Full 01 2007

International Electronic Journal of
Mathematics Education
Volume 2, Number 1, February 2007
Editor Ziya ARGUN, TURKEY Editorial Board

Mahmoud AL-HAMZA, RUSSIAN FEDERATION Mara ALAGIC, USA Ahmet ARIKAN, TURKEY Nicolas BALACHEFF, FRANCE Carmen BATANERO , SPAIN Catherine A. BROWN, USA Leone BURTON, UNITED KINGDOM Olive CHAPMAN, CANADA Kwok-cheung CHEUNG, CHINA Megan CLARK, NEW ZEALAND Willibald DRFLER, AUSTRIA Paul DRIJVERS, NETHERLANDS Lyn ENGLISH, AUSTRALIA Peter GATES, UNITED KINGDOM Juan D. GODINO, SPAIN Marjorie HENNINGSEN, LEBANON Noraini IDRIS, MALAYSIA Cyril JULIE, SOUTH AFRICA Jeremy KILPATRICK, USA Siew-Eng LEE, MALAYSIA Frederick K.S. LEUNG, CHINA Shiqi LI, CHINA Romulo LINS, BRAZIL Denise S. MEWBORN, USA John MONAGHAN, UNITED KINGDOM Judy MOUSLEY, AUSTRALIA Richard NOSS, UNITED KINGDOM Ildar S. SAFUANOV, RUSSIAN FEDERATION Mamokgethi SETATI, SOUTH AFRICA Anna SFARD, ISRAEL Kaye STACEY, AUSTRALIA Khoon Yoong WONG, SINGAPORE Oleksiy YEVDOKIMOV, UKRAINE Sharifah Norul Akmar bt Syed ZAMRI, MALAYSIA Nurit ZEHAVI, ISRAEL Ismail Ozgur ZEMBAT, TURKEY
Welcome to the International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education (IEJME). We are happy to launch the new issue with the contribution of individuals from all around the world both as authors and reviewers. Both research and position papers, not excluding other forms of scholarly communication, are accepted for review. The long term mission of the IEJME is to continue to offer quality knowledge and research base to the education community and increased global availability of the articles published each issue. The editors and review board hope that you find the published articles academically and professionally valuable. Online - It is our intention to make the journal available over the internet. All submissions, reviewing, editing, and publishing are done via e-mail and the Web, allowing for quality of the end product and increased speed and availability to all readers. Publication Frequency - IEJME is published three times a year in February, July and October for every year. Published by: GOKKUSAGI LTD. STI. TURKEY Gokkusagi all rights reversed. Apart from individual use, no part of this publication may be reproduced or stored in any form or by any means without prior written permission from publisher. ISSN 1306-3030 www.iejme.com
CONTENTS
1.Modeling with the Software 'Derive' to Support a Constructivist Approach to Teaching Andresen, M. 1 2.Multiple Representations for Systems of Linear Equations Via the Computer Algebra System Maple Mallet, D. G. 16 3.Computer Graphics as an Instructional Aid in an Introductory Differential Calculus Course Tiwari, T. K. 32 Manuscript Submission Guidelines 49
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MODELING WITH THE SOFTWARE 'DERIVE' TO SUPPORT A CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH TO TEACHING Mette Andresen
ABSTRACT. This article reports on a research project, which was part of the research- and development project World Class Math and Science. The objectives of this part of the project were to research the potentials of computer use in upper secondary school mathematics for the teaching of differential equations from a modeling point of view. The project involved small scale teaching experiments with changes at two levels from the traditional viewpoint on school mathematics: 1) Change of view at curriculum level on the subject differential equations and 2) Change of view at the level of didactical reflections on the intentions of modeling and using models. The article discusses how students use of laptops can serve as a means for both changes by replacing complex, time consuming expressive modeling with more controlled exploration of differential-equations models. Finally, the perspectives for the teaching and learning of mathematics of such changes are discussed. KEYWORDS. Constructivists Teaching Approach, Modeling for Concept Formation, Laptops with the Software Derive, Differential Equations Models, Upper Secondary School.
THE TRADITIONAL APPROACH TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS The traditional teaching of differential equations in Danish upper secondary school follows an algebraic-analytical approach to the subject. The differential equations are most commonly introduced in connection with calculus and differential equations are considered as algebraic equations in a function and its derivative. Focus is on determination of integrals and only a few types are treated. The students learn to recognize the types and solve the equations analytically, using their compendium of formulas. For example, the widely used textbooks by MSc J. Carstensen and MSc J. Frandsen take this point of view (Carstensen & Frandsen, 1999 pp77-92). Fig. 1.-2. shows an excerpt (in Danish language) from the textbook. In the excerpt, the concept of differential equations is introduced by a very short example of a model of growth, followed by a general definition. In general, differential equation is defined as an equation, which involves one or more derivatives of a function.
Copyright 2006 by GOKKUSAGI ISSN: 1306-3030
Andresen Figure 1. Excerpt from a Danish textbook. In the excerpt, the concept of differential equations is introduced
International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007
Figure 2. The excerpt continued. In the red square, the concept of a differential equation is defined as an equation, which involves one ore more derivatives of a function.
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Open-ended, guiding, modeling tasks The task in Fig.3 (my translation) illustrates a mathematical models approach, which often supplies the structural one in the traditional teaching:
Figure 3.Task designed to initiate and guide the students modeling process (Blomhoej, 2001)
The excerpt illustrates how the design of this task intends to initiate and guide the students modeling process. The task in the example sets the scene for a technical modeling in the sense that it aims to compare two models and select the one which gives the best fitting of the data. Such technical modeling has been the issue of training tasks as well as tasks for the written examination for more than thirty years in Danish upper secondary school. Now, traditional tools for solving these tasks are graphic calculators with or without CAS, laptops with various software and sheets with pre-printed coordinate systems, having one or two logarithmic scales on the axes respectively. In mathematics, the tasks usually consider models of growth without to involve differential equations explicitly. The approach in the example, though, is open-ended. For example, the students are supposed to discuss and set up criteria to assess whether the population can be reasonably modeled by explosive growth. So, apparently, the tasks design intends to encourage the students to focus critically on the dynamics of both models. In this aspect, the example illustrates one step towards a dynamic, modeling approach to the subject. The project, reported in the rest of this paper, aimed to take the next step: the project researched the potentials of using laptops with the software Derive from Texas Instruments1 to realize a modeling approach to differential equations in upper secondary school. Derive is a Computer Algebra System, which is useful to solve a number of symbolic and numeric problems. The results can be plotted as 2-D graphs or 3-D color surfaces. For this project, the numerical solution of differential equations and graphing possibilities of slope fields, solution curves etc. were crucial. The students in the project had been using Derive for one or two years, respectively. Hence, they were familiar with the software and the laptops: in terms of instrumental genesis like it is referred in (Trouche, 2005), the students had already accomplished the generation of a number of the Derive commands and other computer facilities as instruments for their work with mathematics.
Changes to a dynamic, modeling approach to differential equations What could be the research objectives of a change from the classic to a dynamic, modeling approach? The terms mathematical models and modeling are used in different contexts with different meanings. In the actual case, modeling is considered at two levels: At the level of concept formation: Use of the term modeling follows the ideas of Realistic Mathematics Education (RME). The horizontal and vertical mathematizing in RME is illustrated in fig.3, showing K. Gravemeijers four-level-model. In the model, horizontal mathematizing happens by changes from situational to referential level, by the creation of emergent models. Symbolizing is a main issue for these changes. The vertical mathematizing happens by
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http://education.ti.com/educationportal/sites/US/productDetail/us_derive6.html
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changes from referential to general level, referred to in this paper as changes from model of to model for- perspective.
Figure 4. Gravemeijer (1997) p340.
At the functional level, mathematical modeling is related to applied mathematics and requests a certain degree of modeling competence. The mathematical modeling encompasses technical modeling in the above-mentioned sense. The term modeling competence, here, is used in the meaning described by Mogens Niss (Niss, 2002). Students modeling processes take place when the student or, most commonly, a group of students, start with a more or less authentic word problem and build a mathematical model on their own, solve the problem mathematically and transfer the solution back to the real world situation. The process is illustrated in Fig.4., which shows how the process can be divided into a number of sub-processes. The loops are repeatedly carried out during the modeling process.
Figure 5. Blomhoej and Jensen (2003) p 124-125
So, we see two main reasons for the desired change: First, within the framework of Realistic Mathematics Education (RME) and the constructivists view on learning, modeling for concept formation is a main heuristic. This means that consciously teaching a modeling approach to the subject may improve the students concept formation, compared to the teaching of a traditional, non-constructivists approach. Second, the classic approach to differential equations represents a structural view on the subject. One main aim of changing to a dynamical systems point of view is to support development of the students modeling competence at a functional level. This aim follows the claim that a dynamic rather than a structural approach to differential equations is fruitful for modeling. Accordingly, from a math education point of view, the students modeling activities should be double-aimed. It follows, that the design of teaching sequences should take the double aim into account.
