1.

IP
1

(This chapter covers IPv4.)

1.Why do we need an Inter-Net Protocol? -> for networks to be able to communicate with each other Different networks have different Data-Link-Layer; every network runs a different protocol -> every network hat its own frames, hardware, and signals -> no communication possible. Therefore a common internetworking layer is needed -> Network interconnections are realized with dedicated hosts called Gateways which include at least 2 different NICs. These gateways transport the common IP (enc.at l2) and terminate l1 and l2 at each side. IP works on l3 and identifies the host and the network identifying dedicated addresses. 2.Does IP guarantee delivery? NO <- connectionless 3.What is IP's type of delivery called? Best effort delivery 4.If guaranteed delivery is needed, where does this happen? TCP (l4, connection oriented) > implements control in the upper layers of the IP host the end-to-end

5.What is the main protocol used for addressing at L3? IP 6.What are other tasks performed by IP besides addressing? Packet transport, fragmentation

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7.What is meant by overlay technique as is used by IP and why is it needed? (See also Question 1.) Overlay technique => IP can easily be integrated upon l2 technologies -> ability to adapt to all types of l2 technologies (open development quickly adapts to new transport and switching methods) 8.Explain the end-to-end principle used in IP. Only the end-systems care for error recovery (not the network itself); i.e. only hosts must be intelligent (TCP), routers remain simple -> keeps nw simple! 9.Name important TCP tasks. (NOTE: This comes again in the TCP section, but the tasks are very clearly listed and briefly explained here in the IP section, so the question is being included here also.) Connection-oriented, carries port-number (important for the host to know which datagram belongs to which application) End-to-end recovery issues: flow-control, sequencing, windowing, error

10.What are RFCs and who (i.e., confirms, and publishes them?

what

organization)

reviews,

RFC = Request for Comments = documents that keep all the ideas and standards of the internet developers (de facto standards of the internet); everybody may write an RFC! IETF reviews, publishes, and confirms RFCs. 11.What is the IETF? Internet Engineering Task Force = the most important technical organization for the internet working groups.

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12.What information is carried in the IPv4 header? (NOTE: You do not have to be able to draw it or give all the details. Most important, of course, are the source and destination IP addresses. You should definitely know how long IP addresses are. Also important is that the first field in the header is a version field, since this is becoming more and more important now because of IPv6. You should know what the protocol field is for, but you don't have to know any numbers. And it is important to know that there are fields to be able to handle IP fragmentation (see the later questions about IP fragmentation and reassembly). It won't be tested, but do you know what is the padding field in the IP header for? And, of course, you should know very well by now that the payload is NOT part of the header, rather what follows it! That should go without saying...) Fields: Source ip address 32 bits Destination ip address 32 bits Version -> first field -> ipv4 or ipv6 4 bits Protocol -> describes what protocol is used in the next level 8 bits fragment offset 13 bits header length, type of service (TOS), total length, identification, flags, time to live (TTL), header checksum, options, padding 13.What is the total minimum length in bytes of the IP header? 20 14.What is contained in the payload of an IP packet? Encapsulated higher layer packets 15.Describe an IP address. (You need to be able to explain this in terms of bits, of bytes, and of the dotted-decimal notation... Just to be sure, let's add that last here as an additional question...) IP address = 32-bit value in the ip header; it identifies the access to the network; basically simple numbers only 32 bits = 4 bytes = 4 octets The first octet identifies the class. silvie schmidt

16.Explain the dotted-decimal notation of an IP address. Each octet: 2^7 2^6 2^5 2^4 2^3 2^2 2^1 2^0 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 e.g.: 192.168.1.1 = 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001 17.Explain the IP address classes. Which address ranges belong to each class? Where in the IP is this determining number found? Class A: Class B: Class C: Class D: Class E: 1 127 - 0xxxxxxx.********.********.******** 128 191 - 10xxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.********.******** 192 223 - 110xxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.******** x = net-id * = host-id 224 239 - 1110++++ multicast 240 254 - 1111++++ experimental

