Computer Hardware&Networking Notes M.K.

PrasadSRGPTC, ThriprayarEmkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 1 Operating Systems OverviewAn operating system is a software component of a computer system that is responsible for the management of various activities of the computer and the sharing of computer resources. It hosts the several applications that run on a computer and handles theoperations of computer hardware. Users and application programs access the servicesoffered by the operating systems, by means of system calls and application programminginterfaces. Users interact with operating systems through Command Line Interfaces (CLIs)or Graphical User Interfaces known as GUIs. In short, operating system enables user interaction with computer systems by acting as an interface between users or applicationprograms and the computer hardware. Here is an overview of the different types of operating systems.Real-time Operating System:It is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications. Real-timeoperating systems often use specialized scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve adeterministic nature of behavior. The main object of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable response to events. They either have an event-driven or a time-sharing design. An event-driven system switches between tasks based of their prioritieswhile time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts.Multi-user and Single-user Operating Systems:The operating systems of this type allow a multiple users to access a computer systemconcurrently. Time-sharing system can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable amultiple user access to a computer through the sharing of time. Single-user operatingsystems, as opposed to a multi-user operating system, are usable by a single user at atime. Being able to have multiple accounts on a Windows operating system does not makeit a multi-user system. Rather, only the network administrator is the real user. But for a Unix-like operating system, it is possible for two users to login at a time and this capability of theOS makes it a multi-user operating system.Multi-tasking and Single-tasking Operating Systems:When a single program is allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped under a single-tasking system, while in case the operating system allows the execution of multiple tasks atone time, it is classified as a multi-tasking operating system. Multi-tasking can be of twotypes namely, pre-emptive or co-operative. In pre-emptive multitasking, the operatingsystem slices the CPU time and dedicates one slot to each of the programs. Unix-likeoperating systems such as Solaris and Linux support pre-emptive multitasking. Cooperativemultitasking is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in adefined manner. MS Windows prior to Windows 95 used to support cooperativemultitasking.Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 2 Examples of Operating Systems1. Disk Operating System (DOS)DOS (Disk Operating System) was the first widely-installed operating system for personalcomputers. It is a master control program that is automatically run when you start your PC.DOS stays in the computer all the time letting you run a program and manage files. It is asingle-user operating system from Microsoft for the PC. It was the first OS for the PC and isthe underlying control program for Windows 3.1, 95, 98 and ME. Windows NT, 2000 and XPemulate DOS in order to support existing DOS applications. To use DOS, you must knowwhere your programs and data are stored and how to talk to DOS.2.UNIXUNIX is Multi-user Operating System. The UNIX environment and the client/server programmodel were important elements in the development of the Internet and the reshaping of computing as centered in networks rather than in

individual computers. UNIX is written in C.Both UNIX and C were developed by AT&T and freely distributed to government andacademic institutions.3. LinuxLinux is an operating system that was initially created as a hobby by a young student, LinusTorvalds, at the University of Helsinki in Finland. He began his work in 1991 when hereleased version 0.02 and worked steadily until 1994 when version 1.0 of the Linux Kernelwas released. The kernel, at the heart of all Linux systems, is developed and releasedunder theGNU General Public Licenseand its source code is freely available to everyone.The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and open source softwarecollaboration; typically all the underlyingsource codecan be used, freely modified, and redistributed, both commercially and non-commercially, by anyone under licenses suchas theGNU General Public License.4. WINDOWS Windows is first introduced as a personal computer operating system from Microsoft that,together with some commonly used business applications such as Microsoft Word andExcel, has become a de facto "standard" for individual users in most corporations as well asin most homes. However, Windows 95, 98, ME, NT, 2000 and XP are complicatedoperating environments. Certain combinations of hardware and software running together can cause problems, and troubleshooting can be daunting. Each new version of Windowshas interface changes that constantly confuse users and keep support people busy, andInstalling Windows applications is problematic too. Microsoft has worked hard to makeWindows 2000 and Windows XP more resilient to installation problems and crashes ingeneral.Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 3 5. MACINTOSHThe Macintosh (often called "the Mac"), introduced in 1984 by Apple Computer, was the firstwidely-sold personal computer with a graphical user interface (GUI). The Macintosh has itsown operating system, Mac OS which, in its latest version is called Mac OS X.Classification of ComputersComputers can be classified many different ways -- by size, by function, and/or byprocessing capacity. We will study the classification of computers by size. The size of acomputer often determines its function and processing capacity. The size of computersvaries widely from tiny to huge and is usually dictated by computing requirements.Super ComputersThe largest computers are supercomputers. They are the most powerful, the mostexpensive, and the fastest. They are capable of processing trillions of instructions per second. Examples of users of these computers are governmental agencies, such as theNational Weather Service, and the National Defense Agency. Also, they are used in themaking of movies, space exploration, and the design of many other machines. The Craysupercomputer is nicknamed "Bubbles", because of its bubbling coolant liquids. Craysupercomputers, the first of which was invented by Seymour Cray, now maintain 75 percentof the supercomputer market. Supercomputers are used for tasks that require mammothdata manipulation.Mainframe ComputersLarge computers are called mainframes. Mainframe computers process data at very highrates of speed, measured in the millions of instructions per second. They are veryexpensive, costing millions of dollars in some cases. Mainframes are designed for multipleusers and process vast amounts of data quickly. Banks, insurance companies,manufacturers, mail-order companies, and airlines are typical users. Mainframes are oftenservers-- computers that control the networks of computers for large companies.MicrocomputersMicrocomputers can be divided into two groups -- personal computers and workstations.Workstations are specialized computers that approach the speed of mainframes. Oftenmicrocomputers are connected to networks of other computers. Microcomputers make upthe vast majority of computers.NotebookAnother classification of computer is the notebook computer. A

notebook computer can fitinto a briefcase and weigh fewer than two pounds, yet it can compete with themicrocomputer.LaptopEmkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 4 A larger, heavier version is called a laptop computer. Notebooks generally cost more thanmicrocomputers but can run most of the microcomputer software and are more versatile.Like other computers, notebook computers are getting faster, lighter, and more functional.Personal Digital AssistantThe smallest computer is the handheld computer called a personal digital assistant or aPDA. PDAs are used to track appointments and shipments as well as names andaddresses. PDAs are called pen-based computers because they utilize a pen-like stylusthat accepts hand-written input directly on a touch-sensitive screen. You have probablynoticed delivery employees using these.PROCESSORS (CPUs)The CPU or Central Processing Unit, is the core of any computer. The processor (really ashort form for microprocessor and also often called th CPU or central processing unit) is thecentral component of the PC. This vital component is in some way responsible for everysingle thing the PC does. It determines, at least in part, which operating systems can beused, which software packages the PC can run, how much energy the PC uses, and howstable the system will be, among other things. The processor is also a major determinant of overall system cost: the newer and more powerful the processor, the more expensive themachine will be.Types of ProcessorsThe vast majority of microprocessors are embedded microcontrollers. The second most commontype of processors are common desktop processors, such as Intel's Pentium or AMD's Athlon. Lesscommon are the extremely powerful processors used in high-end servers, such as Sun's SPARC,IBM's Power, or Intel's Itanium.Historically, microprocessors and microcontrollers have come in "standard sizes" of 8 bits, 16 bits,32 bits, and 64 bits. These sizes are common, but that does not mean that other sizes are notavailable. Some microcontrollers (usually specially designed embedded chips) can come in other "non-standard" sizes such as 4 bits, 12 bits, 18 bits, or 24 bits. The number of bits represent howmuch physical memory can be directly addressed by the CPU. It also represents the amount of bitsthat can be read by one read/write operation. In some circumstances, these are different; for instance, many 8 bit microprocessors have an 8 bit data bus and a 16 bit address bus.8 bit processors can read/write 1 byte at a time and can directly address 256 bytes16 bit processors can read/write 2 bytes at a time, and can address 65,536 bytes (64Kilobytes)32 bit processors can read/write 4 bytes at a time, and can address 4,294,967,295bytes (4 Gigabytes)64 bit processors can read/write 8 bytes at a time, and can address18,446,744,073,709,551,616 bytes (16 Exabytes)Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 5 Various Manufactures of Processors1INTEL CorporationIntel Corporation (NASDAQ: INTC; SEHK: 4335; Euronext: INCO) is an American technologycompany, and the world's largest semiconductor chip maker, based on revenue. It is the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, the processors found in most personal computers. Intel wasfounded on July 18, 1968, as Integrated Electronics Corporation (though a common misconceptionis that "Intel" is from the word intelligence) and is based in Santa Clara, California, USA. Intel alsomakes motherboard chipsets, network interface controllers and integrated circuits, flash memory,graphic chips, embedded processors, and other devices related to communications and computing.Intel 4004, Intel 8080, Intel 8088, Intel 80286, Intel 80386, Intel 80486,PentiumI,Pentium Pro,Pentium MMX, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium IV, Intel Atom, Intel Xeon, Celeron ,Intel Dual Core,Intel Core 2 Duo,Intel Core i3,5,Intel Core i7etc. are the some of the premium

