Introduction to CDMA

What is CDMA?
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a digital technology pioneered by QUALCOMM that provides crystal clear voice quality in a new generation of wireless communications products and services. Bandwidth of CDMA is 824MHz to 849MHz for uplink and 869MHz to 894MHz for downlink. Using digital encoding and "spread spectrum" Radio Frequency (RF) techniques, CDMA provides better and more cost effective:

Voice quality Privacy System capacity Flexibility

than other wireless technologies. CDMA also provides enhanced services such as:

Short messaging E-mail Internet access

CDMA and other wireless communication have become very popular in the last few years, but people have been trying to accomplish the goals of wireless telecomm. Since shortly after the invention of the telephone. While designing communication system, the main points to be considered are: Capacity Delay Error detection/correction. Capacity concerns how much information you can deliver from the source to the destination. Delay issues are those involving delivery of information in the shortest time. Error detection/correction is a method to reduce errors in the delivery of information. Think about problems you may have experienced due to these issues. For example, there may be a capacity problem in your carrier's system if you experience trouble placing a call.

Multiple Access Systems: Wireless telecommunications has dramatically increased in popularity, resulting in the need for technologies that allow multiple users to share the same frequency. These are called "multiple access systems." The three types of multiple access system are: 1) Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) 2) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) 3) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 1

 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Each FDMA subscriber is assigned a specific frequency channel. No one else in the same cell or a neighboring cell can use the frequency channel while it is assigned to a user. This reduces interference, but severely limits the number of users.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

TDMA users share a common frequency channel, but use the channel for only a very short time. They are each given a time slot and only allowed to transmit during that time slot. When all available time slots in a given frequency are used, the next user must be assigned a time slot on another frequency. These time slices are so small that the human ear does not perceive the time slicing.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) CDMA users share a common frequency channel. All users are on the same freq. at the same time. However, each pair of users is assigned a special code that reduces interference while increasing privacy.

Features of CDMA: The following features are unique to CDMA technology:

Universal frequency reuse Fast and accurate power control Rake receiver Different types of handoff

Frequency reuse
The frequency spectrum is a limited resource. Therefore, wireless telephony, like radio, must reuse frequency assignments. For example, two radio stations might transmit at 91.3 FM. There is no interference as long as the radio stations are far enough apart. Cell interference: Cell A and B of a conventional, analog system are using the same frequency. The area of overlap, area C, has a frequency conflict and interference. This is similar to what you experience when you are driving between the broadcast zones of two radio stations transmitting at the same frequency.

FDMA and TDMA frequency reuse planning

A frequency (channel) can be used again within an FDMA or TDMA network, but an appropriate distance must separate cells using the same frequency. Adjacent cells must be assigned a different set of frequencies. For example, a cell using frequency A must not be adjacent to another cell using frequency A. As a result, each cell site in the site is able to use only 1/7 of the possible frequencies.

CDMA frequency reuse planning Each BTS in a CDMA network can use all available frequencies. Adjacent cells can transmit at the same frequency because code channels, not frequency channels, separate users. This feature of CDMA, called "frequency reuse of one, eliminates the need for frequency planning.

Power control
4

Power control is a CDMA feature that enables mobiles to adjust the power at which they transmit. This ensures that the base station receives all signals at the appropriate power. The CDMA network independently controls the power at which each mobile transmits. Both forward and reverse links use power control techniques.

Why power control is needed If all mobiles transmitted at the same power level, the base station would receive unnecessarily strong signals from mobiles nearby and extremely weak signals from mobiles that are far away. This would reduce the capacity of the system. This problem is called the near-far problem.

Reverse link power control Reverse link power control consists of two processes: Open loop Closed loop Open loop is an initial estimate of the power the mobile needs to transmit to the BTS. Closed loop is a refinement of the open loop estimate. Open loop power control 5

Open loop is the mobile's estimate of the power at which it should transmit. The open loop estimate is based on the strength of the pilot signal the mobile receives. As the pilot signal gets weaker or stronger, the mobile adjusts its transmission strength upwards or downwards. Open loop is used any time the mobile transmits

Closed loop power control In closed loop, the BTS sends a command to the mobile to increase or decrease the strength at which it is transmitting. The BTS determines this command based on the quality of the signal it receives from the mobile. Closed loop is only used during a call. Closed loop commands are sent on the forward traffic channel. Forward link power control The BTS independently adjusts the power for each forward traffic channel based on the information it receives from the mobile.

Rake Receiver
The rake receiver is a CDMA feature that turns what is a problem in other technologies into an advantage for CDMA. Signals sent over the air can take a direct path to the receiver, or they can bounce off objects and then travel to the receiver. These different paths, called multi-paths, can result in the receiver getting several versions of the same signal but at slightly different times. Multi-paths can cause a loss of signal through cancellation in other technologies.

CDMA's rake receiver is a multiple receiver in one. The rake receiver identifies the three strongest multi-path signals and combines them to produce one very strong signal. The rake receiver therefore uses multipath to reduce the power the transmitter must send. Both the mobile and the BTS use rake receivers.

Handoff in CDMA
Handoff is the process of transferring a call from one cell to another. This is necessary to continue the call as the phone travels. CDMA is unique in how it handles handoff. CDMA has three primary types of handoff: 1)Hard,(2) Soft (3) Idle The type of handoff depends on the handoff situation.

Soft handoff A soft handoff establishes a connection with the new BTS prior to breaking the connection with the old one. This is possible because CDMA cells use the same frequency and because the mobile uses a rake receiver. The CDMA mobile assists the network in the handoff. The mobile detects a new pilot as it travels to the next coverage area. The new base station then establishes a connection with the mobile. This new communication link is established while the mobile maintains the link with the old BTS. Soft handoffs are also called "make-before-break."

Variations of the soft handoff: There are two variations of sectors within a BTS:

soft

handoffs

involving

handoffs

between

Softer Soft-softer

The softer handoff occurs between two sectors of the same BTS. The BTS decodes and combines the voice signal from each sector and forwards the combined voice frame to the BSC. The soft-softer handoff is combination handoff involving multiple cells and multiple sectors within one of the cells.

CDMA hard handoff A hard handoff requires the mobile to break the connection with the old BTS prior to making the connection with the new one. CDMA phones use a hard handoff when moving from a CDMA system to an analog system because soft handoffs are not possible in analog systems. A Pilot Beacon Unit (PBU) at the analog cell site alerts the phone that it is reaching the edge of CDMA coverage. The phone switches from digital to analog mode as during the hard handoff. Hard handoffs are also called "break-beforemake." The CDMA hard handoff may be used when moving from a CDMA network to an analog one. It may also be used when moving to a different:

RF channel MTSO (Mobile Telephone Switching Office) Carrier Market

Analog to CDMA handoff is not available due to the limitations of analog technology. CDMA idle handoff An idle handoff occurs when the phone is in idle mode. The mobile will detect a pilot signal that is stronger than the current pilot. The mobile is always searching for the pilots from any neighboring BTS. When it finds a stronger signal, the mobile simply begins attending to the new pilot. An idle handoff occurs without any assistance from the BTS.

TDMA and FDMA handoff TDMA and FDMA systems use a hard handoff when the mobile is moving from one cell site to another. These technologies do not allow for any type of makebefore-break handoff. A hard handoff can increase the likelihood of a dropped call.

