their great age. When we observe superclusters and larger structures today, we learn about the condition of the universe when these superclusters were created. The directions of the rotational axes of galaxies within superclusters also gives us insight into the formation process of galaxies early in the history of the Universe.[1] According to some astronomers, no clusters of superclusters (hyperclusters) are known; the existence of structures larger than superclusters is debated (see Galaxy filament). Interspersed among superclusters are large voids of space in which few galaxies exist. Even though superclusters are the largest structures confirmed, the total number of superclusters leaves possibilities for structural distribution. Superclusters are frequently subdivided into groups of clusters called galaxy clouds. Clusters are larger than groups, although there is no sharp dividing line between the two. When observed visually, clusters appear to be collections of galaxies held together by mutual gravitational attraction. However, their velocities are too large for them to remain gravitationally bound by their mutual attractions, implying the presence of either an additional invisible mass component, or an additional attractive force besides gravity. X-ray studies have revealed the presence of large amounts of intergalactic gas known as the intracluster medium. This gas is very hot, between 107K and 108K, and hence emits X-rays in the form of bremsstrahlung and atomic line emission. The total mass of the gas is greater than that of the galaxies by roughly a factor of two. However this is still not enough mass to keep the galaxies in the cluster. Since this gas is in approximate hydrostatic equilibrium with the overall cluster gravitational field, the total mass distribution can be determined. It turns out the total mass deduced from this measurement is approximately six times larger than the mass of the galaxies or the hot gas. The missing component is known as dark matter and its nature is unknown. In a typical cluster perhaps only 5% of the total mass is in the form of galaxies, maybe 10% in the form of hot X-ray emitting gas and the remainder is dark matter. Brownstein and Moffat[3] use a theory of modified gravity to explain X-ray cluster masses without dark matter.

Clusters typically have the following properties.

    

They contain 50 to 1,000 galaxies, hot X-ray emitting gas and large amounts of dark matter The distribution of these three components is approximately the same in the cluster. They have total masses of 1014 to 1015 solar masses. They typically have a diameter from 2 to 10 Mpc (see 1023 m for distance comparisons). The spread of velocities for the individual galaxies is about 8001000 km/s.

Notable galaxy clusters in the relatively nearby universe include the Virgo cluster, Hercules Cluster, and the Coma Cluster. A very large aggregation of galaxies known as the Great Attractor, dominated by the Norma cluster, is massive enough to affect the local expansion of the universe (Hubble flow). In the last few decades, they are also found to be relevant sites of particle acceleration, a feature which has been discovered by the observing non-thermal diffuse radio emissions as radio halos and radio relics. Note: clusters of galaxies should not be confused with star clusters such as galactic clusters and open clusters, which are structures withingalaxies, as well as globular clusters, which typically orbit galaxies.

ELECTRON
The electron is a subatomic particle carrying a negative electric charge. It has no known components or substructure, and therefore is believed to be an elementary particle.[2] An electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton.[9] The intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of the electron is a half integer value in units of , which means that it is a fermion. The antiparticle of the electron is called the positron, which is identical to the electron except that it carries electrical and other charges of the opposite sign. When an electron collides with a positron, they may either scatter off each other or be totally annihilated, producing a pair (or more) of gamma ray photons. Electrons, which belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family,[10] participate in gravitational, electromagnetic and weak interactions.[11] Electrons, like all matter, have quantum mechanical properties of both a particle and a wave, so they can collide with other particles and be diffracted like light. However, this duality is best demonstrated in experiments with electrons, due to their tiny mass. Since an electron is a fermion, no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state, in accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle.[10] The concept of an indivisible amount of electric charge was theorized to explain the chemical properties of atoms, beginning in 1838 by British natural philosopher Richard Laming;[4] the name electron was introduced for this charge in 1894 by Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney. The electron was identified as a particle in 1897 by J. J. Thomson and his team of British physicists.[6][12] In many physical phenomena, such as electricity, magnetism, and thermal conductivity, electrons play an essential role. An electron in motion relative to an observer generates a magnetic field, and will be deflected by external magnetic fields. When an electron is accelerated, it can absorb or radiate energy in the form of photons. Electrons, together with atomic nuclei made of protons and neutrons, make up atoms. However, electrons contribute less than 0.06% to an atom's total mass. The attractive Coulomb force between an electron