Expressive and explorative work with models and modeling In Denmark, the new descriptions of curriculum in terms of mathematical competences are gradually being accepted and adopted by teachers. Since the descriptions encompass modeling competence, there is a growing interest for modeling activities. Some teachers argue against letting the students do the full modeling process in Fig.4. Important arguments are brought forth: the main arguments claim that the process is too complex and time-consuming. Further, it is hard for the teachers to control the open-ended process to ensure the desired result or learning outcome for all the students. In particular, the subject of differential equations is regarded as hardly accessible for upper secondary school students. At this stage, the students are not supposed to reach a level of expressive modeling in the sense of being able to build and handle differential equations models for problem solving on their own. To meet these difficulties, we found it desirable in the project to see how the students could use the laptops to explore models as a forerunner of expressive modeling. The students trained isolated parts of a full modeling process separately by exploring and revising mathematical models, which were already constructed. The idea was to let the students: - Study the mechanics of the single terms in the sense of symbolizing and creating relations between the single terms - Focus on the potential roles and the meaning of particular, mathematical conceptions like for example derivative, slope etc. - Train their ability to recognize different types of mathematical models and be critical to their use in the actual context
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In this way, the students modeling activities were less time consuming and complex, and to a high degree the activities were under the control of the teacher. Like an expressive approach, the experiments capitalized on the students creativity but still allowed the exploration of powerful, conventional symbolizations. This is in accordance with Gravemeijers description of RMEs conceptualization of modeling, which shares some commonalities with both the expressive and explorative approaches to design (Gravemeijer, Cobb, Bowers, & Whitenack, 2000 p 240ff). So, besides the expressive work, the students explorative work was also designed to facilitate the students own construction of mathematical conceptions. In the cases of explorative work classroom- and group discussions of shared models and negotiations of symbolizing facilitated and supported the concept formation.
The projects teaching experiments Our research in changes towards a modeling approach took place in the upper secondary mathematics part of the development project World Class Math and Science2. Each of the twenty participating teachers in this part of the project was requested to design teaching sequences and prepare materials, which took advantage of the use of laptops. No math education researchers were involved with these preparations. The teachers were expected to do this on their own hand, supported by monthly network-meetings with seminars, discussions and informal exchange of experiences. A group of three teachers prepared materials for the teaching of differential equations at introductory level using laptops with the software Derive. In accordance with the structure of the entire project, I was only involved with this preparation as a consultant: I made an interview with the three teachers at an early stage and provided them with some materials on differential equations, but we did not discuss the design of the teaching experiment. One of the teacherauthors was graduated from Roskilde University, where a modeling approach to mathematics is the prevailing norm. Four teachers in their own classes tried out the booklet, which took a modeling point of view on the subject. The authors point of view was presented in the preface (Hjersing, Hammershj, & Jrgensen, 2004 p3). It can be summarized like this: Focus of attention was moved from finding the solutions to understanding the dynamics of the differential equations. Analytical, numerical and quantitative methods were introduced and attention was paid to geometrical interpretations like slope fields etc. Authentic word problems intended to support modeling and model recognition. I observed the four teaching experiments without participating in the teaching. Subsequently, I prepared data in the form of cases and episodes, based on these observations and field notes, group interviews with students and with teachers, students written reports and teaching materials. Each episode and case was chosen to illustrate, inquire or enlighten particular
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aspects of the students individual or collective activities. This material formed the basis for the major part of my Ph.D. project (Andresen, 2006). Data was analyzed qualitatively in accordance with the interpretive framework for analyzing individual and collective activity at the classroom level, described in (Cobb, 2000). Cobbs framework includes social perspectives, such as classroom social norms, socio-mathematical norms and classroom mathematical practices, as well as psychological perspectives such as beliefs about roles, mathematical beliefs and values and mathematical conceptions and activity. The analyses in the Ph.D. project concentrated on identification and interpretation of the flexibility of the students mathematical conceptions: in the project, the term flexibility was introduced as a technical term to capture the individual students ability to change between a number of perspectives and media of expression. The case and analyses in the following paragraph are based on data, picked out from the Ph.D. projects materials (Andresen, 2006 p236ff).
Case: The Rhino task The theme of this episode is a group of students explorative work with a differential equation model. Data is based on excerpts from the textbook and from the transcription of an uncut fifteen minutes film recording, besides field notes from the groups work with the task. Words or sentences, omitted from the data, are marked (). The episode took place early in the teaching sequence of differential equations, where a group of three students worked with a task, which aimed to explore a differential equations model of a population of rhinos. The students were introduced to simple models of logistic growth. The task asked for a revised version of the model under the assumptions, that there were plenty of space and food for the animals, but if the population went too small, the animals would not be able to find each other for reproducing. In the booklet (Hjersing, Hammershj, & Jrgensen, 2004 p16), two models of logistic growth were introduced. The first one was (my translation):
Figure 6. Excerpt I from the booklet (Hjersing et al., 2004 p 16)
Logistic growth of a population () If the population is small, the rate of growth is proportional with the size of the population. If the population is so big, that it may not be fed or kept in the area, then the population will decrease - the rate of growth turns negative. () Based on this, several different equations may be set up. We choose a relatively simple one:
dP P = k P 1 - dt N
()
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A logistic model, modified with the factor (p/M-1) to take a lower limit into account, was then introduced (Hjersing et al., 2004 p 18) in a similar way, giving the corresponding equation:
Figure 7. Excerpt II from the booklet (Hjersing et al., 2004 p 18)
dP P P = k P 1 - - 1 dt N M
Apparently, the tasks hypothetical trajectory of reasoning supposed the students to compare the two models and their corresponding underlying assumptions. Based on the comparison, the students were supposed to build a model where the last brackets in the first equation was substituted with the last brackets from the last equation: = k P ( - 1) dt M (Figure 8. the expected answer to the question) The students discussions revealed that they expected one of the textbooks two models to give the unique right answer:
P2: So, it says There will be no overpopulation. And that is the N. P1: Where is the one with the overpopulation (..) P2: But there must be something to minus, because if it has to be over a certain level P3: None of them includes that... P1: I think that it is maybe included here P2: It has nothing to do with this P1: Isnt it just..
dP
The student P1 might suggest something like dp = k p (1 - p ) (Figure 9. Students dt N temporary answer). (Taking their subsequent discussions into account, this is most likely to be their result at that stage).
P2: I think so, let us try that! () P1: Should we type it in and then find some values, or how? P2. What it has to do is to pass a little further than the middle one and then be unlimited... (Looks in the materials): Let us have a look at the logistic oneslook, it must be shaped like this one, but unlimited and it has to pass here...