Advantages of CDMA
CDMA technology has numerous advantages including:

Coverage Capacity Clarity Cost Customer satisfaction

Coverage
CDMA's features result in coverage that is between 1.7 and 3 times that of TDMA: Power control helps the network dynamically expand the coverage area. Coding and interleaving provide the ability to cover a larger area for the same amount of available power used in other systems.

Capacity: -CDMA capacity is ten to twenty times that of analog systems, and
it is up to four times that of TDMA. Reasons for this include:

CDMA's universal frequency reuse CDMA users are separated by codes, not frequencies Power control minimizes interference, resulting in maximized capacity. CDMA's soft handoff also helps increase capacity. This is because a soft handoff requires less power. Clarity: -Often CDMA systems can achieve "Wire line" clarity because of CDMAs strong digital processing. Specifically:

The rake receiver reduces errors The variable rate vocoder reduces the amount of data transmitted per person, reducing interference. The soft handoff also reduces power requirements and interference. Power control reduces errors by keeping power at an optimal level. CDMA's wide band signal reduces fading. Encoding and interleaving reduce errors that result from fading.

Cost: - CDMAs better coverage and capacity result in cost benefits:

Increased coverage per BTS means fewer are needed to cover a given area. This reduces infrastructure costs for the providers. Increased capacity increases the service provider's revenue potential. CDMA costs per subscriber has steadily declined since 1995 for both cellular and PCS applications.

Customer satisfaction: CDMA results in greater customer satisfaction because CDMA provides better: Voice quality Longer battery life due to reduced power requirements No cross-talk because of CDMA's unique coding Privacy--again, because of coding. Security because of coding.

10

Difference between CDMA and GSM: -

Topic Capacity Coverage Fraud Frequency Planning Spectral Efficiency Privacy Frequency Diversity Path Diversity Call StabilityHandovers Power Control

CDMA Higher spectral efficiency than GSM/TDMA/analog Inherently sensitive receiver implies excellent cell range Very secure network N=1 frequency reuse pattern nearly eliminates frequency planning Very High Air interface security prevents eavesdropping Spread spectrum provides frequency diversity

GSM Higher spectral efficiency than analog Limited by lesser receiver sensitivity Secure network N=7 frequency reuse pattern requires standard frequency planning Low Air interface security prevents eavesdropping Possible through slow frequency hopping

Favorably utilizes multi-path to enhance Susceptible to signal degradation overall signal quality (via rake receivers) due to multi path interference Hard, Soft and Softer Handovers Make before break for soft/softer handovers Key to achieving multi-fold capacity gains over other tech. Hard handovers Break before make Key to extending life of mobiles battery

Technique of Spreading: 11

 CDMA is a digital wireless air interface and networking standard based on the principle of spread-spectrum techniques, which allow multiple users to access the system simultaneously on the same carrier frequency. CDMA is a method in which users occupy the same time and frequency allocations, and are channelized by unique assigned codes. The signals are separated at the receiver by using a correlator that accepts only signal energy from the desired channel. Undesired signals contribute only to noise. The technique of spreading the user waveform with code is called Spread spectrum.

Why Spreading?
Spread spectrum multiple access transmits the entire signal over a bandwidth that is much greater than that required for standard narrow band transmissions in order to gain signal-to-noise (S/N) performance. In channels with narrowband noise, increasing the transmitted signal bandwidth results in an increased probability that the received information will be correct. Because each signal is a compilation of many smaller signals at the fundamental frequency and its harmonics, increasing the frequency results in a more accurate reconstruction of the original signal. The effective drawback of narrowband data communications is the limitation of bandwidth; thus signals must be transmitted with enough power so the corruption by gaussian noise isn't as effective and the probability that the data received is correct will remain low. This means that the effective SNR must be high enough so that the receiver can recover the transmitted code without error. From a system viewpoint, the performance increase for very wideband systems is referred to as "process gain". This term is used to describe the received signal fidelity gained at the cost of bandwidth. The signal may be spread over a large bandwidth with smaller spectral power levels and still achieve the required data rate. Two Types of spread spectrum technique: Frequency Hopping (FH) Direct Sequence (DS) In frequency hopping, the carrier frequency in frequency hopping is changed very rapidly. The frequency is changed rapidly, in a pseudorandom sequence. In Direct Sequence the narrowband signal is spread and we're going to spread that signal using a wide bandwidth pseudonoise sequence, or a code sequence. Also known as PN codes, pseudonoise codes. Tata Tele Services uses Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum technique for spreading the signal.

DS-SS: 12

 CDMA technology focuses primarily on the "direct sequence" method of spread spectrum. Direct sequence is spread spectrum technique in which the bandwidth of a signal is increased by artificially increasing the bit data rate. This is done by breaking each bit into a number of sub-bits called "chips". Assuming this number is 10, each bit of the original signal would be divided up into 10 separate bits, or "chips." This results in an increase in the data rate by 10. By increasing the data rate by 10, we also increase the bandwidth by 10. The signal is divided up into smaller bits by multiplying it by a Pseudo-Noise code, PN-code. A PN-code is a sequence of high data rate bits ("chips"). Spread the narrowband signal with a code; (that code must be known by the receiver). And with the receiver knowing that code, the original information cane be extracted. Methods for spreading the bandwidth of the transmitted signal over a spectrum, or band of frequencies, much wider than the minimum bandwidth required to transmit the signal. Spreading is often used to: -Reduce the effect of jamming (intentional interference) -Reduce effect from other interference.e.g narrow band transmitter, other spread spectrum transmitters. Traditional technologies try to squeeze signal into minimum required bandwidth.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum: -

CDMA is a multiple access scheme where users are identified by codes. Commercial CDMA systems use Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS)

13

In DS-SS, the transmitter spreads the signal power over a wide bandwidth using a unique code. The receiver de-spreads the signal using a synchronized version of the spreading code During the spreading of a signal, it is multiplied by a random Pseudorandom Noise signal (sequence) at a rate higher than the source data rate. As it is well known that when the transmission data rate is increased in time domain that means the bit duration is decreased, which is equivalent to an increase of bandwidth in the frequency domain. The main parameter in spread spectrum systems is the processing gain: the ratio of transmission and information bandwidth. The processing gain defines how much spreading is applied to the signal. Spreading: Source signal is multiplied by a PN signal Processing Gain: Chip Rate / Data Rate. Despreading: Spread signal is multiplied by the spreading code In digital systems the energy per bit needs to be a certain level above the total interference density in order to detect the transmitted bit. This is referred to as Eb/Io. The receiver performance depends on Eb/No. The effective noise, No, is the residual interference caused by other users at the de-spreader output. No fluctuates with time depending on who is transmitting during the frame. Different users can operate at different data rates with different frame activities. Major factors that impact Eb/No values are as follows: Desired FER performance, Subscriber Speed, Delay spread, TX and Rx Diversity Methods.

Introduction to CDMA signal

The words Code and Division are important parts of how CDMA works. CDMA uses codes to convert between analog voice signals and digital signals. CDMA also uses codes to separate (or divide) voice and control data into data streams called Channels. These digital data streams channels should not be confused with frequency channels.

Generating a CDMA signal

Analog to Digital conversion. Vocoding Encoding and interleaving. Channelizing the signal. Conversion of the digital signal to RF signal.