processors of Intel.2AMD TechnologyAdvanced Micro Devices ( AMD) is a leading global provider of innovative processing solutions inthe computing, graphics and consumer electronics markets. AMD is dedicated to driving openinnovation, choice and industry growth by delivering. The company started as a producer of logicchips in 1969, then entered the RAM chip business in 1975. AMD K5,AMD K6, AMDAthlon, AMD Athelon XP, AMD Sempron, AMD Duron, AMDAthlon 64,AMD Phenom,Opteronetc are the some of the processors of AMD.3Cyrix 4Cyrix Corporation was a microprocessor developer that was founded in 1988in Richardson, Texas as a specialist supplier of high-performance mathcoprocessors for 286 and 386 microprocessors. The company was founded byformer Texas Instruments (TI) staff members and had a long but troubled relationshipwith TI throughout its history. Cyrix founder Jerry Rogers aggressively recruitedengineers and pushed them, eventually assembling a small but efficient design teamof 30 people. Cyrix merged with National Semiconductor on 11 November 1997. Thefirst Cyrix product for the personal computer market was a x87 compatible FPUcoprocessor. The Cyrix FasMath 83D87 and 83S87 were introduced in 1989. TheFasMath was the fastest 386-compatible coprocessor and provided up to 50% moreperformance than the Intel 80387. Cyrix FasMath 82S87, a 80287-compatible chip wasdeveloped from the Cyrix 83D87 and has been available since 19915MOTHERBOARD6A motherboard is the hardware component that connects almost all of theother parts together in a computer. The motherboard is, in many ways, the mostimportant component in your Computer. It's a large silicon wafer to which all other computer components connect.Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 6 Organization: In one way or another, everything is eventually connected to themotherboard. The way that the motherboard is designed and laid out dictates how theentire computer is going to be organized.Control:The motherboard contains the chipset and BIOS program, which betweenthem control most of the data flow within the computer.Communication:Almost all communication between the PC and its peripherals, other PCs, and you, the user, goes through the motherboard.Processor Support:The motherboard dictates directly your choice of processor for use in the system.Peripheral Support:The motherboard determines, in large part, what types of peripherals you can use in your PC. For example, the type of video card your system willuse (ISA, VLB, PCI) is dependent on what system buses your motherboard uses.Performance:The motherboard is a major determining factor in your system'sperformance, for two main reasons. First and foremost, the motherboard determines whattypes of processors, memory, system buses, and harddisk interface speed your system canhave, and these components dictate directly your system's performance. Second, thequality of the motherboard circuitry and chipset themselves have an impact onperformance.Motherboard Form FactorsThe form factor of the motherboard describes its general shape, what sorts of cases and power supplies it can use, and its physical organization. For example, a company can make twomotherboards that have basically the same functionality but that use a different form factor, andthe only real differences will be the physical layout of the board, the position of the components,etc. In fact, many companies do exactly this, they have for example a baby AT version and anATX versionEmkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 7 Illustration1 : Motherboard LayoutChipsetA chipset, PC chipset or chip set refers to a group of integrated circuit or chips, that aredesigned to work together. They are usually marketed as a single

product. The chipsetalso controls data flow to and from hard disks, and other devices connected to the IDEchannels. The chipset consists of two main components, the North- and South- Bridgechips, which are connected over the PCI bus. The CPU, Memory and AGP talk to theEmkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 8 Northbridge and the Southbridge handles all the I/O, including the ISA bus.Processorsthemselves also have different chipsets. Therefore, whenever you upgrade your computer's hardware, make sure you buy components that are compatible with thechipsets in your machine.Major Motherboard ManufacturesASRockASUSBioStar Gigabyte TechnologyIntel CorporationMSITranscendFoxConnMicrostar InternationalDiagram of a motherboard chipsetEmkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 9 Random Access MemoryRandom access memory or RAM most commonly refers tocomputer chips that temporarily storedynamic data to enhance computer performance. By storing frequently used or active files inrandom access memory, the computer can access the data faster than if it to retrieve it from the far-larger hard drive. Random access memory is also used in printers and other devices.Random access memory is volatile memory, meaning it loses its contents once power is cut. This isdifferent from non-volatile memory such as hard disks and flash memory which do not require apower source to retain data. When a computer shuts down properly, all data located in randomaccess memory is committed to permanent storage on the hard drive or flash drive. At the nextboot-up, RAM begins to fill with programs automatically loaded at startup, and with files opened bythe user Different RAM Types and its usesThe type of RAM doesn't matter nearly as much as how much of it you've got, but usingplain old SDRAM memory today will slow you down. There are three main types of RAM:SDRAM, DDR and Rambus DRAM.Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 10 SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM)Almost all systems used to ship with 3.3 volt, 168-pin SDRAM DIMMs. SDRAM is not anextension of older EDO DRAM but a new type of DRAM altogether. SDRAM started outrunning at 66 MHz, while older fast page mode DRAM and EDO max out at 50 MHz.SDRAM is able to scale to 133 MHz (PC133) officially, and unofficially up to 180MHz or higher. As processors get faster, new generations of memory such as DDR and RDRAMare required to get proper performance.DDR (Double Data Rate SDRAM)DDR basically doubles the rate of data transfer of standard SDRAM by transferring data onthe up and down tick of a clock cycle. DDR memory operating at 333MHz actually operatesat 166MHz * 2 (aka PC333 / PC2700) or 133MHz*2 (PC266 / PC2100). DDR is a 2.5 volttechnology that uses 184 pins in its DIMMs. It is incompatible with SDRAM physically, butuses a similar parallel bus, making it easier to implement than RDRAM, which is a differenttechnology.Rambus DRAM (RDRAM)Despite it's higher price, Intel has given RDRAM it's blessing for the consumer market, andit will be the sole choice of memory for Intel's Pentium 4. RDRAM is a serial memorytechnology that arrived in three flavors, PC600, PC700, and PC800. PC800 RDRAM hasdouble the maximum throughput of old PC100 SDRAM, but a higher latency. RDRAMdesigns with multiple channels, such as those in Pentium 4 motherboards, are currently atthe top of the heap in memory throughput, especially when paired with PC1066 RDRAMmemory.DIMMs vs. RIMMsDRAM comes in two major form factors: DIMMs and RIMMS.DIMMs are 64-bit components, but if used in a motherboard with a dualchannelconfiguration (like with an Nvidia nForce chipset) you must pair them to get