Here, the students may look at the figure from the materials in the booklets chapter on modified logistic growth: at page twenty in the booklet, the equation from the model of modified growth was solved for N=8 and M=3, using the numerical method of a 4th order Runge-Kutta. In the booklet, the solutions were graphed under a series of different initial conditions:
International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007 Figure 10. Excerpt from the booklet (Hjersing et al., 2004 p 20)
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P1: And then we need some values for (Looks in the paper)... P2: But we do not have any, they do not give us any P1: Couldnt we just take some from the plot (looks in the paper) P2: p equals twelve...twelve hundred () P3: You should substitute the number P1: (with a little laughter) that is exactly the problem! P3: Shouldnt we just stop using the N so it is p over one
Their result may now be the not correct expression dp/dt=kp(1-p). The students struggled with plotting the equation, apparently without solving it. The teacher arrived and tried to guide the group by giving hints, meant to trigger their shared experiences of classroom practice:
T: earlier, you have seen some lying here, havent you? Where it is not one minus p but one minus p over some number P2: It was said, that... T: It may very well be that... What did the factor one minus p mean? P2: It was the lim what is it called...the straight line (draws with the finger a straight line horizontally in the air)... P1: Some identity equilibrium something T: Yes, that is right, but we were out in a case with two equilibriums () P1: The only thing that can make it negative is that they have so much space that they never meet each other ()
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Andresen T: If it is less than three, then it will be negative, P2: Yes T: Then the growth decreases. It should... (Draws a decreasing line in the air) P2: Then when the rate of growth is higher... T: Yes, take a look at the factors in the expression P2: Okay... T: and then the one minus P over N, maybe we should look down here, for instance, (points in the materials): This factor tells how many animals there can live and M tells how spread out the population is P2: Should we have p and... T: instead of... because, in the case of the rhinos, we may assume that there is no upper limit P1: Okay
Interpretation of the students work From the beginning, the students sought to recognize and exclude the model, which took the overpopulation into account. P2 referred to the symbol N for the upper limit of the population. P2, further, suggested that the lower level should be symbolized by a negative term, something to minus. At this state, the students changed between the word-problems reality perspective and a model perspective represented by the textbooks models. Unfortunately, the students did not continue the discussion of symbolizing the populations upper and lower limit, respectively. Apparently, it was not part of their classroom mathematical practice to discuss generally, how the problem should be modeled: The three students did not discuss an overall strategy or plan for their work. From a teachers point of view, this lack of discussion could be considered as a waste of learning potentials, as far as even a short discussion and negotiation might have helped to bring the links between model and reality perspective of the single terms in the mathematical model in focus of attention and supported the emergence of the students model. Without to reflect on the issue of modeling or negotiate a strategy for the symbolization of the upper and lower limitations, P1 immediately suggested choosing the simpler of the two differential equations models and P2 agreed. The students next step was to study the textbooks graphs of solution curves. Each of the students tried to imagine how the growth would proceed under the different circumstances and based on these imaginations, they compared the expected solutions with the shapes of the curves in the textbook. So, at this stage the modeling took place at referential level, referring to Gravemeijers four-level-model in Fig.4. Moreover, the referential differential equations model was studied by means of its solution curves. In Derive, graphs of the solution curves are at hand without necessarily to solve the differential equation explicitly. Hence, the aspect of equation-solving is not predominant
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when working with differential equations models in Derive. None of the three students neither reflected consciously on the process of building a differential equations model nor reached the general level, that is, did they not change from model of perspective to model for perspective. P1 and P2, however, had different strategies: P1 wanted to try the differential equations model with some values. Maybe because the technical fitting method was the usual classroom practice, like it was illustrated in the task in Fig.3. Simultaneously, P2 took the graphs from the textbook as the starting point and tried to imagine the shape of the solution curves for the equation they were looking for. So, P2 saw an emergent model of solution curves in graphic representation and tried to change in both directions between reality and model perspective on the solutions. But P2 did not manage to model the solution with symbols and P1 took over. P1 did not explain how the try out with actual values could help maybe the idea was to support symbolizing and changes between reality and model perspective on the differential equations model and/or its solution curves. So the group dropped P1s strategy since the students had no values to substitute. P3, who supported P1s idea of solving the problem by substitution of actual values, then suggested that they simply omitted the symbol N from the model. The two other students agreed in this simplification. None of the three did reflect on the meaning of N in the model. The teacher was aware of the role as a guide. For example, the teacher asked for the meaning of the factor one minus p, rather than simply corrected the students or gave them the final results. The teachers question, apparently, intended to support the students collective process of symbolizing and provoke a change from model to reality perspective by each of them. Though, P2 changed to the graphic representation of the solution curve, rather than to the real world content of the factor. P1 changed to natural language and explained the general, real world content of the factor. Finally, the teacher explicitly demonstrated how to change between reality and model perspective.
CONCLUSION Apparently, the rhino task was not at all easy for the three students to solve. One could argue that the right answer could easily be found during a superficial, instrumental routine of labeling the models terms to the word problems different circumstances and establish an analogy. None of the students did so. Symbolizing the restricting factors, i.e. the upper and the lower limit for the population respectively, seems to be a prerequisite for solving the task. The excerpt shows that P2 identified overpopulation with the N. A little later the same student revealed an attempt to symbolize the lower limit, namely when P2 looked for something to minus in the two models. The design of the task, though, did not offer an explicit, close
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guidance to support the symbolizing, for example by encouraging the students to interpret the meaning of the terms in the first two models. In the end of the excerpt, the teacher offered such guidance to the students. Before that, instead of interpreting the single terms in the two models, the group turned to concentrate on the shape of solution curves. It is a key point in my interpretation of the students activities and dialogue that this change of focus is linked to their conception of differential equations: the three students preferably considered differential equations in the Derive environment as a means to capture the progress over time of the population of rhinos in graphic representation. The process of solving the differential equations was completely out of focus, as were the interpretations of the single terms in the models until the general expression was identified. To sum up: the case illustrates, how the students in the teaching experiments developed the desired dynamic modeling approach to the subject differential equations during their explorations and reversions of ready made models. The teacher and the textbooks tasks guided the explorations. The software Derive facilitated a change of focus from equations-solving processes to qualitative, graphical interpretations of the systems behavior over time. The interpretations were in the core of the models, which emerged by the students and laid the foundation of the students symbolizing. The interpretations were supported by the discussion amongst the students.
International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007 REFERENCES
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Andresen, M. (May 2006). Taking advantage of computer use for increased flexibility of mathematical conceptions. 1(ISBN 877684069-7), 327. Blomhoej, M. (2001). BASE Note 1+2 [Basic notes one and two]. Roskilde, Denmark: Roskilde University. Blomhoej, M., & Jensen, T. H. (2003). Developing mathematical modelling competence: Conceptual clarification and educational planning. Teaching mathematics and its applications: An international Journal of the IMA, 22(3), 123-139. Carstensen, J., & Frandsen, J. (1999). Mat 3H [Math 3H]. Denmark: Systime. Cobb, P. (2000). Conducting teaching experiments. In A. E. Kelly & R. A. Lesh (Eds.), Handbook of research design in mathematics and science education (pp. 307-333). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Gravemeijer, K. (1997). Mediating between concrete and abstract. Nunes, T. and Bryant, P. Learning and teaching mathematics. An international perspective (pp. 315-346). Psychology Press. Gravemeijer, K., Cobb, P., Bowers, J., & Whitenack, J. (2000). Symbolising, modeling and instructional design. In P. Cobb, E. Yackel & K. McClain (Eds.), Symbolising and communicating in the mathematics classroom. Perpsectives on discourse, tools, and instructional design. (pp. 225-274). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Hjersing, N., Hammershj, P., & Jrgensen, B. (2004). Modeller i Derive. Differentialligninger og modelbygning. Hjt niveau i matematik [Models in Derive. Differential equations and modeling. High level mathematics]. Copenhagen, Denmark: Matematiklrerforeningen. Niss, M. (Ed.). (2002). Mathematical competencies and the learning of mathematics: The Danish KOM project. Roskilde, Denmark: Roskilde University. Trouche, L. (2005). An instrumental approch to mathematics learning in symbolic calculator environments. In D. Guin, K. Ruthven & L. Trouche (Eds.), The didactical challenge of symbolic calculators (pp. 137-162). USA: Springer.
Authors E-mail Address
: Mette Andresen : mea@dpu.dk : Danish University of Education Tuborgvej 164, DK-2400 Copenhagen NV Denmark
Phone Number : +45 8888 9688
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MULTIPLE REPRESENTATIONS FOR SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS VIA THE COMPUTER ALGEBRA SYSTEM MAPLE Dann G. Mallet
ABSTRACT. A number of different representational methods exist for presenting the theory of linear equations and associated solution spaces. Discussed in this paper are the findings of a case study where first year undergraduate students were exposed to a new (to the department) method of teaching linear systems which used visual, algebraic and data-based representations constructed using the computer algebra system Maple. Positive and negative impacts on the students are discussed as they apply to representational translation and perceived learning. KEYWORDS. Computer Algebra System, Multiple Representations, Linear Algebra, Maple.