The use of codes is the key part of this process. The block diagram and the required components for generating the CDMA signal are as shown in figure 1. 14

1. Analog to Digital Conversion: -The first step of CDMA signal generation is analog to digital conversion. CDMA uses a technique called pulse code modulation (PCM) to accomplish A/D conversion. 2. Vocoder: -The second step of CDMA signal generation is voice compression. CDMA uses a device called a vocoder to accomplish voice compression. The term Vocoder is a contraction of the words voice and code. Vocoder is located at the BSC and in the phone. People pause between syllables and words when they talk. Thus CDMA takes advantage of these pauses in speech activity by using a variable rate vocoder.

Variable Rate Vocoder: A CDMA vocoder varies compression of the voice signal into one of four data rates based on the rate of the users speech activity. The four rates are: Full 1/8 9.6Kbps 4.8Kbps 2.4Kbps 1.2Kbps

The vocoder uses its full rate when a person is talking very fast. It uses the 1/8 rate when the person is silent. 3. Encoding and Interleaving: -Encoders and interleavers are built into the BTS and the phones. The purpose of the encoding and interleaving is to build a redundancy into the signal so that information lost in transmission can be recovered. The type of encoding done at this stage is called Convolutional Encoding. A simplified encoding scheme is shown below:

15

Bit Encoded Symbol Error Decoded Bits

A AAA AAA A

B BBB BB? B

C CCC ??C ?

D DDD DDD D

A digital message consists of four bits (A, B, C, D) of vocoded data. Each bit is repeated three times. These encoded bits are called symbol.. The decoder at the receiver uses a majority logic rules. 4. Interleaving: Interleaving is a simple but powerful method of reducing the effect of burst errors and recovering lost bits. In this example shown here the symbols from each group are interleaved in a pattern that the receivers know. Bit Symbol Interleaved Symbol Errors Deinterleaved Decoded bits A AAA ABC ABC A?A A B BBB DAB D?? B?B B C CCC CDA ??A C?C C D DDD BCD BCD D?D D

5. Channelizing: - The encoded voice data is further encoded to separate it from other encoded voice data. The encoded symbols are then spread over the entire bandwidth of the CDMA channel. This process is called Channelization.

CDMA Channels: 16

CDMA Physical Channel: CDMA physical channel is 1.25MHz wide. All users in a cell share same physical channel. All cells in a CDMA system may use the same frequency. Forward and reverse channels are separated by 45MHz. CDMA Logical Channels: CDMA logical channels are uniquely identified by digital codes. All logical channels share same physical channel

Different Channels: Forward Channels:

The forward link uses four types of channels to transmit voice and control data to the mobile. The types of forward link channels are: 1) Pilot Channel: The BTS constantly transmits the pilot channel. The mobile uses the pilot signal to acquire the system. It then uses the pilot signal to monitor and adjust the power needed in order to transmit back to the BTS. Provide a reference signal for all MSs that provides the phase reference for COHERENT demodulation 4-6 dB stronger than all other channels. Walsh code 0 is used for pilot channel. It provides unique reference clock, which is attained by GPS from satellite. 2) Sync Channel: The BTS constantly transmits over the sync channel so the mobile can synchronize with the BTS. It provides the mobile with the system time and the identification number of the cell site. The mobile ignores the sync channel after it is synchronized. Synchronization is provided by phase locked loop.Used to acquire initial time synchronization Synch message includes system ID (SID), network ID (NID), the offset of the PN short code, the state of the PN-long code, and the paging channel data rate (4.8/9.6 Kbps). W32 is used for Sync channel. 3) Paging Channel: CDMA uses up to seven paging channels. The paging channel transmits overhead information such as commands and pages to the mobile. The paging channel also sends commands and traffic channel assignment during call setup. The mobile ignores the paging channel after a traffic channel is established. Used to page the MS in case of an 17

Link

incoming call, or to carry the control messages for set up Uses W1-W7 There is no power control Additionally scrambled by PN long code, which is generated by LFSR of length 42 The rate 4.8 Kbps or 9.6Kbps. One paging channel can give signaling to 32 users. 4) Forward Link Traffic Channels: CDMA uses between 55 and 61 forward traffic channels to send both voice and overhead control data during a call. Once the call is completed, the mobile tunes back in to the paging channel for commands and pages. Also carry power control bits for the reverse channel.

Reverse Link Channels:

The reverse link uses two types of channels to transmit voice and control data to the BTS. The types of reverse link channels are: 1) Access Channel: The mobile uses the access channel when not assigned to a traffic channel. The mobile uses the access channel to: Originate the calls Respond to pages and commands from the base station Transmit overhead messages to the base station. 2) Reverse Link Traffic Channel: The reverse traffic channel is only used when there is a call. The reverse traffic channel transmits voice data to the BTS. It also transmits the overhead control information during the call.

Call Processing Stages: 1)

There are four stages or modes in CDMA call processing: Initialization Mode: During initialization, the mobile: Acquires the system via the Pilot Code Channel Synchronizes with the system via the Sync Code Channel. 2) Idle Mode: The mobile is not involved in a call during idle mode, but it must stay in communication with the base station: The mobile and the base station communicate over the access and paging code channels. The mobile obtains overhead information via the paging code channel. 3) Access Mode: The mobile accesses the network via the Access code channel during call origination. The Access channel and Paging channel carry the required call setup communication between the mobile phone and the BTS until a traffic channel is established. Traffic Mode: During a Land To Mobile (LTM) call: The mobile receives a page on the paging channel

4)

18

The mobile responds on the access channel. The traffic channel is established and maintained throughout the call. During a Mobile To Land (MTL) call: The call is placed using the Access channel. The base station responds on the paging channel. The traffic channel is established.

Codes Used in CDMA system: CDMA uses three different Codes: (i) Walsh Codes (ii) PN Short Codes and (iii) PN Long Codes

1.Walsh Codes: This type of coding is used in forward link. Walsh codes provide a means to uniquely identify each user on the forward link. Walsh codes have a unique mathematical property they are orthogonal. In other words, Walsh codes are unique enough that the voice data can only be recovered by a receiver applying the same Walsh code. All other signals are discarded as background noise. The Walsh code is 64 chips long; it's a sequence of 64 chips, 1s and 0s, that repeats after every 64 chips.

Generation of Walsh codes: Starting with a seed of 0 and same bit in horizontally and same bit vertically while complements in diagonally generates orthogonal codes. This process is to be continued with newly generated block until the desired codes with proper length are generated. So in this way we will get total 64-walsh codes each have 64 bit long. Walsh codes are used in the forward CDMA link to separate users. In any given sector, each forward code channel is assigned a distinct Walsh code. The process is shown on next page. 0 0 0 0 1 00 00 01 01 00 11 01 10

0000 0101 0011 0110

0000 0101 0011 0110

19

0000 1111 0101 1010 0011 1100 0110 1001

00000000 01010101 00110011 01100110 00001111 01011010 00111100 01101001 00000000 01010101 00110011 01100110 00001111 01011010 00111100 01101001

00000000 01010101 00110011 01100110 00001111 01011010 00111100 01101001 11111111 10101010 11001100 10011001 11110000 10100101 11000011 10010110

And so on up to 64 bits horizontally and vertically as shown in the Figure 64 bit Walsh codes (providing 64 bit orthogonal codes) are used to provide 64 channels within each frequency band. They are used for spreading in the forward link. In the reverse link it is used to provide orthogonal modulation but not spreading to the full 1.2288 Mcps rate. The specific Walsh function on to which the data is modulated defines the forward link channelization. Pilot Channel (always used Walsh code W0) Mobile acquires phase, timing and signal strength via the pilot channel. Paging Channel (use Walsh codes W1-W7) Mobile gets system parameters via the paging channel. Sync Channel (always uses Walsh code W32) Mobile synchronizes via the sync channel. 4. Traffic Channel (use Walsh codes W8-W31 and W33- W63) Mobile and BTS communicate over the traffic channels during a connection.