and a proton causes electrons to be bound into atoms. The exchange or sharing of the electrons between two or more atoms is the main cause of chemical bonding.[13] According to theory, most electrons in the universe were created in the big bang, but they may also be created through beta decay of radioactive isotopes and in high-energy collisions, for instance when cosmic rays enter the atmosphere. Electrons may be destroyed through annihilation with positrons, and may be absorbed during nucleosynthesis in stars. Laboratory instruments are capable of containing and observing individual electrons as well as electron plasma, whereas dedicated telescopes can detect electron plasma in outer space. Electrons have many applications, including welding, cathode ray tubes, electron microscopes, radiation therapy, lasers and particle accelerators. An electron is a negatively charged subatomic particle. It can be either free (not attached to any atom), or bound to the nucleus of an atom. Electrons in atoms exist in spherical shells of various radii, representing energy levels. The larger the spherical shell, the higher the energy contained in the electron. In electrical conductors, current flow results from the movement of electrons from atom to atom individually, and from negative to positive electric poles in general. In semiconductor materials, current also occurs as a movement of electrons. But in some cases, it is more illustrative to envision the current as a movement of electron deficiencies from atom to atom. An electron-deficient atom in a semiconductor is called a hole. Holes "move" from positive to negative electric poles in general. The charge on a single electron is considered as the unit electrical charge. It is assigned negative polarity. The charge on an electron is equal, but opposite, to the positive charge on a proton or hole. Electrical charge quantity is not usually measured in terms of the charge on a single electron, because this is an extremely small charge. Instead, the standard unit of electrical charge quantity is the coulomb, symbolized by C, representing about 6.24 x 1018 electrons. The electron charge, symbolized by e, is about 1.60 x 10-19 C. The mass of an electron at rest, symbolizedme, is approximately 9.11 x 10-31 kilogram (kg). Electrons moving at an appreciable fraction of the speed of light, for example in a particle accelerator, have greater mass because of relativistic effects. Electrons are tiny particles which behave like clouds. We think of them as clouds of probability. The thickness of the cloud decides how likely it is that you will find the electron at that point. Electrons carry something called a negative electric charge. Electrons are important because, together with protons and neutrons, they make the atoms from which you and I are made. Electrons feel the electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational forces but not the strong nuclear force. The electron has an antimatter particle called the positron. This has the same mass but carries a positive charge. If it meets an electron, both are annihilated in a burst of radiation.

QUARK
A quark (pronounced / kw rk/ or / kw rk/) is an elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei.[1] Due to a phenomenon known as color confinement, quarks are never found in isolation; they can only be found within hadrons.[2][3] For this reason, much of what is known about quarks has been drawn from observations of the hadrons themselves. There are six types of quarks, known as flavors: up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom.[4] Up and down quarks have the lowest masses of all quarks. The heavier quarks rapidly change into up and down quarks through a process of particle decay: the transformation from a higher mass state to a lower mass state. Because of this, up and down quarks are generally stable and the most common in the universe, whereas charm, strange, top, and bottom quarks can only be produced in high energy collisions (such as those involving cosmic rays and in particle accelerators). Quarks have various intrinsic properties, including electric charge, color charge, spin, and mass. Quarks are the only elementary particles in the Standard Model of particle physics to experience all four fundamental interactions, also known as fundamental forces (electromagnetism, gravitation, strong interaction, and weak interaction), as well as the only known particles whose electric charges are not integer multiples of the elementary charge. For every quark flavor there is a corresponding type of antiparticle, known as antiquark, that differs from the quark only in that some of its properties have equal magnitude but opposite sign. The quark model was independently proposed by physicists Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1964.[5] Quarks were introduced as parts of an ordering scheme for hadrons, and there was little evidence for their physical existence until 1968.[6][7] All six flavors of quark have since been observed in accelerator experiments; the top quark, first observed at Fermilab in 1995, was the last to be discovered.[5 Quarks and Leptons are the building blocks which build up matter, i.e., they are seen as the "elementary particles". In the present standard model, there are six "flavors" of quarks. They can successfully account for all known mesons andbaryons (over 200). The most familiar baryons are the proton and neutron, which are each constructed from up and down quarks. Quarks are observed to occur only in combinations of two quarks (mesons), three quarks (baryons), and the recently discovered particles with five quarks (pentaquark). *The masses should not be taken too seriously, because the confinement of quarks implies that we cannot isolate them to measure their masses in a direct way. The masses must be implied indirectly from scattering experiments. The masses quoted for the U and D are about 1/3 the mass of a proton, since we know the proton has three quarks. But in other combinations they contribute different masses. In the pion, an up and an anti-down quark yield a particle of only 139.6 MeV of mass energy, while in the rho vector meson the same combination of quarks has a mass of 770 MeV! The masses of C and S are from Serway, and the T and B masses are from descriptions of the experiments in which they were discovered. Each of the six "flavors" of quarks can have three different "colors". The quark forces are attractive only in "colorless" combinations of three quarks (baryons), quark-antiquark pairs (mesons) and possibly larger combinations such as the pentaquark that could also meet the colorless condition. Quarks undergotransformations by the exchange of W bosons, and those transformations determine the rate and nature of the decay of hadrons by the weak interaction. The name "quark" was taken by Murray Gell-Mann from the book "Finnegan's Wake" by James Joyce. The line "Three quarks for Muster Mark..." appears in the fanciful book. Gell-Mann received the 1969 Nobel Prize for his work in classifying elementary particles.

THE BIGGEST AND THE SMALLEST OBJECTS IN THE UNIVERSE

Submitted by: Christopher Jarred Sarmiento Section: IV-Silver

Submitted to: Mrs. Imelda Carlos