BACKGROUND As Taylor (in Sankey, 2005) has pointed out, traditional methods of teaching (and learning) are no longer adequate to meet the demands of higher education. Modern student populations are diverse in terms of educational, social and economic backgrounds different models of teaching are needed in order to cater for the different learning styles of the students. This paper offers a discussion of a recent classroom experiment where a multiple representations approach to teaching linear systems of equations to undergraduate students was employed with an aim to increasing student understanding and more completely catering for the diverse range of learning styles of first year undergraduates. The use of multiple representations in teaching mathematics, such as in this case study, refers to learning environments where students are offered different representations of the concepts being studied; usually employing various different learning tools each with its individual benefits and disadvantages. Teaching which involves the use of multiple representations aims to cater for a wider range of learners and learning styles than traditional teaching and to allow students to construct bridges between different representations in order to provide a more complete understanding of the concepts under investigation. Before embarking upon an examination of the classroom experiment carried out in this work, one should first obtain some understanding of the subtleties of the concept of
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representation. In the terminology of Ainley et al. (2002), representations may be internal hypothesised mental constructs, or external material and physically present such as mathematical notations or diagrams. In mathematics, thinking tools for multiple representations include pencil and paper (or board and chalk), calculators, symbolic notations, algorithms, computer algebra systems and online spaces (such as online whiteboards and discussion forums). In this work, the use of multiple representations aims to provide, and to allow the construction of, mathematical metaphors which translate structure from one representational domain to another thereby affecting a deeper form of learning. A functional taxonomy of multiple representations based on their three main functions of complementing, constraining and constructing was proposed Ainsworth (1999). While multiple representations are commonly used to capture the learners interest and promote effective learning, the use of alternate representations in the classroom in this study was intended to complement the algebraic representation traditionally used for this course. It was expected that by offering students multiple representations, an understanding of the different scenarios possible when solving three linear equations in three unknowns could be more easily and completely constructed. The alternative representations considered here are linked with the computer algebra system Maple (but may use other systems such as Mathematica) to take advantage of the systems matrix manipulation commands, equation solving, and most importantly its visualization capabilities. Computer-based learning environments providing multiple representations which support a variety of learning activities were discussed by Ainsworth (1999). While it is often pointed out that introducing computers too early in the undergraduate curriculum can cloud the mathematical theory with computational syntax, there are many examples of successful coupling of introductory mathematics and computer based learning tools. Cretchley et al. (2000) noted that students were found to become more mathematically confident when computational tools were used as part of the learning program. Mackie (2002) discussed computer algebra systems (CAS) and their usefulness in new approaches for presenting concepts in calculus and the related improvements offered to student learning. Mackie noted that by offering graphical, algebraic and numerical approaches to presenting and understanding mathematics, computer algebra systems function as multiple representation systems. It is with this in mind that the computer algebra system Maple is employed in this study to aid students in understanding two- and three-dimensional linear algebra. Computer algebra systems such as Maple offer not only fast algebraic manipulation tools, but also, the ability to quickly construct manipulable graphical representations of functions. Moyer et al. (2002) discussed the concept of representation via virtual manipulatives which are dynamic visual representations of concrete manipulatives. Static representations are
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essentially pictures and diagrams and therefore not true virtual manipulatives since they lack the capacity to be manipulated and cannot be used. Dynamic visual representations on the other hand are able to be manipulated in the same manner as concrete manipulatives (e.g. spinning a three-dimensional graph with the computer mouse) and are therefore truly virtual manipulatives. In this study, a virtual manipulative provided by the computer algebra system Maple is used to investigate the solutions of systems of linear equations and this is discussed in further detail later. Using multiple representations when teaching allows learners alternative descriptions and a possible preferred choice when attempting to understand a concept. The use of computervisual representations in this context provided students with a tool to construct an understanding which in the past has been left to their imagination. In the sections to follow a background discussion of multiple representations in the teaching and learning of mathematics (in particular linear algebra) is presented. Following this the context of this research is described and the representations used are explained. Then the impact on the students is discussed as well as a reflection on translation between representations. Finally discussions and conclusions arising from the study are presented.
MULTIPLE REPRESENTATIONS AND ELEMENTARY LINEAR ALGEBRA As has been accepted practice in the past (prior to the widespread use of computers) in mathematics teaching and learning, it is possible to expose students to concepts using different representational modes. This multiple representation of mathematical ideas can be exemplified most simply by the common use of a two dimensional graph to represent functions such as f (x) = x2 or f (x) = sin(x). Using different representations allows for a more complete coverage of the different learning styles of students. Representations mediated by new technologies such as graphing calculators and computer algebra systems strengthen student learning through the facilitation of interpretations of mathematical models (Yerushalmy 2005), especially since such representations are often non-textual and non-algebraic. Representational technologies such as these offer enhanced understanding in mathematics, especially when multiple representations are linked (Romberg, Fennema and Carpenter, 1993). Yerushalmy (2005) also notes that visual language can be used to promote thinking and new ideas. When students make translations between representations and transformations within representations, these demonstrate a deeper level of understanding on the part of that student and the emergence of critical thinking skills. At the introductory level, linear algebra is a field in which visualizable, low (two or three) dimension concepts are difficult enough to understand, without abstracting notions to multiple dimensions that are not easily visualised. The availability of various technologies makes it possible to offer students several new ways to learn about linear equations and their solutions the foundation of linear algebra. Various uses of such technologies in the teaching and learning of linear algebra have been investigated previously (see for example Lin, 1993 and Lindner, 2003).
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In this paper, a recent experiment regarding the use of multiple representations in the teaching and learning of linear systems of equations is discussed. Teaching using multiple representations caters for the fact that students prefer to learn in an environment which is appropriate to their preferred cognitive style (Kordaki, 2005; Hazari, 2004). Lindner (2003) noted the recommendations of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics which state that every mathematical concept should be presented numerically, graphically, algebraically and descriptively. Three representations algebraic, data-based and visual are considered in this work, with descriptive representation implicitly included in all three. In a similar study regarding computer algebra systems (CAS) and function approximation techniques, Klincsik (2003) reported that learners more actively participated in the class and were able to analyse problems in new ways not available to them without the use of a CAS. It was expected that similar outcomes would result from the use of multiple representations, facilitated by the use of CAS, in this study also. CONTEXT This paper focuses on a portion of the content of Mathematical Sciences 1C. Mathematical Sciences 1C (henceforth MAB112) is a first year, first semester undergraduate unit at Queensland University of Technology studied by Mathematics Major students and other students requiring a firm basis in mathematics for their future degree studies in for example, science or education. Students are required to have passed Queensland Senior Mathematics C high school studies (see Queensland Board of Senior Secondary School Studies, 2000 for syllabus details) or some equivalent, with particular emphasis on previous studies in matrices, vectors, calculus and number systems. MAB112 is a prerequisite unit for a host of second and third year mathematics units in the university, including those covering linear algebra and computational linear algebra. Students are exposed to various different topics in MAB112, with none of the areas forming a majority component of the unit. The topics are summarised in Table 1.
Table 1. Topics of study in MAB112. Real number system Trigonometry Polynomial and rational functions Algebraic systems Vectors Complex numbers Linear systems Matrices Differential equations Determinants
The emphasis in this discussion is on linear systems and, to a lesser extent, matrices and vectors in general. Multiple representations are recognised as having potential to facilitate understanding (see for example Ainsworth, 2002 and Yerushalmy, 2005) and are used here to
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help students understand what linear equations are, what systems of linear equations represent and finally, what it means to be a solution or solution set of a system of linear equations. Refreshed in the Linear Systems topic of MAB112 is students high school knowledge of the concepts of linear equations and systems of such objects. Matrix representations of the systems are then considered along with the accompanying terminology. Solution techniques such as Gaussian elimination with back substitution and Gauss-Jordan elimination are discussed. The main extensions from high school level study in this area are discussion of solution geometry in 2d and 3d, existence and uniqueness of solutions and relationship with rank of matrices, the concept of solutions forming a vector space with basis and dimension, relationships between homogeneous and nonhomogeneous systems. Students were required to attend a computer lab tutorial during the period in which linear systems were discussed in class. These tutorials occurred after the lectures had been presented. In the lab, the tutor introduced students to the basic use of the computer algebra system Maple, with specific attention paid to the matrix and linear algebra functions of the CAS. Students then interactively completed a Maple worksheet which stepped through the use of the CAS to carry out individual row operations or automatically use elimination methods on matrix versions of linear systems of equations (see Appendix 1). Students were not required to actually learn the syntax. In itself this was a valuable exercise, allowing students to gain a valuable skill in computerised linear algebra. However the main reason behind this part of the computer lab session was to investigate a system of equations in numerous different ways.
THE MODES OF REPRESENTATION In MAB112 in the past, standard practice for presenting linear systems of equations and their solutions has been to use algebraic representations. In this investigation of the use of multiple representations, two further modes are considered namely graphical visualisation via computer algebra systems (Maple) and numerical data analysis (also generated in Maple). Maple is used because of its symbolic nature and the advantages this provides in allowing students an easier transition from algebraic to computational representations and hopefully greater possibilities for inter-representational translations. This overcomes the hurdles related to using numerical software (such as MATLAB) as experienced by Tonkes et al. (2005) in a similar study.
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Algebraic Representation Figure 1 shows an example of the algebraic representation commonly used in MAB112. This mode is that which is commonly presented in textbooks and static online teaching materials. It involves presenting students with a set of linear equations, converting them to a matrix equation and then to the associated augmented matrix form. Various elementary row operations are then employed to the extent of either Gaussian elimination or the more complete reduction of Gauss-Jordan, and finally either back substituting or inspecting to find a solution to the original equation set.
Figure 1. Extract from class notes used to demonstrate the algebraic representation method as it is applied to the solution of a linear system of equations.
While formally this is a correct and exact method, the algebraic presentation of solutions to linear systems is vague to many students especially when the system exhibits infinitely many solutions and the algebraic representation involves parameterised vector solutions as is the case in Figure 1. The student finishes a problem with some object such as a unique vector solution, a vector with a parameter or the conclusion that they cant solve the problem because of the appearance of the reduced augmented matrix.