1. 2. 3.

20

Walsh sequences are also referred to as Wash Functions. These codes are generated at 1.2288 Mbps (Mcps) with a period of approximately 52 s as illustrates below. These are used to identify users on the forward link. For this reason they are also referred to as either Walsh Channels or TCH. All base stations and mobile users have knowledge of all Walsh codes. Walsh Code generator Rate = 1.2288 Mcps Time duration for the one Chip = 1/1.2288 Mcps = 0.813 micro second Total 64 chips are in one Walsh code so time between two Walsh code generations = 0.813* 10-6 * 64 = 52.08 * 10-6 Second What is Correlation Correlation is a Measure of how well a given signal matches a desired code. The desired code is compared to the given signal at various test times. Orthogonal Spreading and De-Spreading: The principle behind spreading and de-spreading is that when a symbol is XORed with a known pattern and the result is again XORed with the same pattern, the original symbol is recovered. Hence, the effect of XOR operation if performed twice using the same code is null. In orthogonal spreading, each encoded symbol is XORed with 64 chips of the Walsh code. Recovery of Spread Symbol At the receiver side the signal is de-spreads using the same Walsh code used at the transmitter side. Under no Noise conditions, the symbols or digits are completely recovered without any error. But, the channel is not noise free. So, cdmaOne systems employ FEC (Forward Error Control) techniques to combat effects of noise and enhance the performance of the systems. When the wrong Walsh sequence is used for dispreading, the resulting correlation yields an average of zero. This is a clear demonstration of the advantage of the orthogonality property of the Walsh codes. Whether the wrong code is by receiver or other users attempting to decode the received signal, the resulting correlation is always zero.

21

Received Signal

Correlation = 1 Correlation = 0 Tim e Correlation = 0 Correlation = 0

Figure 5

Recovering data using correct function Rx Data Function Recovered Data 1001 0110 1111 1 0110 0110 0000 0 0110 0110 0000 0 1001 0110 1111 1 1001 0110 1111 1 XOR

Recovering data using incorrect function Rx Data Function Recovered Data 1001 0101 1100 ? 0110 0101 0011 ? 0110 0101 0011 ? 1001 0101 1100 ? 1001 0101 1100 ? XOR

Pseudo random Noise (PN) code: PN code has randomness properties. If the current state and the generating function of the PN code are known, the Future state of the code can be predicted. In CDMAOne system each base stations and all mobile in that base station use same set of three PN sequence (two short codes and one long code).

2. Short code: Two short code I and Q are used in CDMAOne. We have total 215 = 32,768 codes.

22

They are generated at the rate of 1.2288Mcps. So after 32768/1.2288* 106 =26.67ms The code will repeat itself. Unique PN offset serve as identifiers for a cell or a sector. In CDMAOne there are 32768/64 = 512 Total offset each have 64 bits long. So total effective offset in one cell would be 512/3 = 170.

3. Long Code: One long code of length 242 = 4400 billion are used in CDMAOne system. It is used for spreading and scrambling. They are generated at the rate of 1.2288Mcps. So after 4398046511104/1.2288*106 = 3579139.4133 second or 42 days (35791.4133/24*60*60) the code will repeat itself.

Generation of PN codes: -

The most important element in the transmitter and receiver in a CDMA system is the PN sequence generator, which is used for spreading and de-spreading signals. The PN sequence has a random set of words, which repeat after a specific sequence length. Pure sequence is highly predictable and a pure random signal makes it difficult even for the desired receiver to recover the signal. Hence, the PN sequence is the best choice. Masking is used to produce offsets in both the short codes and long code. The offsets of the short PN codes are used to uniquely identify the forward channels of the individual sectors or cells. The offsets of the Long code are used to separate code channels in the reverse direction. PN Offset Masking: Masking provides the shift in time for PN codes. Different masks correspond to different time shifts. In cdmaOne systems, ESN are used as masks for used on the Traffic code channel. If the current state and the generating function of the PN code are known, the Future state of the code PN codes mimic randomness properties can be predicted. In cdmaOne system each base stations and all mobile in that base station use same set of three PN sequences (two short codes and one long code).

23

Forward Channel Generation: -

The forward link uses the frequency spectrum 824-849 MHz. Each carrier in forward link channel is of 1.25MHz wide. Each channel is separated using different spreading codes. QPSK is the modulation scheme used in forward channel. After orthogonal codes, they are further spread by short PN spreading codes. Short PN spreading codes are of length 15 with a period of 32768 chips. Why we have two spreading codes? The orthogonal codes are used to differentiate between the transmissions within a cell. The PN spreading codes are used to isolate different cells (BSs) that are

24

using the same frequencies. The same PN sequence is used in all BSs.The offset for each BS is different. Of course, this requires synchronization Synchronization is achieved by GPS.

Reverse Channel Generation: -

BASIC STRUCTURE OF CDMA NETWORK: 25

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

The basic structure of the network is shown in the figure. The components are described below: Microwave Antenna ODU (Out Door Unit) IDU (In Door Unit) MUX DDF (Digital Distribution Frame) BTS (Base station Transceiver Subsystem) Sector antenna GPS antenna

1)

Microwave antenna
MW antenna is used to transmit MW signal in air. This antenna is a directional antenna (DA). It means it will transmit in one direction only. This is used to connect E1 link between two sites. Two MW antennas are there in each site to establish a ring network. It sends traffic to BSC (Base Station Controller). The transmitting frequency is in terms of GH. Parabolic types of antenna are used in TTL.

2)

ODU (Out Door Unit)

26

ODU is attached to the MW antenna. Its function is to modulate the incoming signal from IDU with higher carrier frequency signal. Means frequency up conversion is performed here.

3) MUX

IDU (In Door Unit)

IDU converts between RF (Radio Frequency) signal and optical signal. To establish ring network more then one IDU can be required. Here MUX are used to carry E1 from one site to the other site. BTS is connected to the MUX via DDF. Here MUX can carry both data and voice traffic. MUX uses SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) technology. Different types are: Type STM 0 STM-1 STM-4 STM-16 STM-64 STM-256 Capacity 21E1 63E1 4x63 E1 16x63 E1 64x63 E1 256x63 E1

Single E1 has a capacity of 2.048 Mbps. MSH11c (STM-1) and MSH41c (STM-4) are used in TTL.

4) 5)

DDF
DDF stands for Digital Distribution Frame. DDF is a point where E1 is terminated. It provides only connectivity between two points.

BTS
BTS stands for Base Station Transceiver Subsystem. BTS is connected with GPS antenna via RF cable. The CDMA signal is processed by BTS. BTS include filters, amplifier and other control module. BTS receive and transmit signal via sector antenna.