Classes define number of address-bits for net-id 18.Which classes are used for unicast addressing? A,B,C 19.Which class is used for multicast addressing? D 20.What is a network broadcast address? => all 1s in the host part, e.g. 10.255.255.255 The network broadcast address is used to send a packet to a dedicated network. Network address = all 0s in the host part

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21.What is the limited broadcast address? What device does not forward the limited broadcast address? Why is it necessary for this not to be forwarded? = local => 255.255.255.255 (destination address = all 1s) Routers dont forward this address cause the whole internet would be congested by broadcast storms. Broadcast addresses must not be used as source addresses! 22.What are the private IP address ranges? Class A Class B Class C 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255 192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255

23.What IP address range is reserved for the loopback? Which one address out of the range of loopback addresses is usually used by modern operating systems for the local loopback interface? 127.x.x.x is used as loopback Modern OS -> 127.0.0.1 24.What is the main problem with classful addressing? -> inflexible, address space depletion Class C networks are too small and class A and B are too large -> waste of IP addresses and growing internet routing tables 25.What are the two main parts of an IP address (the two-level hierarchy)? -> net-id, host-id

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26.What is the third level of hierarchy that was added later? Where/how is it added? -> subnet-id: between net-id and host-id Subnetting divides the standard host-number field into two parts -> subnet-number and the host-number on that subnet. 27.What is a subnet mask? The SNM must always consist of a contiguous series of 1s -> ANDing with ip address => net-id subnet-id host-id e.g. 172.16.1.5 SNM: 255.255.255.0 172.16.1.5/24 AND 10101100.00010000.00000001.00000101 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 172.16.1.5 -> net-id subnet-id host-id

result

28.Describe the 2 notations for a subnet mask. 172.16.1.5 SNM: 255.255.255.0 172.16.1.5/24 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 24 = number of 1s

29.Be able to recognize valid and invalid subnet masks. (For example, there are only a few numbers which can appear in a subnet mask. Know these. Also, if an address space is being subnetted, only host bits may be borrowed. You should be able to spot incorrect subnetting.) NOTE: Today both the subnet zero and the subnet broadcast are used. They are no longer forbidden. Not valid: 254.255.0.0 255.127.255.0 255.255.255.195 Valid: 255.255.0.0 255.255.128.0 255.255.192.0 255.255.224.0 255.255.240.0 255.255.248.0 255.255.252.0 255.255.254.0 255.255.255.0 /16 /17 /18 /19 /20 /21 /22 /23 /24 255.255.255.128 255.255.255.192 255.255.255.224 255.255.255.240 255.255.255.248 255.255.255.252 255.255.255.254 Contiguous 1s!!! /25 /26 /27 /28 /29 /30 /31

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30.Be able to determine the network address for a given IP and subnet mask (for either notation of the subnet mask).

31.Be able to subnet (both fixed-length and VLSM) and to recognize which IPs are in a particular subnet and which are not.

32.What does VLSM mean? What is it for and why is it needed? = variable length subnet mask -> supports more efficient use of an organizations address space -> a subnetted network can use more than one SNM 33.Why is IP fragmentation important? (I.e., why is it needed?) -> takes care that the same packet is correctly delivered Interfaces, links, etc have different MTUs -> if the packets are larger than the MTU they have to be fragmented 34.What four fields have to be the same for packet reassembly after fragmentation? Identification: each fragment of an IP datagram must carry the same identification number -> necessary for reassembly. It must be unique for the combination source/destination/protocol. Its no sequence number! Flag DF: dont fragment -> if set, fragmentation is not allowed; if max frame size too small -> discarded by the router Flag MF: if set, more fragments will follow Fragment offset: indicates the position of a fragment in the original datagram 35.Where is reassembly done? -> at the destination (buffer space has to be provided by the receiver). IPv6 doesnt use fragmentation anymore.

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36.What is does MTU mean? What is the standard MTU used in Ethernet? => Maximum Transmission Unit; Ethernet 1500 bytes 37.Why is a source address needed in the IP header? ..to define a way back to the sender (TCP, error handling)

NOTES: 1 In the slides it is stated that VLSM is so not important because of private addressing and NAT. Be aware that this does not by any means mean that VLSM is unimportant for public addressing! The main logical function performed using subnet masks and IP addresses is AND.

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