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But what does that mean and why cant they solve that problem which supposedly has no solution? The two alternate representations considered in this study are at least two ways to assist students in answering these questions and in understanding the ideas of systems of linear equations, especially in the two and three dimensional cases. Such understanding might then be transferred to the multidimensional problems considered in more advanced studies. Graphical Representation As part of the Maple worksheet completed in the computer lab tutorial, the students solved linear systems with a) no solution, b) a single solution and c) infinitely many solutions. They then plotted the three sets of linear equations to see what there algebraic reductions actually meant. Examples of this plotting exercise are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Maple 3d plots of a line of solutions (a) where three planes (red, yellow and green) intersect on a line, and a single solution point, (b) where three planes intersect at one point only. On the right, the blue lines show the intersection lines for each possible group of two planes. The lines then intersect at the single solution point.
Maples 3d plots are interactive, allowing the student to change colour and lighting characteristics to suit their particular preferences. The student can also change the plot from a surface, to a wire frame, transparent or contour plot if they find the 3d visualisation difficult to understand at first. The most important advantage of this representation is that Maples 3d plots are virtual manipulatives than can be rotated in any direction, allowing the student to investigate the spatial situation represented by the equations from any viewpoint. Overlaying the solution point or points (for the infinite solution case) is a further advantage of the CAS representation that permits the student to see what it means for a system of linear equations to have one, many or no solution(s).
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Numerical Data Representation Another representation of the linear equations was considered that of data points. Maple was used to construct arrays of data values for two linear equations in two variables. This involved making an assumption regarding one variable being an input and the other an output, then calculating output values from each equation corresponding with various different input values. An example is shown below. The equations considered are
4x + 2 y = 4 -2 x + y = -5
(1) (2)
Students chose different x values and then used Maples solve command to print out the corresponding y values for the two equations. Provided an appropriate range of x values was used, the two equations would show the same y values for some x value or show similar y values. Then either the exact solution of the system of equations is found (where the equations have corresponding y values) or the discretization can be refined in the area of the similar y values.
Table 2. Chosen x values along with corresponding y values from each of the two equations. The solution is highlighted. x value 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 y value from equation 1 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2 y value from equation 2 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1
A slightly more complicated version of this data value representation can be constructed which couples with the graphical representation. A 10x10 grid is constructed such that each row in the grid corresponds to an x value and each column represents a y value. Each element in the grid is the sum of the absolute values of the two functions
F1 ( x, y ) = 4 x + 2 y - 4 F2 ( x, y ) = -2 x + y + 5
(3)
formed by rearranging equations (1) and (2) and evaluating at the relevant x and y values. That is, the function F1 ( x, y ) + F2 ( x, y ) . The idea being that the solution to the linear system is the element in the grid where the sum of the absolute values is zero (see Figure 3 and Appendix 2 for a discussion of Figure 3). If no zero is found then either the grid is centering on the wrong area in the plane or the grid is not fine enough. This allows students to develop an understanding
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of approximating solutions, regions of solution and could even be used to motivate study of the bisection method or finding extrema of multivariable functions. Again, the outcomes of this idea are discussed in the following section.
Figure 3. The grid method representation using an interpolated contour plot which shows the simultaneous solution of linear equations F1 ( x, y ) and F2 ( x, y ) , via the function F1 ( x, y ) + F2 ( x, y ) . The function value at the point zero. (See Appendix 2 for further discussion.) (x,y) is represented using different depths of colour. The darkest region is where F1 ( x, y ) + F2 ( x, y ) is closest to
TRANSLATION AND IMPACT Translation When considering translation between representations it is important to note that students are most likely to attempt to make connections between mathematical concepts and their preferred representation, and between other representations and their preferred representation. Keeping this in mind when designing lessons can aid in directing students away from simple memorisation and towards conceptual understanding and the development of connections between various representations. In this course, students were most familiar with pencil and paper calculations from their high school studies of linear equations. At no point was this neglected and in fact students were encouraged to simultaneously employ Maple to solve the equations analytically. A possible future exploration involves students setting up a matrix representation of the linear system and working through the individual row operations (using Maple) in order to solve the system while simultaneously plotting the transformed system of equations and noting the changes caused by each row operation.
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Computers, and in particular CAS such as Maple, can be used to allow students to become more active in their learning they may explore multiple representations easily. An equation may be entered into the CAS which is then used to plot the function or output a table of function values, or even to convert to matrix form and carry out row reductions. Maple proved to be an ideal computer-based tool for presenting multiple representations and for allowing an easier translation between representations for the students. An important point made by both Mackie (2002) and by Ainsworth (1999) is that instructor-experts can have a very different understanding of representations from that of the students that they teach. The professional may be able to quickly and easily move between representations of a single concept, while the same task may be quite demanding for the student. In the classroom this can lead to confusion. This should be kept in mind whenever employing multiple representations in the classroom and it should not be assumed that students will simply see all the connections immediately (or for that matter, at all).
Impact on the Students The two modes of representation introduced here, namely Maples visual manipulative representation and the data value representation, were chosen so as to offer students different ways to understand the concepts underlying systems of linear equations. The visual manipulative was chosen to cater for those learners who prefer the visual representation. On the other hand, many students in the class are interested in statistics and/or scientific studies with statistics playing an important role in their studies. The data representation was aimed primarily at these students. Of course, the algebraic representation was also available to those who prefer the traditional, written mathematics. A number of students in the class commented that moving from the classroom to the computer lab was appreciated as it provided a different atmosphere and a different way to interact with the subject matter apart from simply writing about it. Most students who attended the sessions and commented on them were in favour of looking at the linear systems in different ways, although quite a large proportion were critical of Maple and its complicated syntax even though students were not required to learn it or to develop it themselves. It is difficult to provide a comprehensive quantitative measure of the impact of using alternative representations on the performance of the students. However, the following class average assignment marks form the basis for one attempt at such a measurement. 1. Linear systems homework (pre Maple labs): 2. Maple assignment (post Maple labs): 3. Advanced linear systems homework (post Maple labs) 85% 91% 86%
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The advanced nature of the third assignment, coupled with the increase in the average mark indicates some impact, possibly due to the alternative representations offered in the Maple lab, and cemented through the Maple assignment. It was pleasing to note that students were able to translate some of the understanding gained through the visual and data-based representations to their algebraic work for the advanced assignment. This indicated an increase in the students cognitive flexibility discussed by Lindner (2003). Without prompt or requirement, numerous students interpreted solutions to systems of equations using phrases such as an infinite number of points on a line, two planes may intersect, but never all three at once and a line where the planes intersect. On the other hand, the data value representation did not appear to have been transferred to the algebraic work. This may be a result of this representation not being as obviously linked to the algebraic representation or possibly the lecturers personal preference for (and therefore possible bias towards) the visual representation. Furthermore, the data value representation involves a multi-step jump from the existing algebraic understanding of the students. Most students in the group would be familiar with graphing straight line equations and claiming that the simultaneous solution is the point of intersection, and could therefore be expected to make an easier transition to the graphical representation presented in Section 4.2. However, the data value and interpolated contour plot representation requires first a discrete representation of the equations in terms of data values on a grid of (x, y) values, then an interpretation of the process of searching for a zero of the function F1 ( x, y ) + F2 ( x, y ) and why exactly this represents a solution of the system of equations. It may be appropriate to present students with a stronger link between this representation and the algebraic and graphical presentations. For example, a proof could be presented to demonstrate that F1 ( x, y ) + F2 ( x, y ) = 0 corresponds with a solution of the system of linear equations. Also, the graphical representation of Section 4.2 could be built in a discrete manner from the data values found using the method of Section 4.3. This translational linking is the subject of further research to be undertaken in the coming semester.
CONCLUSION Overall, it would seem that this initial introduction of multiple representations for linear systems and their solutions via the CAS Maple was a success. More learning styles are catered for, students commented on their enjoyment of using the computer representations, and students provided evidence that translation occurred between at least two of the representations. Furthermore, a preparation of sorts was provided for students future mathematics studies in, for example, computational mathematics, differential equations and linear algebra, where further use of Maple is encountered and a deeper understanding of linear algebra is required. In the future, it may be appropriate to think more carefully about how to represent the linear systems and solutions using data tables/values. Without being a statistical expert, this
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representation did not work as it was originally intended. A possible alternative would be to introduce data from an application of some type, leading to the construction of equations (rather than the reverse process). As a final note, some other interesting representations with slightly different purposes could also be considered. Lin and Hsieh (1993) for example, consider graphical investigations of how changes in equation coefficients lead to alternative solution behaviours. Lindner (2003) considers a representation which is applicable in the two equation-two unknown case (but could be extended to three and three). In this representation, the CAS is used to plot the equations given at each step of the Gaussian elimination process students observe that while the lines change, the solution does not, thereby demonstrating the concept of matrix/system equivalence. Through the provision of environments where multiple representations are employed, instructors allow students to experience alternative representations and to choose that which best suits their style of learning. This is vital to improvement and modernisation of undergraduate mathematics education lecturers must move away from simply teaching what they were taught and how they were taught and towards more inclusive styles where different learning styles are embraced.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I wish to thank the anonymous reviewer for various useful comments and especially for the suggested second visualisation technique described in Appendix 2. I also wish to thank the School of Mathematical Sciences at Queensland University of Technology for a study assistance package which contributed to a proportion of this work.