maximumperformance. So far there aren't many DDR chipset that use dual-channels. Typically, if youwant to add 512 MB of DIMM memory to your machine, you just pop in a 512 MB DIMM if you've got an available slot. DIMMs for SDRAM and DDR are different, and not physicallycompatible. SDRAM DIMMs have 168-pins and run at 3.3 volts, while DDR DIMMs have184-pins and run at 2.5 volts.RIMMs use only a 16-bit interface but run at higher speeds than DDR. To get maximumperformance, Intel RDRAM chipsets require the use of RIMMs in pairs over a dual-channel32-bit interface. You have to plan more when upgrading and purchasing RDRAM.Cache MemoryCache Memory is fast memory that serves as a buffer between the processor and mainmemory. The cache holds data that was recently used by the processor and saves a trip allthe way back to slower main memory. The memory structure of PCs is often thought of asjust main memory, but it's really a five or six level structure:The first two levels of memory are contained in the processor itself, consisting of theprocessor's small internal memory, or registers, and L1 cache, which is the first level of cache, usually contained in the processor.Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 11 The third level of memory is the L2 cache, usually contained on the motherboard. However,the Celeron chip from Intel actually contains 128K of L2 cache within the form factor of thechip. More and more chip makers are planning to put this cache on board the processor itself. The benefit is that it will then run at the same speed as the processor, and cost less toput on the chip than to set up a bus and logic externally from the processor.The fourth level, is being referred to as L3 cache. This cache used to be the L2 cache onthe motherboard, but now that some processors include L1 and L2 cache on the chip, itbecomes L3 cache. Usually, it runs slower than the processor, but faster than main memory.The fifth level (or fourth if you have no "L3 cache") of memory is the main memory itself.The sixth level is a piece of the hard disk used by the Operating System, usually calledvirtual memory. Most operating systems use this when they run out of main memory, butsome use it in other ways as well.Older Memory TypesFast Page Mode DRAMFast Page Mode DRAM is plain old DRAM as we once knew it. The problem with standardDRAM was that it maxes out at about 50 MHz.EDO DRAMEDO DRAM gave people up to 5% system performance increase over DRAM. EDO DRAMis like FPM DRAM with some cache built into the chip. Like FPM DRAM, EDO DRAMmaxes out at about 50 MHz. Early on, some system makers claimed that if you used EDODRAM you didn't need L2 cache in your computer to get decent performance. They werewrong. It turns out that EDO DRAM works along with L2 cache to make things even faster,but if you lose the L2 cache, you lose a lot of speed.168-Pin SDRAM 184-Pin DDR 240-Pin DDR2 240-Pin DDR3PC100 SDRAMDDR-266DDR2-533DDR3-1066PC133 SDRAMDDR-333DDR2-667DDR31333Super Talent MemoryDDR-400DDR2-800DDR3-1600DDR & DDR2 MemoryDDR2-1066DDR31800DDR3-2000DDR3-2133Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 12 Illustration 2: Different types of Memory ModulesPower On Self Test (POST)The computer power-on self-test (POST) tests the computer to make sure it meets thenecessary system requirements and that all hardware is working properly before startingEmkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 13 the remainder of the boot process. If the computer passes the POST the computer will havea single beep (with some computer BIOS manufacturers it may beep twice) as thecomputer starts and the computer will continue to start normally. However, if the computer fails the POST, the computer will either not beep at all or will generate a beep code, whichtells the user the source of the problem.The

steps of a POSTEach time the computer boots up the computer must past the POST. Below is the commonsteps a POST performs each time your computer starts.1.Test the power supply to ensure that it is turned on and that it releases its resetsignal.2.CPU must exit the reset status mode and thereafter be able to execute instructions.3.BIOS checksum must be valid, meaning that it must be readable.4.CMOS checksum must be valid, meaning that it must be readable.5.CPU must be able to read all forms of memory such as the memory controller,memory bus, and memory module.6.The first 64KB of memory must be operational and have the capability to be readand written to and from, and capable of containing the POST code.7.I/O bus/ controller must be accessible.8.I/O bus must be able to write / read from the video subsystem and be able to read allvideo RAM.If the computer does not pass any of the above tests, your computer will receive anirregular POST. An irregular POST is a beep code that is different from the standard one or two beeps. This could be either no beeps at all or a combination of different beepsindicating what is causing the computer not to past the POST.IBM BIOS beep codesBelow are IBM BIOS Beep codes that can occur. However, because of the wide variety of models shipping with this BIOS, the beep codes may vary.Beep Code DescriptionNo Beeps No Power, Loose Card, or Short.1 Short Beep Normal POST, computer is ok.2 Short Beep POST error, error code shown on screenContinuous Beep No Power, Loose Card, or Short.Repeating Short Beep No Power, Loose Card, or Short.One Long and one Short Beep Motherboard issue.Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 14 One Long and Two Short Beeps Video (Mono/CGA Display Circuitry) issue.One Long and Three Short Beeps. Video (EGA) Display Circuitry.Three Long Beeps Keyboard / Keyboard card error.One Beep, Blank or Incorrect Display Video Display Circuitry.AMI BIOS beep codesBelow are the AMI BIOS Beep codes that can occur.Beep Code Descriptions Document1 short DRAM refresh failureCH0009962 short Parity circuit failureCH0006073 short Base 64K RAM failureCH0009964 short System timer failureCH0006075 short Process failureCH0006076 short Keyboard controller Gate A20 error CH0003837 short Virtual mode exception error CH0006078 short Display memory Read/Write test failureCH0006079 short ROM BIOS checksum failureCH00060710 short CMOS shutdown Read/Write error CH00023911 short Cache Memory error CH0006071 long, 3 short Conventional/Extended memory failureCH0009961 long, 8 short Display/Retrace test failedCH000607AWARD BIOS beep codesBelow are Award BIOS Beep codes that can occur.Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 15 Beep Code Description Document1 long, 2shortIndicates a video error has occurred and the BIOScannot initialize the video screen to display anyadditional informationCH000607Any other beep(s)RAMproblem.CH000996If any other correctable hardware issues, the BIOS will display a message.Identifying external ports and interfacingObjective:To learn about different ports and how to connect devices to them. This diagram showsdifferent ports available on the back panel of the PCIllustration 3: RearpanelPorts and onnectorsEmkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 16 Parallel port (LPT parallel port):As shown in the diagram parallel port with 25-pins can be used to connect a parallel portprinter. Previously dot matrix, ink jet, bubble jet printers etc were connected to parallel port.Nowadays-parallel port is used to connect Dot-Matrix printers.Serial port:As shown in the diagram serial ports with 9-pins protruding outwards can be used toconnect modem but it can also be used for connecting mouse, provided serial port mouse isavailable.VGA Port:VGA port which has 15-pins

is used to connect a monitor.PS/2 Port:Two 6-pin PS/2 ports are there, one is violet to which keyboard is connected and other isLight green to which mouse is connectedEmkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 17 USB Port:Connecting a USB device to a computer is simple you find the USB connector on theback of your machine and plug the USB connector into it.USB ports are used to connect toInjket Printers, Web Cams, Scanners etc.Ethernet Port:Ethernet port is used to connect a computer on network through RJ45 connector Game Port:Game Port is used to connect joystick, which is usually used in video games Three moreports are available for multimedia connections. Green port is used connect speakers, blueport is used to connect headphones and light Orange is used to connect microphone. Illustration 4: Rear Panel (Back of a PC)Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 18 Identifying PC cards and interfacing.Objective : To identify different PC cards and to learn how to install them.Sound cardA sound card or audio board, which allows computers to output audio signalsthrough speakers and or headphones.Video cardThe video card is responsible for creating all that you see on your computer monitor VGA CardNetwork cardThis piece of hardware allows your computer to be connected to a network of other computers (known as a LAN or Local Area Network) We will now install the power supply as the components we install after this willrequire power cables to be connected to them. There is not much to be done toinstall a PSU.Place the PSU into the cabinetPut the screws in place tightlyTip:Some PSU have extra accessories that come bundled with it. Consult your PSUmanual to see how to install them.Step 6: Installing the video cardFirst you will need to find out whether your video card is AGP or PCI-E. AGPgraphics cards have become redundant and are being phased out of the marketquickly. So if you bought a spanking new card it will certainly be a PCIE.Remove the back plate on the cabinet corresponding to the graphics cardPush the card into the slotSecure the card with a screwPlug in the power connection from PSU (if required)High-end graphics cards need dedicated power supply and if your graphics cardneeds one then connect the appropriate wire from PSU into the graphics card.Step 7: Installing the hard diskHard disk is another fragile component of the computer and needs to handledcarefully.Place the hard drive into the baySecure the drive with screwsConnect the power cable from PSUConnect the data cable from motherboard into the drive If your hard drive is a SATA one then connect one end of SATA cable into themotherboard and other into the SATA port on the hard disk. If your hard disk is PATAtype then use the IDE cable instead of the SATA cable.Tip:If your PSU does not support SATA power supply then you will need to get anconverter which will convert your standard IDE power connector to a SATA power connector.Step 8: Installing optical driveThe installation an optical drive is exactly similar to an hard drive.Place the optical drive into the bayDrive in the screwsConnect the power cable and data cableTip:When installing multiple optical drives take care of jumper settings. Make sureyou make one as primary and other slave by using the jumper. This is not applicableif the drives are SATA drives.Step 9: Connecting various cablesFirst we will finish setting up internal components and then get on to the externalones. You will need to consult your motherboard manual for finding the appropriateport for connecting various cables at the right places on the motherboard.Connect the large ATX power connector to the power supply port on your motherboard