6)

Sector antenna
Sector antenna communicates with mobile. 360 Degree Is divided in to three parts Alpha, Beta and Gamma. Also known as intra, metro and ultra. All three parts are separated by maximum up to 120 degree. Here because of sector the coverage is increase. Sector antenna is a directional antenna.

7)

GPS system
A GPS stands for Global Positioning System. A GPS receiver is located in the BTS and is connected to antenna via RF cable. This provides synchronization signal and timing signal to CDMA network for channel coding. This antenna communicates with satellite continuously.

27

Introduction to E1 Link What is E1?

E1 is a digital communication link that enables the transmission of voice, data, and video signals at the rate of 2.048 Mbps. It was introduced in the 1960s. E1: Speech signal Fm=4 kHz. So from sampling theorem the freq = 2 * Fm= 8 kHz Now 1 byte is = 8 bit Each channel have a rate of 8 kHz * 8 bit = 64 kbps There are 32 channels - channel no 0 to 31. Channel no. 0 is used for synchronization and channel 15 is used for signaling. Other 30 channels are used for communication. So the total data rate is 32 * 64kbps = 2.048 Mbps

Communication Standard-Data Rates: Mainly there are two types of data rates: 1.PDH: Plesiochronous data hierocracy (PDH) consists of E1, E2, E3, and E4 communication standard. Mainly E1 is used. 2.SDH: Synchronous data hierocracy (SDH) consists of STM1, STM4, STM16, and STM64. Mainly STM1 is used.

Why is E1 in demand?
1) The current demand for E1 services can be linked to a number of tangible benefits. Simplification E1 simplifies the task of networking different types of communication equipment. To illustrate, figure 1 shows what your companys communication network might be look like without E1 and figure 2 shows companys communication network with E1 link. Figure shows that telephone, fax, and computer applications would all require separates lines. Typically, voice and low speed data serviced by analogue line, while high-speed data application like computer are serviced by digital line. In figure 2 same things is shown with E1 link installed. E1 link carry both data and voice on a single digital communication link. In this way we can reduce the task of managing many different network. 2) Quality of services E1 also provides a signal, which is superior in quality, then the analogue signal provides. In analogue signal, noise and distortion is also amplified so it degrades the quality of signal. While, in E1 system because of signal regeneration we got exact signal at the receiver side.

28

A communication network without E1

Phone System

Phone System

PC

PC

A communication network with E1

Phone System Phone System

FAX

E1 Link M U MUX X

FAX

PC

PC

29

How E1 works Making voice and data compatible: Many benefits of E1 are attributable to the fact that voice and data transmitted over a single digital communication link. Since computer data consists of ones and zeros (the symbol of the binary system), it is already compatible with E1s digital format. However, because voice signals are actually complex analogue waveform, they must be digitized to achieve compatibility with E1.

SDH-PDH: Introduction: Traditionally, transmission systems have been asynchronous, with each terminal in the network running on its own recovered clock timing. In digital transmission, timing is one of the most fundamental operations. Since these clocks are not synchronized, large variations can occur in the clock rate and thus the signal bit rate. So, synchronism is important in communication between two links. To correctly understand the concepts and details of SDH, its important to be clear about the meaning of Synchronous, Plesiochronous, and Asynchronous. In a set of Synchronous signals, the digital transitions in the signals occur at exactly the same rate. If two digital signals are Plesiochronous, their transitions occur at almost the same rate, with any variation being constrained within tight limits. In the case of Asynchronous signals, the transitions of the signals dont necessarily occur at the same nominal rate. Asynchronous, in this case, means that the difference between two clocks is much greater than a plesiochronous difference.

PDH (Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy): Traditionally, digital transmission systems and hierarchies have been based on multiplexing signals, which are plesiochronous (running at almost the same speed). Also, various parts of the world use different hierarchies which lead to problems of international interworking; for example, between those countries using 1.544 Mbit/s systems (U.S.A. and Japan) and those using the 2.048 Mbit/s system. To recover a 64 kbit/s channel from a 140 Mbit/s PDH signal, its necessary to demultiplex the signal all the way down to the 2 Mbit/s level before the location of the 64 kbit/s channel can be identified. PDH requires steps (140-34, 348, 8-2 demultiplex; 2-8, 8-34, 34-140 multiplex) to drop out or add an individual speech or data channel (see Figure 1). This is due to the bit stuffing used at each level. PDH contains 16E1s and to drop any E1 at any site it was necessary to drop all the 16 E1s at the site and then required E1 is to be fetched from the mux manually, and others are to be forwarded to further sites.

30

SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy): It is a standard for telecommunications transport formulated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Before SDH, the first generations of fiber-optic systems in the public telephone network used proprietary architectures, equipment line codes, multiplexing formats, and maintenance procedures. The users of this equipment wanted standards so they could mix and match equipment from different suppliers. The resulting international standard is known as (SDH). Synchronizing SDH: The internal clock of an SDH terminal may derive its timing signal from a Synchronization Supply Unit (SSU) used by switching systems and other equipment. Thus, this terminal can serve as a master for other SDH nodes, providing timing on its outgoing STM-N signal. Other SDH nodes will operate in a slave mode with their internal clocks timed by the incoming STM -N signal. To solve the problem, SDH is replacing PDH. SDH can contain up to 63 E1s for microwave and for fiber, it can be up to STM 256. In SDH, 63 lines from ODU comes to the add drop mux which drops required E1s to that exchange and bypass other lines using software. It doesnt require dropping all lines, instead only required lines are taken. SDH defines synchronous transport modules (STMs) for the fiber-optic based transmission hierarchy.

31

CCS#7: Classification of Signalilng Systems: 1. Topological Classification: In telecommunication network, two core functions can be found: The information has to be transported in a cost efficient way from a source to destination over a physical line = Transmission In a telephone exchange, an inlet has to be through connected to the correct outlet = Switching This is shown in figure 1:

In order to be able to perform switching function, a communication will be required between the calling subscriber and his own switching unit. This is the user to network interface (UNI). A communication will also be required between each switching unit and the next one in the call sequence. This is the network to network interface(NNI). Thus, topologically, too large families of signaling systems can immediately be introduced:

UNI Signaling System: Analogue Subscriber Signaling System (ASSS) Digital Subscriber Signaling System# 1 (DSS1) Commonly Called ISDN Signaling or D- Channel protocol. Digital Subscriber Signaling System # 2(DSS2) The adoption of DSS1 for Broad band Purpose( ATM-Switching)

32

NNI Signaling system: Channel Associated Signaling System (CAS) Common Channel Signaling System # 7 (CCS#7)

2. Functional Classification: At least two types of information will always have to be signaled between adjacent points: The intention to seize or to release a local line (for UNI) or a trunk circuit (for NNI) = Line Signaling The call destination will have to be passed from the register of previous step to register of the next exchange = Register Signaling The line signals carry very simple information. Most of the signals used in CAS are line signals, apart from the register signal, which carries the number information. Line signals can be sent at any time during a call. By comparison, a register signal is sent only once. Also, a register signal carries more complex information than a line signal. Because of their differences, line and register signals are often handled by different equipment. Line signalling equipment must be available for the entire duration of a call. However, as a register signal is sent only once, register equipment can be freed quickly to deal with other calls.