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Mallet REFERENCES
Ainley, J., Barton, B., Jones, K., Pfannkuch, M. and Thomas, M. (2002). Is what you see what you get? Representations, metaphors and tools in mathematics didactics. In, J. Novotna (ed.) European Research in Mathematics Education II. Proceedings of the Second Conference of the European Society for Research in Mathematics Education. Prague, Czech Republic, Charles University Press, 128-138. Ainsworth, S.E. (1999). A functional taxonomy of multiple representations, Computers and Education, 33(2/3), 131152. Ainsworth, S. and Van Labeke, N. (2002). Using a multi-representational design framework to develop and evaluate a dynamic simulation environment. Paper presented at Dynamic Information and Visualisation Workshop, Tuebingen, July 2002. Retrieved May 21, 2006, from http://www.psychology.nottingham.ac.uk/staff/Shaaron.Ainsworth/div.pdf. Cretchley, P., Harman, C., Ellerton, N. and Fogarty, G. (2000). MATLAB in early undergraduate mathematics: An Investigation into the effects of scientific software on learning. Math. Educ. Res. J., 12, 219-233. Hazari, S. (2004). Applying instructional design theories to improve efficacy of technology Assisted presentations. Journal of Instruction Delivery Systems, 18(2), 24-33. Klincsik, M. (2003). Teaching spline approximation techniques using Maple. ZDM, 35(2), 30-35. Kordaki, M. (2005). The role of multiple representation systems in the enhancement of the learner model in open learning computer environments. In Proceedings from 3rd International Conference on Multimedia and Information and Communication Technologies in Education. Lin, P. and Hsieh, C. (1993). Parameter Effects and Solving Linear Equations in Dynamic, Linked, Multiple Representation Environments. The Mathematics Educator, 4(1), 25-33. Lindner, W. (2003). CAS-Supported multiple representations in elementary linear algebra. ZDM, 35(2), 36-42. Mackie, D. (2002). Using computer algebra to encourage a deep learning approach to calculus. In Proceedings from 2nd International Conference on the Teaching of Mathematics (at the undergraduate level). Retrieved April 15, 2006, from http://server.math.uoc.gr/~ictm2/Proceedings/pap415.pdf. Moyer, P.S., Bolyard, J.J. and Spikell, M.A. (2002, February). What are virtual manipulatives? Teaching Children Mathematics, 372-377. Queensland Board of Senior Secondary School Studies (2000). Mathematics C Senior Syllabus 2001. Retrieved August 23 2006, from http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au/yrs11_12/subjects/maths_c/syllabus.pdf. Romberg, T.A., Fennema, E. and Carpenter, T. (1993). Integrating Research on Graphical Representations of Functions. NJ: Erlbaum Inc. Sankey, M.D. (2005). Multimodal design and the neomillennial learner. In Proceedings from OLT 2005 Conference, QUT, Brisbane, 251-259.
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Tonkes, E.J., Loch, B.I. and Stace, A.W. (2005). An innovative learning model for computation in first year mathematics. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 36(7), 751-759. Yerushalmy, M. (2005). Functions of interactive visual representations in interactive mathematical textbooks. International Journal of Computers for Mathematical Learning, 10, 217-249.
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Mallet APPENDIX 1
Figure 4. The self-paced worksheet completed by students in the Maple lab class. Syntax was provided and students were required to read and work through the worksheet in preparation for other activities.
International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007 APPENDIX 2 Figure 3 presents graphically the value of
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F1 ( x, y ) + F2 ( x, y ) , over a two dimensional domain using a
shaded and interpolated contour plot. That is, the single-valued, two-variable function F1 ( x, y ) + F2 ( x, y ) is computationally evaluated throughout the domain and a depth of colour associated with differing numerical values. The higher the value of the function, the whiter the shade on the interpolated contour plot. As the function value moves closer to zero, and hence as the location in the plot nears a solution of the system of linear equations, the colour becomes darker. The darkest region is where F1 ( x, y ) + F2 ( x, y ) is closest to zero. An alternative, especially useful for students who are already familiar with multivariable functions and three-dimensional visualisation of such functions, is to plot the function F1 ( x, y ) + F2 ( x, y ) in three-dimensions (as opposed to the interpolated contour plot above), along with the plane z = 0. The solution can then be clearly identified as the location where the surface corresponding with F1 ( x, y ) + F2 ( x, y ) meets the z = 0 plane.
: Dann G. Mallet : dg.mallet@qut.edu.au : School of Mathematical Sciences Queensland University of Technology GPO Box 2434, Brisbane QLD 4000, AUSTRALIA
Phone Number : +61 7 3138 2354 Fax : +61 7 3138 2310
www.iejme.com
COMPUTER GRAPHICS AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL AID IN AN INTRODUCTORY DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS COURSE Tapan Kumar Tiwari
ABSTRACT. Mathematicians in general claim that the Computer Algebra Systems (CAS) provide an excellent tool for illustrating calculus concepts. They caution, however, against heavy dependency on the CAS for all computational purposes without the mastery of the procedures involved. This study examined the effect of using the graphical and numerical capabilities of Mathematica as a supplemental instructional tool in enhancing the conceptual knowledge and problem solving abilities of students in a differential calculus course. Topics of differential calculus were introduced by the traditional lecture method to both the control and experimental groups comprised of students enrolled in two sections of the Business and Life Sciences I course. Mathematica was used only by the students of the experimental group to reinforce and illustrate the concepts developed by the traditional method. A content analysis was conducted using the qualitative data obtained from students explanations of the derivative of a function. The quantitative data, the students test scores, were analyzed using ANCOVA. The results showed that students in the experimental group scored higher than students in the control group on both the conceptual and the computational parts of the examination. The qualitative analysis results revealed that, compared to the control group, a higher percentage of students in the experimental group had a better understanding of the derivative. KEYWORDS. Computer Algebra Systems, Computer Graphics, Numerical Computation, Supplemental Instructional Tool, Black-box Syndrome.
INTRODUCTION Background The need for a reform in content and objectives of the introductory calculus course in view of the available technology, such as the Computer Algebra Systems (CAS), has been advocated by researchers. Issues relating to the integration of technology and calculus instruction have drawn enormous attention from mathematics educators for the last decade (Armstrong, Garner, & Wynn, 1994; Boyce & Ecker, 1995; Cipra, 1988b; Dubinsky, 1992; Gordon, 1993; Heid, 1988; Hundhausen, 1992; Judson, 1992; Kolata, 1988; Kowalczyk & Hausknecht, 1994; Lefton & Steinbart, 1995; Leinbach, 1992; Nowakowski, 1992; Porzio, 1995;
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Ralston, 1991; Schoenfeld, 1992; Smith, 1992; Solow, 1991; Steen, 1988; White, 1990; Zorn, 1992). According to Kolata (1988) and Hundhausen (1992), calculus courses must renew emphasis on conceptual understanding rather than rote learning and manipulation of formulas. The value of skill-based calculus courses has been questioned since computers and calculators can perform most (if not all) of the manipulative procedures taught in such courses (Gordon, 1993; Steen, 1988; Tall, 1987). In view of the large number of students taking calculus, much concern has been expressed over the rote, manipulative learning that takes place in the course (Cipra, 1988a; Douglas, 1986; Steen, 1988; White, 1990). In order to make the content more applicable and concept-oriented, calculus courses are now being designed to include a technological component, such as the Computer Algebra Systems (CAS) or programming, with the traditional lecture approach of teaching. In its 1989 report, the National Research Council advocates that technology should be used not because it is seductive, but because it can enhance mathematical learning by extending each students mathematical power. Calculators and computers are challenging tools that should not be used just as a substitute for hard work. Schoenfeld (1992) and Bennet and Whittington (1986) advocated in favor of using technology to prompt students for detailed investigations of mathematical concepts and to teach through experimentation. The symbolic, computational, and graphical capabilities of the CAS could provide opportunities for exploration of mathematical concepts (Hundhausen, 1992), discovery learning (Hundhausen, 1992; Solow, 1991), and treatment of real world problems in ways that had not been feasible without computers (Boyce & Ecker, 1995; Hundhausen, 1992). Kowalczyk and Hausknecht (1994) described two effective applications of the CAS in calculus instruction: CAS as a demonstration tool in classroom and CAS as a laboratory tool for students to experiment on their own. With symbolic, graphic, and numeric computing, Zorn (1992) claimed that mathematical ideas can be presented from different perspectives and more directly than when taught the traditional way. Calculus educators have found the computer and calculator-enhanced learning environments to be relevant, meaningful, and intuitive for each individual student for specific topics of calculus (Rochowicz, 1996). A wide range of calculus concepts that cause problems for students have been identified by researchers. In particular, students difficulties with the abstract concepts of rate of change (Orton, 1984), limit (Francis, 1993; Tall & Vinner, 1981), and function (Dreyfus & Eisenberg, 1982; Even, 1993) have been mentioned. Researchers have recognized the great potential of the CAS in enriching, enlightening, and expanding students learning. The possibility of adding graphical and numerical viewpoints to the traditional symbolic ones has been seen as the most important advantage of using technologies. A little mechanical help, used judiciously, could reveal clearly the insights behind the mathematical ideas being addressed (Gordon, 1993; Zorn, 1992). Computer graphics have made possible the visual presentation of many of the dynamic phenomena studied in calculus. This capability has suggested many pedagogical possibilities (Kowalczyk & Hausknecht, 1994; Steen, 1988). Hundhausen (1992) showed how the CAS could
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be effectively used to illustrate Eulers method to calculate antiderivatives and to compute the Riemann sum. According to Zorn (1992), symbolic computing could provide a concrete approach to infinite series. As compared to traditional version of courses, students disposition towards mathematics and the use of the computer has been found more positive in a computer laboratory calculus course (Fredenberg, 1993; Lefton & Steinbart, 1995; Park, 1993; Park & Travers, 1998).