Next get hold of the smaller square power connector which supplies power tothe processor and connect it to the appropriate port by taking help from your motherboard manualConnect the cabinet cables for power,reset button in the appropriate port of the motherboardConnect the front USB/audio panel cable in the motherboardPlug the cable of cabinet fansYou are done with installing the internal components of the PC. Close the side doorsof the cabinet and get it upright and place it on your computer table. Get the rest of the PC components like monitor, keyboard, mouse, speakers etc. which we willconnect now.Connect the VGA cable of the monitor into the VGA portIf mouse/keyboard are PS/2 then connect them to PS/2 ports or else use theUSB portConnect the speaker cable in the audio portPlug in the power cable from PSU into the UPSAlso plug in the power cable of the monitor You are now done with setting up your PC. Power on and see your rig boot to glory.Step 10: Installing the OS and driversWe are done with the hardware part. Now get your favorite OS disks ready and theCD that came with your motherboard.Set the first boot device to CD/DVD drive in BIOSPop in the OS diskReboot the PCInstall the OSInstall drivers from motherboard CD (applicable only to Windows OS) Installation of Windows XPStep 1 -Start your PC and place your Windows XP CD in your CD/DVD-ROM drive. Your PC should automatically detect the CD and you will get a message saying "Press any key toboot from CD". Soon as computer starts booting from the CD your will get the followingscreen:Step 2At this stage it will ask you to press F6 if you want to install a third party Raid or SCSI driver. If you are using a an IDE Hard Drive then you do not need to press F6. If youare using a SCSI or SATA Hard drive then you must press F6 otherwise Windows will notdetect your Hard Drive during the installation. Please make sure you have the Raid driverson a floppy disk. Normally the drivers are supplied on a CD which you can copy to a floppydisk ready to be installed. If you are not sure how to do this then please read your motherboard manuals for more information.Step 3- Press S to Specify that you want to install additional device.Step 4- You will be asked to insert the floppy disk with the Raid or SCSI drivers. Press enter after you have inserted the disk.Step 5- You will see a list of Raid drivers for your HDD. Select the correct driver for your device and press enter.Step 6- You will then get a Windows XP Professional Setup screen. You have the option todo a new Windows install, Repair previous install or quit. Since we are doing a new installwe just press Enter to continue.Step 7- You will be presented with the End User Licensing Agreement. Press F8 to acceptand continueStep 8- This step is very important. Here we will create the partition where Windows will beinstalled. If you have a brand new unformatted drive you will get a screen similar to below. Inour case the drive size is 8190MB. We can choose to install Windows in this drive withoutcreating a partition, hence use the entire size of the drive. If you wish to do this you can justpress enter and Windows will automatically partition and format the drive as one large drive.However for this demonstration I will create two partition. The first partition will be 6000MB(C: drive) and second partition would be 2180MB (E: drive). By creating two partition we canhave one which stores Windows and Applications and the other which stores our data. So inthe future if anything goes wrong with our Windows install such as virus or spyware we canre-install Windows on C: drive and our data on E: drive will not be touched. Please note youcan choose whatever size partition your like. For example if you have 500GB hard drive youcan have two partition of 250GB each.Press C to create a partition.Step 8- Windows will show the total size of the hard drive and ask you how much you wantto allocate for the partition you are about to create. I will choose 6000MB. You will then getthe screen below. Notice it shows C: Partition 1 followed by the size 6000 MB. This indicatesthe partition has been

created. We still have an unpartitioned space of 2189MB. Nexthighlight the unpartitioned space by pressing down the arrow key. Then press C to create another partition. You will see the total space available for the new partition. Just choose allthe space left over, in our case 2180MB.Step 9- Now you will see both partition listed. Partition 1 (C: Drive) 6000MB and Partition 2(E: Drive) 2180MB. You will also have 8MB of unpartitioned space. Don't worry about that.Just leave it how its is. Windows normally has some unpartitioned space. You might wonder what happened to D: drive. Windows has automatically allocated D: drive to CD/DVD-ROM.Select Partition 1 (C: Drive) and press Enter.Step 10- Choose format the partition using NTFS file system.This is the recommended filesystem. If the hard drive has been formatted before then you can choose quick NTFSformat. We chose NTFS because it offers many security features, supports larger drive size,and bigger size files.Windows will now start formatting drive C: and start copying setup files as shown on the twoimages below :Step 11 -After the setup has completed copying the files the computer will restart. Leave theXP CD in the drive but this time DO NOT press any key when the message "Press any keyto boot from CD" is displayed. In few seconds setup will continue. Windows XP Setup wizardwill guide you through the setup process of gathering information about your computer.Step 12 -Choose your region and language.Step 13 -Type in your name and organization.Step 14.Enter your product key.Step 15 Name the computer, and enter an Administrator password. Don't forget to writedown your Administrator password.Step 16 -Enter the correct date, time and choose your time zone.Step 17- For the network setting choose typical and press next.Step 18 -Choose workgroup or domain name. If you are not a member of a domain thenleave the default settings and press next. Windows will restart again and adjust the display.Step 19 -Finally Windows will start and present you with a Welcome screen. Click next tocontinue.Step 20 - Choose'help protect my PC by turning on automatic updates now' and press next.Step 21- Will this computer connect to the internet directly, or through a network? If you areconnected to a router or LAN then choose:'Yes, this computer will connect through a local area network or home network' . If you have dial up modem choose:'No, this computer will connect directly to the internet'.Then click Next.Step 22- Ready to activate Windows? Choose yes if you wish to active Windows over theinternet now. Choose no if you want to activate Windows at a later stage.Step 23 Add users that will sign on to this computer and click next. Step 24- You will get a Thank you screen to confirm setup is complete. Click finish.Step 25.Log in, to your PC for the first time.Step 26- You now need to check the device manager to confirm that all the drivers hasbeen loaded or if there are any conflicts. From the start menu selectStart -> Settings >Control Panel . Click on the System icon and then from theSystem Propertieswindowselect the Hardware tab, then click onDevice Manager .If there are any yellow exclamation mark "!" next to any of the listed device, it means that nodrivers or incorrect drivers has been loaded for that device. In our case we have a VideoController (VGA card) which has no drivers installed.Your hardware should come with manufacturer supplied drivers. You need to install thesedrivers using the automatic setup program provided by the manufacturer or you need tomanually install these drivers. If you do not have the drivers, check the manufacturerswebsite to download them.To install a driver manually use the following procedure:(a)From the device manager double click on the device containing the exclamation mark.(b)This would open a device properties window.(c) Click on theDriver tab.(d)Click Update Driver

button. The Wizard for updating device driver pops up as shownbelow:You now get two options. The first option provides an automatic search for the requireddriver. The second option allows you to specify the location of the driver. If you don't knowthe location of the driver choose the automatic search which would find the required driver from the manufacturer supplied CD or Floppy disk. Windows would install the required driver and may ask you to restart the system for the changes to take affect. Use this procedure toinstall drivers for all the devices that contain an exclamation mark. Windows is completelysetup when there are no more exclamation marks in the device manager.Installing and Configuring Ubuntu LINUXRequirements:We need the Ubuntu 10.04 LTS Desktop ISO image that corresponds to your hardware architecture (i386 or amd64), and that can be downloaded from here.When the download is over, burn the ISO image with your favorite CD/DVD burningapplication (Nero, CDBurnerXP, Roxio) on a blank CD at 8x speed. Reinsert or leavethe CD in your CD/DVD-ROM device and reboot the computer in order to boot fromthe CD. Hit the F8, F11 or F12 key (depending on your BIOS) to select the CD/DVD-ROM as the boot deviceWait for the CD to load... Click NextCompleting the Add Printer WizardReview your choices. Click Back if you need to change anythingClick FinishMotherboard Layout Diagram