33

Definition:
Signaling System 7 (SS7) is an architecture for performing out-of-band signaling in support of the call-establishment, billing, routing, and information-exchange functions of the public switched telephone network (PSTN). It identifies functions to be performed by a signaling-system network and a protocol to enable their performance.

What is Signaling?
Signaling refers to the exchange of information between call components required to provide and maintain service. As users of the PSTN, we exchange signaling with network elements all the time. Examples of signaling between a telephone user and the telephone network include: dialing digits, providing dial tone, accessing a voice mailbox, sending a call-waiting tone, dialing *66 (to retry a busy number), etc. SS7 is a means by which elements of the telephone network exchange information. Information is conveyed in the form of messages. SS7 messages can convey information. SS7 is characterized by high-speed packet data and out-of-band signaling.

Signaling Network Architecture:

If signaling is to be carried on a different path from the voice and data traffic it supports, then what should that path look like? The simplest design would be to allocate one of the paths between each interconnected pair of switches as the signaling link. Subject to capacity constraints, all signaling traffic between the two switches could traverse this link. This type of signaling is known as associated signaling, and is shown below in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Associated Signaling

Associated signaling works well as long as a switchs only signaling requirements are between itself and other switches to which it has trunks. If call setup and management were the only application of SS7, associated signaling would meet that need

34

simply and efficiently. In fact, much of the out-of-band signaling deployed in Europe today uses associated mode. The North American implementers of SS7, however, wanted to design a signaling network that would enable any node to exchange signaling with any other SS7 capable node. Clearly, associated signaling becomes much more complicated when it is used to exchange signaling between nodes which do not have a direct connection. From this need, the North American SS7 architecture was born.

The North American Signaling Architecture:

The North American signaling architecture defines a completely new and separate signaling network. The network is built out of the following three essential components, interconnected by signaling links: Signal switching points (SSPs)SSPs are telephone switches (end offices or tandems) equipped with SS7-capable software and terminating signaling links. They generally originate, terminate, or switch calls. Signal transfer points (STPs)STPs are the packet switches of the SS7 network. They receive and route incoming signaling messages towards the proper destination. They also perform specialized routing functions. Signal control points (SCPs)SCPs are databases that provide information necessary for advanced call-processing capabilities. Once deployed, the availability of SS7 network is critical to call processing. Unless SSPs can exchange signaling, they cannot complete any interswitch calls. For this reason, the SS7 network is built using a highly redundant architecture. Each individual element also must meet exacting requirements for availability. Finally, protocol has been defined between interconnected elements to facilitate the routing of signaling traffic around any difficulties that may arise in the signaling network. To enable signaling network architectures to be easily communicated and understood, a standard set of symbols was adopted for depicting SS7 networks. Figure 2 shows the symbols that are used to depict these three key elements of any SS7 network.

Figure 2. Signaling Network Elements

STPs and SCPs are customarily deployed in pairs. While elements of a pair are not generally co-located, they work redundantly to perform the same logical function. When

35

drawing complex network diagrams, these pairs may be depicted as a single element for simplicity, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. STP and SCP Pairs

Basic Signaling Architecture:

Figure 4 shows a small example of how the basic elements of an SS7 network are deployed to form two interconnected networks.

Figure 4. Sample Network

The following points should be noted: 1. STPs W and X perform identical functions. They are redundant. Together, they are referred to as a mated pair of STPs. Similarly, STPs Y and Z form a mated pair.

36

2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

Each SSP has two links (or sets of links), one to each STP of a mated pair. All SS7 signaling to the rest of the world is sent out over these links. Because the STPs of a mated pair are redundant, messages sent over either link (to either STP) will be treated equivalently. The STPs of a mated pair are joined by a link (or set of links). Two mated pairs of STPs are interconnected by four links (or sets of links). These links are referred to as a quad. SCPs are usually (though not always) deployed in pairs. As with STPs, the SCPs of a pair are intended to function identically. Pairs of SCPs are also referred to as mated pairs of SCPs. Note that they are not directly joined by a pair of links. Signaling architectures such as this, which provide indirect signaling paths between network elements, are referred to as providing quasi-associated signaling.

SS7 Link Types:

SS7 signaling links are characterized according to their use in the signaling network. Virtually all links are identical in that they are 56kbps or 64kbps bi-directional data links that support the same lower layers of the protocol; what is different is their use within a signaling network. The defined link types are shown in Figure 5 and defined as follows:

Figure 5. Link Types

A Links:
A links interconnect an STP and either an SSP or an SCP, which are collectively referred to as signaling end points ("A" stands for access). A links are used for the sole purpose of delivering signaling to or from the signaling end points (they could just as well be referred to as signaling beginning points). Signaling that an SSP or SCP wishes to send to any other node is sent on either of its A links to its home STP, which, in turn, processes or routes the messages. Similarly, messages intended for an SSP or SCP will be routed to one of its home STPs, which will forward them to the addressed node over its A links.

B-Links:

37

The links between local STP pairs form a bridge over which messages can be transferred from one local network to another. This links are called Bridge links or simply B-links.

C Links:
C links are links that interconnect mated STPs. As will be seen later, they are used to enhance the reliability of the signaling network in instances where one or several links are unavailable. C stands for cross-links. Regardless of their name, their function is to carry signaling messages beyond their initial point of entry to the signaling network towards their intended destination.

D Links:
The D denotes diagonal and describes the quad of links interconnecting mated pairs of STPs at different hierarchical levels. Because there is no clear hierarchy associated with a connection between networks, interconnecting links are referred to as either B, D, or B/D links

E Links:
While an SSP is connected to its home STP pair by a set of A links, enhanced reliability can be provided by deploying an additional set of links to a second STP pair. These links, called E (extended) links provide backup connectivity to the SS7 network in the event that the home STPs cannot be reached via the A links. While all SS7 networks include A, B/D, and C links, E links may or may not be deployed at the discretion of the network provider. The decision of whether or not to deploy E links can be made by comparing the cost of deployment with the improvement in reliability.

F Links:
F (fully associated) links are links which directly connect two signaling end points. F links allow associated signaling only. Because they bypass the security features provided by an STP, F links are not generally deployed between networks. Their use within an individual network is at the discretion of the network provider.

Basic Call Setup Example:

Before going into much more detail, it might be helpful to look at several basic calls and the way in which they use SS7 signaling (see Figure 6).

Figure 6. Call Setup Example

38

In this example, a subscriber on switch A places a call to a subscriber on switch B. 1. Switch A analyzes the dialed digits and determines that it needs to send the call to switch B. 2. Switch A selects an idle trunk between itself and switch B and formulates an initial address message (IAM), the basic message necessary to initiate a call. The IAM is addressed to switch B. It identifies the initiating switch (switch A), the destination switch (switch B), the trunk selected, the calling and called numbers, as well as other information beyond the scope of this example. 3. Switch A picks one of its A links (e.g., AW) and transmits the message over the link for routing to switch B. 4. STP W receives a message, inspects its routing label, and determines that it is to be routed to switch B. It transmits the message on link BW. 5. Switch B receives the message. On analyzing the message, it determines that it serves the called number and that the called number is idle. 6. Switch B formulates an address complete message (ACM), which indicates that the IAM has reached its proper destination. The message identifies the recipient switch (A), the sending switch (B), and the selected trunk. 7. Switch B picks one of its A links (e.g., BX) and transmits the ACM over the link for routing to switch A. At the same time, it completes the call path in the backwards direction (towards switch A), sends a ringing tone over that trunk towards switch A, and rings the line of the called subscriber. 8. STP X receives the message, inspects its routing label, and determines that it is to be routed to switch A. It transmits the message on link AX. 9. On receiving the ACM, switch A connects the calling subscriber line to the selected trunk in the backwards direction (so that the caller can hear the ringing sent by switch B). 10. When the called subscriber picks up the phone, switch B formulates an answer message (ANM), identifying the intended recipient switch (A), the sending switch (B), and the selected trunk. 11. Switch B selects the same A link it used to transmit the ACM (link BX) and sends the ANM. By this time, the trunk also must be connected to the called line in both directions (to allow conversation).