Black-box Syndrome Mathematics educators, in general, have recognized that the numerical and graphical capabilities of the CAS provide an excellent tool for illustrating calculus concepts. However, heavy dependency on the CAS without the mastery of the procedures of calculus could promote its use as a black- box and generate another type of rote learning (Hundhausen, 1992). Dependence on the CAS, according to Hundhausen (1992), might hinder development of abilities to do theoretical work and analyze problem results. This study, adopting the principles of Hundhausen (1992) and Zorn (1992), examined the effect of computer graphics and numerical computation used as a supplemental instructional tool in enhancing the conceptual knowledge of the limit, derivative, and its applications in certain types of optimization problems. It also focused on whether computer graphics would enhance students problem solving abilities, particularly in finding critical numbers, inflection points, and relative extrema. Both Hundhausen (1992) and Zorn (1992) discourage students heavy dependency on the CAS and recommend its use in a judicious and balanced form. The research questions of interest were: 1. Do the computer graphics and numerical computation used as a supplemental instructional tool enhance students conceptual understanding of differential calculus? 2. Is there a difference in students abilities to find critical numbers, inflection points, and relative extrema if the computer graphics is used as a supplemental instructional tool?
Limitations of the Study The subjects were not randomly selected because two intact classes were used in the study. By using intact classes as sample sets, disruption of the subjects schedule was avoided. This also facilitated in obtaining the departmental permission to conduct the study. A second limitation was the small sample size which was comprised of only two groups of students enrolled in an introductory calculus course designed for Business and Life Science majors. Therefore, ability to generalize the results of the study, as well as the internal validity of the experiment, was limited.
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METHOD Subjects This study was quasi-experimental with a nonequivalent control group design. Eightyeight students, enrolled in two sections of an introductory calculus course MA 1613 Calculus for Business and Life Sciences I at Mississippi State University were the subjects of this study. The control group and the experimental group consisted of 42 and 46 students respectively. None of the students were mathematics majors. Initially, there were 17 males and 25 females in the control group, and 32 males and 14 females in the experimental group. By the end of the semesters, students withdrew from both the control and experimental groups. Of the 42 initially enrolled in the control group, 9 (21%) males and 18 (43%) females completed the study. Of the 46 initially enrolled in the experimental group, 22 (48%) males and 9 (19%) females completed the study. To determine the group equivalency prior to this study, the control and experimental group students ACT (American College Test) math subscores were compared. Since the ACT subscores for two experimental group students (one male and one female) were not available, these two students were also excluded from this study. Therefore, the sample sizes for the control and the experimental groups reduced to 27 and 29, respectively. Although gender was not a factor investigated in this study, the effect of gender on students performance on a calculus achievement test had been found to be statistically non-significant in a study conducted by Fredenberg (1993). The subjects had no prior knowledge about this study. Both the control and experimental group classes met for three lecture hours per week and were taught by this author. To determine the consistency in how the course contents were being taught, two professors of the Departments of Mathematics and Statistics visited the control and experimental group classes twice during the semester. These visits were unannounced and were made once around the mid-term examination and then at the end of the semester before the final examination. Both professors expressed satisfaction over the instructional approach and the students active participation in the process. The contents of the course included limits, continuity, derivatives, and their applications. The only prerequisite for the course was (MA 1313) College Algebra or (MA 1303) Quantitative Reasoning.
Course Structure As stated by Zorn (1992), calculus is algebra-intensive. Most of the main objects of calculus (such as derivatives, series, and integral) are defined via algebraic combinations of functional expressions. Therefore, the first two to three class periods were used to review the fundamentals of algebra in both the control and experimental sections. Emphasis was placed particularly on defining the domain and range of some frequently used functions in the text book, Brief Calculus with Applications (Larson,Hosteler, & Edwards), such as linear, quadratic, cubic,
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rational, absolute value, and square root functions and their graphs. In addition, a small amount of time was spent in the experimental group to introduce the syntax and commands of the CAS Mathematica for defining functions, plotting the graph of one or more functions on the same set of axes. The students were introduced to some Mathematica functions, including the table function that generates a table of functional values. Students were also provided with necessary tutorial worksheets. With the notebook feature of the software, it was easy to execute a Mathematica statement, edit the statement, and then re-execute it. Although no computer terminal was available in the lecture hall, students had access to the 2.2.3 version of Mathematica in a well-equipped computer lab. Every section of the calculus text book included some technology-dedicated problems marked as technology suggesting that a computer algebra systems or a graphic calculator might be helpful in solving the problems. Development of calculus concepts and applications were the main objectives of the teaching method. Mathematica was used only by the experimental group students to enhance problem solving abilities and to reinforce and deepen the concepts developed by the traditional method of teaching. The graphical and numeric capabilities of Mathematica allowed the students to explore calculus concepts that were not easily accomplished without the computer. However, students did not use the computer to evaluate limits and find derivatives symbolically. Their use of Mathematica was limited to generating graphs and tables of function-values. The topics of differential calculus, including limit, derivative, monotonic functions, concavity and inflection points, were introduced in a traditional lecture method in both the control and experimental groups. With simple examples involving functions that were easy to graph by hand, a graphical interpretation of the mathematical phenomena was given whenever possible. The same problems from the textbook were used to introduce a topic and the same problems were assigned for homework in both the control and experimental groups. Because of their access to Mathematica, students in the experimental group were required to do most of the homework problems analytically, graphically, and also numerically if it helped them understand the concepts. The students in the control group, on the other hand, had to rely mostly on the analytical method to solve those problems. Their graphing skills, until the major part of the course sequences were completed, were very limited. For example, the notion of limit was introduced analytically, graphically, and numerically in both the sections. Students in the experimental group were assigned homework problems requiring them to approximate the limit by all the three methods; analytically, numerically, and graphically. However, most of the limit problems were done by the control group students using only analytical methods for the reasons discussed earlier. A major difference between the control version and the experimental version of the calculus course centered on visualization of concepts through graphs. Graphs played a vital role in reinforcing concepts in the experimental group. Although students in the experimental and control groups did not construct graphs by hand until limit, derivative, and their applications in curve sketching were introduced, the experimental group students analyzed a large variety of
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Mathematica generated graphs. The experimental group students were able to analyze how some important properties of a functions graph were reflected in the graphs of its derivative and the second derivative functions by graphing the three functions on the same set of axes. In optimization problems, particularly those related to Business and Economics, graphs played a key role in development of concept in the experimental group. The experimental group students interpreted the computer generated graphs of the revenue and cost functions on the same axes in an applied sense. They also used the graphs of the revenue and cost functions to locate sales levels for a given profit value. They used computer generated graphs to compare optimal sales levels for corresponding revenue and profit functions. They graphed the marginal revenue and marginal cost functions on the same set of axes to note that the maximum profit occurs at the intersection of the two curves. By graphing the revenue function R ( x ) and its second derivative function R ( x ) , the experimental group students located the point of diminishing returns (the point at which the concavity of the graph of R ( x ) changed from upward to downward). On the other hand, since most of the application problems in Business and Economics were modeled through symbol manipulations using polynomial functions with fractional coefficients, these functions were difficult to graph by hand. Hence, students in the control group had to depend on the analytical method of solving those problems. One of the fundamental topics covered in calculus was to find the slope of the tangent line. Students used the derivative f ( x ) to find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of f at the point ( x , f ( x )) . The experimental group students found the slopes of the tangent lines of a variety of functions at the indicated points analytically, wrote the equations of the tangent lines, and then graphed the lines and the corresponding functions on the same axes to convince themselves that the lines were actually tangent to the graphs of the corresponding functions at the required points. For example, they graphed the function
x4 f ( x) = 3 x +1
and the line on the same axes to note that the line actually
appeared to be tangent at the graph of f at the point 1, 1 2 . Also, by drawing several secant lines through a given point on the graph of f, they approximated the slope of the tangent line. However, the visual representation of these mathematical phenomena was limited for the control group students who found the slope of functions analytically. The experimental group students, because of their access to Mathematica, did most of the homework problems analytically and graphically and some of the limit problems numerically also, whereas the control group students relied mainly on the analytical approach to solve those problems. Table 1.1 briefly lists the major differences in approaches to solving homework problems assigned from various topics between the experimental and control group students.