1Some Excercises2Exercise 1:3Define each of the following terms.1.Computer______________________________________________________ ________________ ______________________________________________________________ ________________ ______________________________________________________________ ________________ 2.Hardware______________________________________________________ ________________ ______________________________________________________________ ________________ ______________________________________________________________ ________________ 3.Software_______________________________________________________ ________________ ______________________________________________________________ ________________ ______________________________________________________________ ________________ 4.Supercomputer__________________________________________________ _______________ ______________________________________________________________ ________________ ______________________________________________________________ ________________ 5.Mainframe_____________________________________________________ ________________ ______________________________________________________________ ________________ ______________________________________________________________ ________________ 6.Microcomputer__________________________________________________ _______________ ______________________________________________________________ ________________ ______________________________________________________________

________________ 7.NotebookComputer______________________________________________________ 8.LaptopComputer______________________________________________________ _________ ______________________________________________________________ ________________ ______________________________________________________________ ________________ 9.Personal DigitalAssistant_______________________________________________________ __ ______________________________________________________________ ________________ ______________________________________________________________ ________________ 4Short Answer Give at least 5 examples of how you have recently used acomputer in your everyday life:1.2.3.4.5.2Exercises Key11. Computer An electronic device that operates under the control of a set of instructions that isstored in its memory unit. It accepts data from an input device and processes it intouseful information, which it makes available on its output device.22. HardwareThe physical components of the computer and any equipment connected to it.33. SoftwareThe set of instructions that the computer follows in performing a task.44. Supercomputer Classified by size, the largest classification of computers.55. MainframeClassified by size, the second largest classification of computers. 66. Microcomputer Personal computers or desktop computers.77. Notebook Computer A personal computer that can fit into a briefcase.88. Laptop Computer A larger, heavier version of a notebook computer.99. Personal Digital AssistantClassified by size, the smallest classification of computers. It is a handheldcomputer.3Short Answer Give at least 5 examples of how you have recently used acomputer in your everyday life: These answers will vary.Important Points to Remember Applications software:Software that allows you to perform a task or solve aspecific problem.A backup system A way of storing data in more than one location.Byte : AbyteA unit of storage usually made up of eight bits. It represents onecharacter - a letter, digit, or symbol.Central Processing Unit : Central Processing Unit (CPU)is an Electronic circuitsthat interpret and execute instructions and communicates with the input, output, andstorage devices.Data Raw:Data Raw unprocessed facts to be processed by the computer.Documentation: Documentation Instructions provided with software that includessteps required for installation and use of the product.Freeware Software:Freeware Software considered to be in the public domain andmay be used or altered without fee or restriction.Gigahertz :Gigahertz (GHZ) A billion machine cycles per second.Hardcopy :Hardcopy Output produced by a printer.Hardware:The equipment associated with a computer system; it is responsible for performing four basic functions: input, processing, output, and storage. Input devices:Hardware devices that accept data in a form that the computer canutilize; they send the data or instructions to the processing unit to be processed intouseful information.A hard disk :An internal disk, a metal platter coated with magnetic oxide that can bemagnetized to represent data.Machine Cycle :A machine cycle Four steps performed by the central processingunit in carrying out the instructions of a program.Megaflop:A megaflop One million floating-point operations per second.Megahertz:(MHz) One million machine cycles per second.Memory: Primary storage that works with the CPU to hold instructions and data inorder to be processed.Office suite:A package of software that contains pieces of software. It is sold as asingle package and is designed to work together.Operating

Systems:software The set of programs that lie between applicationssoftware and the hardware devices; it controls the overall activity of a computer.Output device:A hardware device that displays the processed information to theuser.Random access memory(RAM): Memory that the computer user can access.Read only memory (ROM):Memory that contains programs and data that arepermanently recorded when the computer is manufactured.Secondary or auxiliary storage:A more permanent form of storage that does notdepend on a constant flow of electricity.Shareware:A form of free software; however, the author of shareware hopes youwill make a voluntary contribution for using the product.Softcopy:Monitor output.Software:A program that consists of instructions used to control hardware andaccomplish tasks.Exercise 2:1.____ Hardware devices that accept data in a form that the computer can use.2.____ Raw unprocessed facts to be processed by the computer.3.____ Electronic circuits that interpret and execute instructions andcommunicate with the input, output, and storage devices.4.____ Four steps performed by the central processing unit in carrying out theinstructions of a program. 5.____ Programs and data that are permanently recorded when the computer ismanufactured.6.____ A billion machine cycles per second.7.____ Hardware devices that display the processed information to the user.8.____ A million machine cycles per second.9.____ A more permanent form of storage that does not depend on a constantflow of electricity.10.____ A package of software that contains several pieces of software. It is soldas a single package and is designed to work together.11.____ A program that consists of instructions used to control hardware.12.____ An internal storage disk; it is a metal platter coated with magnetic oxidethat can be magnetized to represent data.13.____ A form of free software; however, the author hopes you will make avoluntary contribution for using the product.14.____ Instructions provided with software that includes steps required for installation and use of the product.15.____ Memory that the computer user can use.16.____ Output displayed on a monitor.17.____ Output produced by a printer.18.____ Primary storage that works with the CPU to hold instructions and data tobe processed.19.____ Software considered to be in the public domain; it may be used or altered without fee or restriction.20.____ Software that allows you to perform a particular task or solve a specificproblem.21.____ Equipment associated with a computer system; it is responsible for performing four basic functions: input, processing, output, and storage.22.____ A set of programs that lie between applications software and thehardware devices; it controls the overall activity of a computer.23.____ A storage unit that is usually made up eight bits and represents onecharacter, letter, digit, or symbol.24.____ A way of storing data in more than one location.25.____ One million floatingpoint operations per second. 4Exercise Key1.Input devices2.Data3.CPU4.Machine cycle5.ROM6.Gigahertz7.Output devices 8.Megahertz9.Secondary or auxiliary storage10.Office suite11.Software12.Hard disk13.Shareware14.Documentation15.RAM16.Softcopy17.Hardcopy18.Memory19.Freeware20.Applicat ions software21.Hardware22.Operating systems software23.Byte24.Backup system25.MegaflopNetworking BasicsA network is an interconnection of two or more devices in order to enable transfer of data or information from one place to another.Advantages1. Sharing of hardware resources2. Sharing of software resources3. Central storage and data security4. Easier and faster sharing of informationDisadvantages1. Costly hardware and software2. Need for an administrator to take care