39

12. STP X recognizes that the ANM is addressed to switch A and forwards it over link AX. 13. Switch A ensures that the calling subscriber is connected to the outgoing trunk (in both directions) and that conversation can take place. 14. If the calling subscriber hangs up first (following the conversation), switch A will generate a release message (REL) addressed to switch B, identifying the trunk associated with the call. It sends the message on link AW. 15. STP W receives the REL, determines that it is addressed to switch B, and forwards it using link WB. 16. Switch B receives the REL, disconnects the trunk from the subscriber line, returns the trunk to idle status, generates a release complete message (RLC) addressed back to switch A, and transmits it on link BX. The RLC identifies the trunk used to carry the call. 17. STP X receives the RLC, determines that it is addressed to switch A, and forwards it over link AX. 18. On receiving the RLC, switch A idles the identified trunk.

Database Query Example:

People generally are familiar with the toll-free aspect of 800 (or 888) numbers, but these numbers have significant additional capabilities made possible by the SS7 network. 800 numbers are virtual telephone numbers. Although they are used to point to real telephone numbers, they are not assigned to the subscriber line itself. When a subscriber dials an 800 number, it is a signal to the switch to suspend the call and seek further instructions from a database. The database will provide either a real phone number to which the call should be directed, or it will identify another network (e.g., a long-distance carrier) to which the call should be routed for further processing. While the response from the database could be the same for every call (as, for example, if you have a personal 800 number), it can be made to vary based on the calling number, the time of day, the day of the week, or a number of other factors. The following example shows how an 800 call is routed (see Figure 7).

40

Figure 7. Database Query Example

1. A subscriber served by switch A wants to reserve a rental car at a company's nearest location. She dials the company's advertised 800 number. 2. When the subscriber has finished dialing, switch A recognizes that this is an 800 call and that it requires assistance to handle it properly. 3. Switch A formulates an 800 query message including the calling and called number and forwards it to either of its STPs (e.g., X) over its A link to that STP (AX). 4. STP X determines that the received query is an 800 query and selects a database suitable to respond to the query (e.g., M). 5. STP X forwards the query to SCP M over the appropriate A link (MX). SCP M receives the query, extracts the passed information, and (based on its stored records) selects either a real telephone number or a network (or both) to which the call should be routed. 6. SCP M formulates a response message with the information necessary to properly process the call, addresses it to switch A, picks an STP and an A link to use (e.g., MW), and routes the response. 7. STP W receives the response message, recognizes that it is addressed to switch A, and routes it to A over AW. 8. Switch A receives the response and uses the information to determine where the call should be routed. It then picks a trunk to that destination, generates an IAM, and proceeds (as it did in the previous example) to set up the call.

Layers of the SS7 Protocol:

As the call-flow examples show, the SS7 network is an interconnected set of network elements that is used to exchange messages in support of telecommunications functions. The SS7 protocol is designed to both facilitate these functions and to maintain the network over which they are provided. Like most modern protocols, the SS7 protocol is layered.

41

1. Physical Layer: 2. Message Transfer PartLevel 2 3. Message Transfer PartLevel 3 4. Signaling Connection Control Part: 5. ISDN User Part (ISUP): 6. Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP): 7. Operations, Maintenance, and Administration Part (OMAP):

What Goes Over the Signaling Link:

Signaling information is passed over the signaling link in messages, which are called signal units (SUs). Three types of SUs are defined in the SS7 protocol. message signal units (MSUs) link status signal units (LSSUs) fill-in signal units (FISUs) SUs are transmitted continuously in both directions on any link that is in service. A signaling point that does not have MSUs or LSSUs to send will send FISUs over the link. The FISUs perform the function suggested by their name; they fill up the signaling link until there is a need to send purposeful signaling. They also facilitate link transmission monitoring and the acknowledgment of other SUs. All transmission on the signaling link is broken up into 8-bit bytes, referred to as octets. SUs on a link are delimited by a unique 8-bit pattern known as a flag. The flag is defined as the 8-bit pattern "01111110". Because of the possibility that data within an SU would contain this pattern, bit manipulation techniques are used to ensure that the pattern does not occur within the message as it is transmitted over the link. (The SU is reconstructed once it has been taken off the link, and any bit manipulation is reversed.) Thus, any occurrence of the flag on the link indicates the end of one SU and the beginning of another. While in theory two flags could be placed between SUs (one to mark the end of the current message and one to mark the start of the next message), in practice a single flag is used for both purposes.

SWITCH: Network department is basically divided into two sections: (1) Transmission (2) Switch. Transmission section deals with transmission media, RF planning, BTS installation, NMS, etc.

42

 Switch section deals with switching of call in MSC, daily health check of switch, customer complain, etc. Basically, all the switches are stored program control (SPC) based. In switch to see the backend activities (ROP Read Only Printer) occurring in switch. We take it through RJ-45 connector or Ethernet LAN to the terminal. In the terminal mainly two window are there: (1) Command window (2) Output window Command window: command window is used to give a command for the particular activity. For example to see the any alarm occur in switch room, we directly give the command. Output window: output window is used to see to output of particular activity for the given command on command window. Using particular command, we check the status of any mobile subscriber using VLR. In TTSL, basically two type of switch are used: Wireline and wireless. The vendors are Lucent, Ericsson, Alcatel and Siemens.

Wireline switch: For wire line, we use Lucent switch, which is totally hardware based. Because of more hardware part, it is bulky. Lucent is user-friendly switch, because it is easily operatable. Wireline switchs computer has connection with switch by serial port. It contains status of signaling links, faults and alarms related to that switch on the screen. By giving appropriate command, status of signaling link is known.

(2)

Wireless Switch: -

Wireless switch is software based and it is compact switch compared to Lucent switch. For wireless, we use Ericsson switch. Digital Path Quality Supervision: In this, 3 types of soft errors occur: 1. Quality Service (QSV): If one of the 32 frames is lost, than voice is broken and this alarm is indicated. 2. SESL2 (severely errored seconds): When synchronism in 1 second out of 1000 seconds is dropped, this error occurs. 3. UNACC (Unacceptable Performance): This error occur due to incorrect parity bits. There are 4 types of alarms in ERICSSON: 1. APZ: Software error alarm 2. APT: Hardware fault alarm 3. POW: Power failure alarm 4. EXT: Fire alarms and temperature control, etc.