of the networkTypes of Computer Networks1. Local Area Network (LAN)A network consisting of two or more computers that are interconnected by means of cable in a single location is called as Local Area Network. In a LAN, the computerscan take any one of the three functions as detailed below.Peer-topeer : This is an example of a simple network where two or more computersare directly connected to each other and share resources. There is no central controlover the network. Peer networks are organized into workgroups. Access to individualresources has to be controlled through a password. There is no restriction on thenumber of computers on a peer network.Server Based Network : In this type of networks, there is a main computer called asthe SERVER that controls the networks and provides central storage space for information.The other computers that are connected to the server are called as CLIENTS, or WORKSTATIONS, or DUMB TERMINALS. Hybrid Network : These types of network are a combination of both peer-to-peer network and server network.2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)A network of computers that are interconnected within a specific geographical arealike a university campus or a city is called as Metropolitan Area Network or CampusArea Network (CAN)3. Wide Area Network (WAN)A network of computers that are interconnected over a large area is called as a WideArea Network. The computers are connected by means of cables, telephone lines,satellites or radio transceivers.Components of a Computer Network1. Server 2. Workstations3. Network Interface Card (NIC)4. Network media5. Connector 6. Connecting devicesTypes of cablesCoaxial cableCoaxial cable has a single strand or multi-strand of copper. The wire is enclosed inplastic foam for insulation. The foam is surrounded by a second conductor, a wiremesh or metallic foil. The wire mesh protects the central conductor from electromagnetic interference. It also provides proper grounding for the central conductor.Coaxial cable transmit data typically at 10 Mbps. Data is transmitted in the form of electric current and are comparatively slower than fiber-optic cables.Twisted-pair cableThese cables have one or more pairs of copper wires that are twisted. The twistingreduces external interference. There are two types of twisted pair cables. 1. ShieldedTwisted Pair (STP) and 2. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP). STP cables are shielded with aluminium or polyester present in between the outer jacket and the wires. UTPcables do not have this shielding.Fiber-optic cableThese cables are mainly used as backbone in a WAN. Data is transmitted in the formof light signals. The inner core is enclosed in a layer of glass called as a cladding,that reflects light back into the core. A plastic sheath surrounds each fiber. Fiber-opticcables are capable of transmitting data at a very high speed offering data transfer speeds ranging from 100 Mbps to 2 Gbps and are more expensive.Plenum cableIn coaxial cables, PVC is used as the outer jacket for insulation. When the cableshave to be run in the space between the false ceiling and the floor above, a specialtype of cable called as plenum-grade cable has to be used. When burned, PVCgives off poisonous gases, so a fire resistant cable such as the plenum-grade cableis used. It is more expensive and less flexible than PVC insulated coaxial cables. Network Connectivity DevicesAny network grows over a period. This growth creates the need for attaching morecomputers in the network. Expansion of a network is of two types, they area) Expansion within a networkb) Joining two networksMore computers can be attached in a network by using additional cables andconnectors. But once the network architecture is stretched beyond a point, it reducesthe data transmission speeds. In such a situation, there arises a need for specialdevices, which

can amplify the signals and send them over longer distances. Thefollowing devices can be used to expand a single network without connecting it toother networks.a) Hubs (Active, Passive and Intelligent)b) Repeatersc) Switchesd) Bridgese) Multiplexersa) HubsThese are the connecting points in a network where UTP and STP cables are used.Hubs amplify signals and split them so that the signals reach their destination. Hubscan be of three types based on their function. Hubs are available in configuration of 4/8/16/32 ports for connecting 4/8/16/32 computers respectively. To add morecomputers to the network cascading of hubs can be done. Cascading is nothing buttaking the signal fromone hub to another hub. This is allowed only for Active hubs.Active hubs : These hubs provide connection points for cables to be attached fromeach computer in the network. The hub in turn is connected to the main computer called as the Server. Active hubs are mainly used in Star Topology.Passive hubs : These hubs merely act as junction boxes for extending the network.They cannot amplify or split signals.Intelligent hubs : These hubs have special instructions stored in the ROM that help insignal regeneration and path selection. An intelligent hub has the ability to choosethe path where the signal has to reach instead of sending the signals along all paths.They can also choose the quickest path for sending the signal.

Inter-network ConnectivityAny network consisting of two or more networks is called as an internetwork. TheInternet is an example of this. An inter-network may have different types of networks like Ethernet, Token ring, and ATM. The following devices can be used to expand aninter-network by connecting it to other network.a) RoutersA device that forwards data packets from one local area network (LAN) or wide areanetwork (WAN) to another. Based on routing tables and routing protocols, routersread the network address in each transmitted frame and make a decision on how tosend it based on the most expedient route (traffic load, line costs, speed, bad lines,etc.). Routers work at layer 3 in the protocol stack, whereas bridges and switcheswork at the layer 2.Routers are used to segment LANs in order to balance traffic within workgroups andto filter traffic for security purposes and policy management. Routers are also usedat the edge of the network to connect remote offices. b) BroutersBrouters are a combination of a router and a bridge. c) GatewaysThese are sophisticated devices combining both hardware and software. Gatewayhelps in connecting disparate networks. They take care of protocol conversion sothat data received from any network can be interpreted in your network and used.d) CSU/DSUChannel Service Unit/Digital Service Unit help in using the existing telephone line for transmitting signals. Apart from sending signals CSU/DSU also shield your networkfrom voltage currents that come through the telephone network.Network TopologyThe term topology, or more specifically, network topology, refers to thearrangements or physical layout of computers, cables, and other components on thenetwork. The three popular topologies are bus, star and ring. Each topology has itsstrengths and weakness.These are the three major topologies used in networks. Ethernet uses bus, hub andswitch topologies. Token Ring uses ring and switch.Patch ChordPatch Chord is just an UTP cable with RJ-45 connectors connected at both the ends.The patch chord may be straight cable or cross over cable depending upon theapplication

where it is used. RJ 45 JackRJ45 Colors and Wiring Standards5T-568B Straight-Through Ethernet CableBoth the T-568A and the T-568B standard Straight-Through cables are used most often aspatch cords for your Ethernet connections. If you require a cable to connect two Ethernetdevices directly together without a hub or when you connect two hubs together, you will needto use a Crossover cable instead. 6RJ-45 Crossover Ethernet CableHow to Build an Ethernet Cable Instructions:1.Pull the cable off the reel to the desired length and cut usingwire cuttersor scissors. If you are pulling cables through holes, it's easier to attach the RJ-45 plugsafter the cable is pulled. The total length of wire segments between a PC and aswitch or between two PC's cannot exceed 100 Meters (328 feet) for 100BASE-TXand 300 Meters for 10BASE-T.2.Start on one end and strip the cable jacket off (about 1") using awire stripper or a knife. Be extra careful not to nick the wires, otherwise you will need to start over.3.Spread, untwist the pairs, and arrange the wires in the order of the desiredcable end. Flatten the end between your thumb and forefinger. Trim the ends of thewires so they are even with one another, leaving only 1/2" in wire length. If it is longer than 1/2" it will be out-of-spec and susceptible to crosstalk. Flatten and insure thereare no spaces between wires.4.Hold theRJ-45 plugwith the clip facing down or away from you. Push thewires firmly into the plug. Inspect each wire is flat even at the front of the plug. Checkthe order of the wires. Double check again. Check that the jacket is fitted rightagainst the stop of the plug. Carefully hold the wire and firmly crimp the RJ-45 withthecrimp tool.5.Check the color orientation, check that the crimped connection is not about tocome apart, and check to see if the wires are flat against the front of the plug. If evenone of these are incorrect, you will have to start over.Test the Ethernet cable.Ethernet Cable Tips:A straight-thru cable has identical ends.A crossover cable has different ends.A straight-thru is used as a patch cord in Ethernet connections.A crossover is used to connect two Ethernet devices without a hub or for connecting two hubs.A crossover has one end with the Orange set of wires switched with theGreen set.Odd numbered pins are always striped, even numbered pins are always solidcolored. Looking at the RJ-45 with the clip facing away from you, Brown is always onthe right, and pin 1 is on the left.No more than 1/2" of the Ethernet cable should be untwisted otherwise it willbe susceptible to crosstalk.Do not deform, do not bend, do not stretch, do not staple, do not run parallelwith power cables, and do not run Ethernet cables near noise inducing components.TCP/IPTCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. It wasdeveloped for the US Department of Defense to allow communication betweendifferent types of computer and networks. Now it is a widely used networkingprotocol. TCP and IP are the two best known protocols in the suite. TheTransmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides reliable sequence delivery of packetsbetween clients. The Internet Protocol (IP) provides packet delivery between hosts.IP AddressingIn a TCP/IP environment communication between hosts and servers on theinternetwork is transparent. This is because each node using the TCP/IP protocolsuite has at least one unique 32 bit Internet Protocol (IP) address.A router reads the destination address in an IP packet and makes a routingdecision based on this address. All hosts on an inter-network require uniqueaddresses. IP address can be represented as a group of four decimal number (in therange 0 to 255), separated by decimal points. This is known as dotted decimalnotation.They can also be represented in binary or hex. Each IP address identifies a