43

 All the activities done during the week is stored in hard DAT tape. It will contain all call details record (CDR) occurring during the week. Capacity to store the data vary from different types of switch. Lucent contain 4GB of memory to store the data while in Ericsson it will contain 24GB of data. In tata indicom, from the level-5 to level-6 migration is going on. In this we have to give and take the test call from all the short distance coverage area (SDCA), long distance coverage area (LDCA) No., for particular given region, to check the connectivity between any two SDCA or LDCA. SDCA

INDIA

GUJRAT GUJRAT

RAJKOT LDCA

FIG. Differentiate between LDCA & SDCA. In above fig., we differentiate between LDCA & SDCA. If call is going in same SDCA then it is not forwarded to LDCA but if call is for other SDCA then it is forwarded to LDCA and again call is forwarded to particular SDCA. In India any state or district is work as a LDCA or SDCA.

Daily activities at OMC: 1. Health Check: - It includes hardware failure check, software errors, interconnectivity with different operators, trunk group status check, etc. REX (Regular Exercise) is also a part of health check, which includes hardware diagnosis.

44

2. Customer Complaints: - There is ORACLE software for complaints. These complaints are analysed and checked that is it related to routing, level opening, etc. and necessary steps are taken to solve these problems. 3. Augmentation: - It includes increasing no. of trunk groups as per the requirements and hence ASR is increased. CDR (Call Detail Report): - CDR is for billing purpose. It contains call related information like start time, end time, duration, A number, B number.

Infrastructure equipment: A CDMA system requires three pieces of infrastructure equipment. They are Main Switching Centre (MSC) Base Station Controller (BSC) Base Station Transceiver Subsystem (BTS).

Description of Individual Components: Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

The MSC coordinates traffic and signaling within the CCLN. It is responsible for setup, routing and supervision of calls to and from mobile subscribers. Many other functions are implemented in the MSC.

Gateway MSC (GMSC): - The GMSC is an MSC which contains the gateway
functionality, i.e. interrogating the HLR at the set-up of a mobile-terminating call. The GMSC has two distinct functions: Roaming Interrogation (requesting the HLR to send routing information) Roaming Rerouting or Call forwarding.

MSC IN THE NETWORK: Mobile Switching Center (MSC) is the central unit of the network. Each and every call must terminate at the MSC. It is an intelligent unit. It is used to route the calls. MSC connects with the other network units as shown in the diagram.

45

HLR B T S B S C MSC MSC OF OTHER OPERATOR

WIRE LINE SW

MSC AND WIRE LINE SW OF OTHER OPERATOR

BTS: Base Transreceiver Station BSC: Base Station Controller MSC: Mobile Switching Center HLR: Home Location Register RLU: Remote Location Unit WIRE LINE SW: Wire line Switch The signal from subscriber comes through BTS and BSC to MSC.MSC is connected to the HLR, which contains the database of each and every subscriber. Every time HLR is referred, whenever a mobile call is made, for authentication of the subscriber. At MSC the routing is takes place. The incoming call is routed to desired BSC and BTS in case of called party is another mobile. In case of called party is wire line phone, and then the 46

connection is transferred from MSC to the wire line switch. If the called party is near at the switch, then the called is transferred directly to the party over copper cable. In case called party is at far from switch then the call is transferred to RLU.RLU serve to that party. In case the called party belongs to the other service provider, then there is POI, where different service providers interconnect through each other. The call is transferred from one service provider to the other one

BSC: The Base Station Controller (BSC) is part of the link between the BTS and the MTSO. It Performs vocoding of the voice signal Routes calls to the MTSO Handles call control processes Maintains a database of subscribers Maintains records of calls for billing

BTS: Functions of BTS: The BTS includes an antenna for transmitting and receiving Radio frequency signals i.e. it caters to the traffic. It also performs the CDMA processing of all signals. The BTS attaches to an antenna. The antenna's three-sided design includes three sectors called alpha, beta, and gamma, each of which can be further subdivided. Adding sectors to a BTS increases its capacity. Each sector operates like an independent BTS. BTS sectorization requires additional hardware within the BTS unit.

Home Location Register (HLR): Each operator has a database with information about all subscribers belonging to that specific service provider. It is used for the following purposes: Registering subscribers MDN and IMSI numbers. Storing subscribers categories and services. Keeping track of which MSC/VLR is serving the subscriber. Ordering a serving MSC/VLR to delete its record about a subscriber.

Visitor Location Register (VLR): The VLR is implemented in the same switch as the MSC, which is then referred to as an MSC/VLR.

47

It contains temporary information about the mobile subscriber visiting this specific MSC/VLR Service Area. It also performs location updating of the HLR. The VLR contains a copy of the subscriber information in the HLR, but also more detailed information about the subscribers location (which Location Area they are registered in). Since VLR has a set of information about the mobile subscriber in its Service Area, the HLR does not need to be consulted about subscriber data very often. This considerably reduces the signaling to HLR.

Switch Identification in CCS#7 network: To identify particular switch, each switch has its own signaling point code which differentiates the specific switch. When call is routing from one switch to other, the destination switch is identified by its signaling point code. Switch to switch connection is identified with reference of number of E1s between these two switches. Each E1 has 32 time slots or trunk circuits. These trunk circuits are divided in groups. There are two types of trunk groups: FWT and C-MO i.e. as per ex., 16 trunk circuits are used for FWT and others for C-MO. CIC (Circuit Identification Code): It is code used in software to check the 1-to-1 connection between two E1 circuits. Whenever new E1 between two points is added 1-to-1 connection must be there i.e. trunk circuit number 1 of one switch must be connected to the trunk circuit number 1 of remote location of switch.

Point of Interconnection (POI): It is connection unit between E1s of two switches at MSC. Performance of POI: ASR (Answer to Seizure Ratio): - This ratio defines how many channels out of occupied channels are actually used. Others, which are wasted, includes no. of reasons like call failure because of no reply, wrong dialed no., busy no., destination out of order, internetworking unspecified (CAS-CCS 7 conversion), etc. Because of above reasons, the ASR is decreased. Through bifurcation, ASR ratio can be increased. By analyzing the numbers through levels, like analysis on level 2, level 28, level 281, etc., minimizes the wastage occupation of lines and hence no. of lines seized in actual communication are increased, and hence ASR is increased. Forward Backward Hunting: - Whenever new E1s between any two service providers are established, forward and backward hunting is provided. Suppose, between TATA and AIRTEL, there are 60 trunk lines are provided, then it is decided that when subscriber of TATA will initiate a call, he will be given a channel from no. 60,59,etc. in descending order which is called backward hunting, and for AIRTEL 48

subscriber, channel no.s will be 1, 2, 3, etc. which is called forward hunting. So that there is no clash in channel occupation and channels are easily assigned. TATA prefers backward hunting.

Current activity at TTSL: Recently main activity done at TTSL is level 5 to 6 migration for FWT. At present, TATA is running on level 5, and because of no. of subscribers increasing, they are changing their numbers for FWT to level 6 as per the information from TRAI (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India). The subscribers numbers detail is stored in HLR based on the ESN number. In migration, numbers are changed in HLR and routing is provided for calls. At a time 10 no.s for particular subscriber in HLR can be created and only one can be activated. Test calls are done for checking that call is through between two lines of different operators and TTSL. It is the process of routing. If the line is not through, we will have to check the routing path for this line.

49