hostswithin the inter-network. Part of an IP address identifies a particular network, partidentifies a subnet and part identifies a specific host within that sub-network.An IP address can be represented in dotted decimal notation or binary or hexadecimal notation. For example :Dotted decimal 130.57.30.56Binary 10000010.00111001.00011110.00111000Hexadecimal 82.39.IE.38Logically an IP address contains two parts. They are1. Network ID2. Host IDIn order to provide a method for assigning addresses in simple and easy manner, theIP address is classified for different types of networks like large, medium and smallnetworks.IP Address ClassesDepending on your networking requirements, you are assigned (by your serviceprovider) specific classes of IP address. They are five classes of IP addresses: A, B,C, D and E.Class A: Address range from 1 to 126. These addresses use the first byte to specifythe network and the last three bytes to specify the host. Class A addresses areassigned to system in a small number of networks and a large number of hosts. Class B: Address range from 128 to 191. These addresses use the first two bytes tospecify the network and next two bytes to specify the host. Class B addresses areassigned to systems in universities and commercial organizations.Class C: Address range from 192 to 223. These addresses use the first three bytesto specify the network and the last byte to specify the host. Class C addresses areassigned to systems in a network with small number of hosts.Class D: Address range from 224 to 239. These addresses are used for broadcasting messages over an inter-network. These addresses are also used for multicasting.Class E: Address range from 240 to 255. These addresses are reserved for researchpurposes and future use.Subnet MaskSubnet is a physical segment in a TCP/IP environment that uses IP addressesderived from a single network ID.Subnetting: One part is used to identify the segment as a unique network other partused to identify the hosts. This is known as subnetting.Example Class room Students in the classHere Class room - SubnetStudents - Network IDStudents name - Host IDSubnet mask is a 32b bit address and is used to (1) block out a portion of the IPaddress to distinguish the network ID from the host ID (2) specify whether thedestination host IP address is located on a local network or remote network.Each host on a TCP/IP network requires a subnet mask number Default subnet masks used when a network is not divided into subnetsCustom subnet masks used when a network is divided into subnets Default gatewayIP routing is the process of sending data from a host on one network to a remotehost on another network through a router or routers. In IP terminology routers arereferred to as gateways. The router uses a path to deliver packets, which is definedin its routing table. Routing table contains the IP address of router interfaces thatconnect one router with other.Important Points to Remember:BridgeA combination of hardware and software that recognizesthe messages on a network and passes on thoseaddressed to nodes in other networks.Browser Software on the users computer that allows the user toaccess the Internet via the service provider, using agraphical interface.Data communicationssystemsComputer systems that transmit data over communications lines such as telephone lines or cables.Download files Retrieve from another computer and store them.E-mailThe ability to send messages directly from one computer to another.File Transfer Protocol(FTP)A standard way to transfer copies of files on the Internet.Host computer The mainframe computer in a WAN.HubA device that repeats signals and connects a group of computers to a network.InternetA rapidly growing web of networks from around the world-- simply, a network of

networks.Internet Service Provider (ISP)Provides the server computer and the software requiredfor you to connect to the Internet. ListservWidely used automatic mailing manager.Local Area Network (LAN) A network of computers that share hardware, software,and data in small geographic area.Modem A device that converts a digital signal to an analog signaland vice versa.Newsgroups An informal network of computers that allows the postingand reading of messages in newsgroups that focuses onspecific topics.Plug-ins Software that enhances the value of a browser byincreasing its features.Router A special computer that directs communications trafficwhen several networks are connected together.Uniform ResourceLocator (URL)A unique address on the WWW.Web pages Documents that contain text, graphics, sound, and/or video and have built-in connections called hyperlinks.Web siteA related collection of Web pages.Wide Area Network(WAN)A network of geographically distant computers andterminals.World Wide Web (WWW) The largest and most popular part of the Internet; it is thegraphical part of the Internet. Exercise 3:Complete each of the statements below by filling in the blanks with terms found inthe Computer Network Concepts module.1.Computer systems that transmit data over communications lines such astelephone lines or cables are called _____________________________.2.A ___________________________ is a device that converts a digital signalto an analog signal and vice versa. It is short for modulate/demodulate.3.____________________is a technology that is capable of moving data at128,000 bps over any modem.4.A network of geographically distant computers and terminals is a__________________________________. 5.To ___________________ files means to retrieve files from another computer and store them.6.To ___________________ files means to send files to another computer.7.A network of computers that covers a small geographical area is a___________________________________.8.A special computer that directs communications traffic when several networksare connected together is a _____________________________.9.Sending messages directly from one computer to another is__________________.10.A __________________________ is an automatic mailing manager.11.11. The ______________________ is a rapidly growing web of networks fromaround the world - a network of networks.12.12. The largest and most popular part of the Internet is the_____________________.13.13. It is the graphical part of the Internet.___________________ aredocuments that contain text, graphics, sound, and/or video and have built-inconnections called ________________________.14.14. A related collection of Web pages is a_________________________________.15.15. A unique address on the WWW is called a_______________________________.16.16. A __________________________ is the software on the users computer that allows the user to access the Internet via the service provider using agraphical interface.17.17. The __________________________ provides the server computer andthe software required for you to connect to the Internet. AOL is an example.18.18. Computers on the Internet have a standard way to transfer copies of files.This program is called _________________________________.Exercise Key1.Data Communications Systems2.Modem3.Integrated Services Digital network, ISDN4.Wide Area Network (WAN)5.Download 6.Upload7.Local Area Network (LAN)8.Router 9.E-mail10.Listserv11.Internet12.World Wide Web (WWW)13.Web pages14.Web site15.Uniform Resource Locator (URL)16.Browser 17.Internet Service

Provider (ISP)18.File Transfer Protocol (FTP)Some Troubleshootung Tips and TechniquesCommon Troubleshooting StrategiesHere are five common-sense techniques and strategies to solve common computer hardware problems.(1) Trial-and-error Personal computers are highly modular by design. The most powerful trouble-shooting technique is to isolate the problem to a specific component by trialand-error. Swap compatible components and see if the system still works. Try differentperipherals on different machines and see if the same problem occurs. Make onechange at a time.(2) "It's the cable, s----."More than 70% of all computer problems are related to cabling and connections.Ensure all cables are connected firmly. IDE and SATA cables and power cables canoften go loose. Ensure microprocessor, memory modules, and adapters such asvideo card and sound card are inserted correctly and didn't "pop-up" duringtransportation.(3) Don't be frustrated!Don't be afraid of computer problems. It is often the best opportunity to learn.Trouble-shooting is part of the fun of owning a computer. Imagine the satisfactionyou could get by solving a problem yourself. Of course the fun could ran out quickly once you are frustrated and have spent toomuch time on the same problem. If you feel frustrated, it's time to leave it for a whileand go back with some new ideas or call someone who can help. Rule of thumb: Youshouldn't spend more than three hours on the same problem at one time.(4) Take notes!Take notes of what you have done and all the error messages. You may need to usethem later. For instance, when you see an unusual blue screen with an error message, copy the entire message onto a piece of paper. In many situations, thatmessage may point to the right direction in getting the problem solved quickly.(5) Take a look?It's OK to open a computer case and take a look inside. There is only 5V and 12VDC voltage supplied to the components outside the power supply.Of course, still always power down and unplug the power cord first.1Troubleshooting Tips for Cases and Power SuppliesThe most important part of a computer case is its power supply. Unfortunately, it'salso the part that has most of the problems for a case. There are two situations whena new power supply may appear dead on arrival (DOA) when they are actuallyworking as described below:Most cases and power supplies these days are made and tested in China and other Asian countries where 220V electricity is used. Desktop computer power supplies donot switch the power voltage automatically. If the factory forgets to turn the manualswitch back to 110V for the North American market after testing, the power supplywould appear DEAD if you use on a 110V-outlet. Therefore,always check thevoltage setting on the back of a new power supply FIRST if it appears dead.Do not expect an ATX power supply to work by simply plugging the power andturning on the switch. ATX power supplies are soft-switched on and off by themotherboard and BIOS. Therefore, you must plug it to a working motherboard with aworking microprocessor, memory and video card to work. If your computer does notturn on after you turn on the power switch, it may not necessarily mean a deadpower supply.The problem might be with the motherboard, microprocessor,memory or video card instead.You must examine all these components to isolatethe problem. The most effective technique to tell if a power supply is causing any problem is touse a different one to see if it solves the problem. Alternatively, you can plug the oldpower supply to an existing, working computer to see if it works there. More than 70% of all computer problems are related to cabling and connections.Ensure that you all the power plugs are connected firmly, including power connections to your motherboard and all

the drives. Make sure the cooling fan inside the power supply is working all the time. Reachout to feel the fan behind your case often. Clean the fan if necessary. If your casefeels warmer than room temperature, check the power supply fan first.2Troubleshooting Tips for a New MotherboardMore than 70% of all computer problems are related to cabling and connections.Ensure all cables are connected and connected firmly. IDE and floppy ribbon cablesand power cables can often go loose. Ensure microprocessor, memory modules, andadapters such as video card are inserted correctly and didn't "pop-up" due tovibration.System has no power at all. Power light does not illuminate, fan inside thepower supply does not turn on, and indicator light on keyboard does not turnon. PROBABLE CAUSE DIAGNOSIS SOLUTIONPower cable is unplugged.Visually inspect power cable.Make sure power cable issecurely plugged in.Defective power cable.Visual inspection, tryanother cable.Replace cable.Power supply failure.Power cable and wallsocket are OK, but systemis still dead.Contact technical supportFaulty wall outlet;circuitbreaker or fuse blown.Plug device into socketknow to work and test.Use different socket, repair outlet, reset circuit breaker or replace fuse. System inoperative. Keyboard lights are on, power indicator lights are lit, andhard drive is spinning. PROBABLE CAUSE DIAGNOSIS SOLUTIONExpansion card is partiallydislodged from expansionslot on the motherboard.Turn off computer. Takecover off system unit.Check all expansion cardsto ensure they are securelyseated in slots.Using even pressure on bothends of the expansion card,press down firmly onexpansion card.Defective expansion card.Turn computer off.Remove an expansioncard.Make sure expansion card issecure in expansion socket.System does not boot from hard disk drive, can be booted from floppy diskdrive. PROBABLE CAUSE DIAGNOSIS SOLUTIONConnector between harddrive and system boardunplugged.When attempting to run theFDISK utility described inthe HARD DISK section of the manual you get amessage, INVALID DRIVESPECIFICATION.Check cable running formdisk to disk controller on theboard. Make sure both endsare securely plugged in;check the drive type in theStandard CMOS Setup (inyour motherboard manual).Damaged Hard Disk or DiskController.Format hard disk; if unableto do so, the hard disk maybe defective.Contact Technical Support.Hard Disk directory or FATis scrambled.Fformat the hard drive(SeeHARD DRIVE section of manual). Copy your backupdata back onto hard drive.Backing up the hard drive isextremely important. All HardDisks are capable of breaking down at any time. Error message reading "SECTOR NOT FOUND" or other error messagesindication certain data is not allowed to be retrieved. PROBABLE CAUSE DIAGNOSIS SOLUTIONA number of causes couldbe behind this.Use a file by file backupinstead of an image backupto backup the Hard Disk.Back up any salvageabledata. Then do a low levelformat, partition, and highlevel format of the hard drive(see Hard Disk section of your manual for instructions). Re-install all saved data whencompleted.After install an expansion card (network card, tape drive card, etc.) the systemno longer works properly. PROBABLE CAUSE DIAGNOSIS SOLUTIONNo power to monitor.All or part of the systemmay be inoperable. Thenew card may work but amouse or COM port maynot work.Change the interrupt or RAMaddress on the newexpansion card. See thedocumentation that camewith the new card in order tochange pin settings. manyexpansion devices come withproprietary software that willassist you in doing this.Screen message says "Invalid Configuration" or "CMOS Failure." PROBABLE CAUSE DIAGNOSIS SOLUTIONIncorrect informationentered into theconfiguration (setup)program.Check the

configurationprogram. Replace anyincorrect information.Review system's equipment.Make sure correctinformation is in setup. Screen is blank. PROBABLE CAUSE DIAGNOSIS SOLUTIONNo power to monitor.Power connectors may beloose or not plugged in.Check the power connectorsto monitor and to system.Make sure monitor isconnected to display card,change I/O address onnetwork card if applicable.Monitor not connected tocomputer.See instructions above.Network card I/O addressconflict.See instructions above.PROBABLE CAUSE DIAGNOSIS SOLUTIONMemory problem, displaycard jumpers not setcorrectly. Reboot computer. Re-installmemory, make sure that allmemory modules areinstalled in correct sockets.Check jumper and switchsettings on display card. Seedisplay card section for information of settings.Computer virus.Use anti-virus programs(McAfee/PC-cillin, E-port,etc) to detect and cleanviruses. Screen goes blank periodically. PROBABLE CAUSE DIAGNOSIS SOLUTIONScreen saver is enabled. Disable screen saver.Keyboard failure. PROBABLE CAUSE DIAGNOSIS SOLUTIONKeyboard is disconnected.Reconnect keyboard. Checkkeys again, if noimprovement, replacekeyboard.No color on screen. PROBABLE CAUSE DIAGNOSIS SOLUTIONFaulty Monitor.If possible, connect monitor to another system. If no color,replace monitor.CMOS incorrectly set up. Call technical support.C: drive failure. PROBABLE CAUSE DIAGNOSIS SOLUTIONSETUP program does nothave correct information. Boot from drive A: using DOSsystem disk. Input correctinformation to SETUPprogram.Hard Drive cable notconnected properly.Check Hard drive cable. Cannot boot system after installing second hard drive. PROBABLE CAUSE DIAGNOSIS SOLUTIONMaster/Slave jumpers notset correctly. Set master /Slave jumperscorrectly.Hard Drives notcompatible / differentmanufacturers. Run SETUP program andselect correct drive types.Call drive manufactures for compatibility with other drives.Missing operating system on hard drive. PROBABLE CAUSE DIAGNOSIS SOLUTIONCMOS setup has beenchanged. Run setup and select correctdrive type.Certain keys do not function. PROBABLE CAUSE DIAGNOSIS SOLUTIONKeys jammed or defective. Replace keyboard.Keyboard is locked, no keys function. PROBABLE CAUSE DIAGNOSIS SOLUTIONKeyboard is locked. Unlock keyboard7The purpose of the Boot.ini file in Windows XP8Windows (specifically Ntldr) uses the Boot.ini file to determine which operatingsystem options to display when the Startup program is running. By default, Boot.ini isnot flagged as a read-only system file and generally does not require any manualmodification.If you must change the contents of this file, use the System tool in Control Panel:1.Click Start button, click Control Panel, and then double-clickSystem. . Click the Advanced tab, and then click Settings under Startup andRecovery.9Typically, the Boot.ini file contains the following data:10[boot loader]timeout=30default=scsi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(1)\winnt[operating systems]scsi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(1)\winnt = "Windows NT" /NODEBUG C:\ = "PreviousOperating System on C:\"11The following list describes the meaning of the data in the Boot.ini file: The "timeout" variable specifies how long Windows waits before choosing thedefault operating system. The "default" variable specifies the default operating system. The term "scsi(0)" means that the primary controller (that is frequently the onlycontroller) is responsible for the device. If there are two SCSI controllers, and

thedisk is associated with the second controller, the controller is named "scsi(1)".If the system uses IDE, enhanced IDE (EIDE), or Enhanced Small DeviceInterface (ESDI) drives, or if the system uses a SCSI adapter that does not have abuilt-in BIOS, replace "scsi" with "multi". The term "disk(0)" refers to the SCSI logical unit (LUN) to use. This may be aseparate disk, but most SCSI setups have only one LUN for each SCSI ID. The term "rdisk(0)" refers to physical disk 1. The term "partition(1)" is the partition on the first drive in the computer. If there aretwo partitions, partition C is partition(1) and partition D is partition(2). A multi-boot parameter calls for checking the Winnt folder to start from a specifiedSCSI controller's disk and partition. "/NODEBUG" specifies that no debugging information is being monitored.Debugging information is useful only for developers. You can add the/SOSoption to display driver names while the drivers are beingloaded. By default, the OS Loader screen only shows progress dots. "Previous Operating System on C:\" implies that the "previous operating system" isMS-DOS, because "C:\" is an MS-DOS path. Edited By