( )
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Tiwari Table 1. Major difference in approaches between groups to solving homework problems Topics Limit Experimental group Control group Most of the limit problems were Most of the limit problems were done analytically solved analytically. and graphically. A few of them were also done numerically. An equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at An equation of the tangent line the indicated point was found analytically. The result at a given point was found was then verified by sketching the graph of f and the analytically. tangent line. Also, by drawing a sequence of secant lines through a given point on the graph of f, the slope of the tangent line was estimated. Critical numbers, inflection points, and relative extrema were found analytically.
Tangent line
With computer generated graphs of f, f, f on the same set of axes, the critical numbers of f, and the inflection points, if any, were found. The behavior of f relative to the signs of f and f was observed. Then the relative extrema of f if any, were found. Application problems The results were also verified by the analytical method. Analytical solutions to optimization problems, particularly relating to Business and Economics, were also graphically explained and verified.
Optimization problems relating to Business and Economics were done analytically.
Instrumentation The instrument used to collect the data contained six concept-oriented questions (see Appendix A), designed to test the conceptual understanding of limit, derivative and their applications, and three computational questions (see Appendix B), designed to test the computational skills of students. The concept-oriented questions were either taken from the textbook or developed by the author and required little or no computation to answer them. For example, answers to question numbers 1, 4, and 6 followed directly from definitions and theorems. These concept-oriented questions were included in the four class tests, including the final examination, conducted during the semester in both the groups. The computational questions were taken from the text book and were given as a take-home assignment. The experimental group students were allowed to use computers to do the take-home assignment. For the qualitative analysis purpose, a question asking students to explain what they understood about the derivative of a function was included. All of the class tests and the take-home assignments that were to be graded for the control and experimental groups were approved by the same professors of the Mathematics Department who had visited the experimental and control group classes twice during the semester. The test and assignment questions for both the experimental and control groups were either the same or similar in nature.
39
Data Analysis Statistical analysis of the data was conducted using SPSS. An independent sample t-test analysis was used to determine if there was statistically significant difference between the students of the experimental and control groups in their prior mathematical knowledge as measured by the mathematics ACT subscores . Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted on the mean scores for the conceptual as well as the computational parts of the examinations respectively to analyze the difference in scores between the students of the two groups. The ACT math subscores were used as the covariate. A content analysis was conducted using the qualitative data obtained from the various answers given by the students of the two groups explaining the derivative of a function.
RESULTS With an of .05, the results of an independent sample t-test conducted on the ACT math sub-scores indicated no significant difference in mathematical knowledge prior to this study between the students of the experimental group (M =21.7586, SD = 3.988) and the control group (M = 21.9630, SD = 5.741), t (54) = .16, p = .877. The test questions (see Appendix A) designed to test the conceptual understanding of limit, derivative, and their applications required little or no computation to answer them. The experimental group students (M = 7.65, SD =1.47) scored significantly higher than their control group counterparts (M = 4.88, SD = 1.70), F(1,53) = 48.40, p < .01. On the computational part of examination (see Appendix B), the students of the experimental group (M = 17.06, SD = 3.15) also scored significantly higher than the control group students (M =10.60, SD = 6.70), F(1, 53) = 21.31, p < .01. The passing rates, based on the course final grades which were computed on a 4-point scale (Table 1.2), were 90% and 85%, respectively for the experimental and the control groups. However, for the computation of the final grades, students scores on the evaluation of objectives such as exponential and logarithmic functions, velocity and acceleration, had also been taken into account. Questions on these objectives were not included on both the conceptual and the computational parts of the examination since the experimental group did not use computer to do homework problems relating to these objectives.
Table 2. Final grades of students of both the groups Groups Experimental Control N 29 27 A 5 1 B 11 7 C 5 6 D 5 9 F 3 4
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Content Analysis The qualitative data, obtained from the explanations of the derivative of a function given by the students of the two groups, was analyzed using a content analysis. The derivative in this course was seen as the slope of a tangent, as a rate of change, and as a function. Student responses were classified in one of five categories: 1. as the slope of a tangent and as a rate of change, 2. as the slope of a tangent, 3. as a rate of change, 4. required to find certain useful information (i.e. critical numbers, inflection points, extrema), and 5. no answer or an unsatisfactory answer. A summary of the results are given in the Table 3.
Table 3. Number and percentage of students answers explaining derivative Responses 1. As the slope of a tangent and as a rate of change 2. As the slope of a tangent 3. As a rate of change 4. Required to find certain useful information such as critical numbers, inflection points, and extrema. 5. No answer or unsatisfactory answer Total Group Responses Experimental 14 (48 %) 6 (21 %) 4 (14 %) 4 (14 %) 1 (3 %) 29 (100 %) Control 3 (11 %) 4 (15 %) 8 (30 %) 3 (11 %) 9 (33 %) 27 (100 %)
Given below are some typical quotes from the explanations of the derivative of a function given by the students of two groups: A student in the experimental group described derivative both as the slope of a tangent line and a rate of change.
The derivative of a function is the rate of change of the function. It can be used to find velocities, critical points, marginal profit and a list of other real world problems. Also derivative can be used to find the slope of a tangent line which is the best approximation of the slope of a graph at a given point.
For a control group student, derivative was just the slope of a tangent line.
The derivative is a function that gives you a formula for finding the slope of the tangent line at any point on the functions graph.
Another student in the control group found derivative useful for finding critical numbers, inflection points, and the relative extrema.
The derivative of a function is used for many different mathematical operations. The first derivative is used to show relative extrema, critical points and open intervals for which f(x) is increasing or decreasing is also found here. The second derivative is used to show concavity and inflection points.
Another student in the experimental group described derivative as a rate of change.
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Derivative seem to be the basis of almost all calculus. Through the use of orders of derivatives, one can tell anything about the graph of a function, making it extremely easy to find one graph of values from another. For instance, the derivative of a position function is velocity, and the derivative of a velocity is acceleration. Derivatives can also be applied to the business world. you can find max. profit from the first derivative and point of diminishing return from the second derivative. Derivative is a rate of change.
A student in the control group gave this unsatisfactory explanation of derivative:

2 Derivative is an easier way to analyze a function. f ( x ) = x + 4 then f ( x ) = 2 x
A higher percentage of students in the experimental group showed more evidence of understanding the notion of derivative than the students in the control group (Table 3). The answers given by most of the students in the experimental group were more explanatory than those in the control group. For example, one of the six students in the experimental group who described derivative as the slope of a tangent line also added that the slope of the line tangent to the graph of a function at a given point is the slope of the graph of the function at that point. Two of the four students in the experimental group who saw the first and the second derivatives as functions useful to find the critical numbers and inflection points that are useful for determining the concavity of the graph and relative extrema, also explained how the notion of concavity was related to the concept of diminishing returns in economic problems. They indicated that the point of diminishing returns, where the concavity of the graph of the (advertising) cost function changes from upwards to downwards, could be found by using the inflection points. Nine (33 %) of the control group as compared to one (3 %) of the experimental group either did not answer the question or gave an unsatisfactory answer. Among those nine, three were unable to answer the question. The one in the experimental group gave an unsatisfactory answer. As far as writing abilities were concerned, students in both the groups had problems expressing themselves in appropriate mathematical terms.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The statistically non-significant difference between the experimental and the control groups as measured by the ACT math subscores revealed that both the groups appeared to be equivalent in their mathematical knowledge prior to this study. However, in a quasi experimental design, the possibilities of pre-existing differences in mathematical abilities between the groups can not be completely ruled out. The statistical procedure of the analysis of covariance takes into account any such pre-existing differences between the groups while comparing their means. So for further analysis of the data, the analysis of covariance was used with the ACT math subscores used as the covariate. The experimental group scored higher than the control group on both the conceptual and the computational parts of the examination. The differences in the mean scores of the two groups on both parts of the examination were statistically significant.
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Tiwari
Questions 1, 3, and 6 of the conceptual part of the examination were derivative related questions posed through graphs. The students answers required no computation. The application problem, Question 5 asked for the point of diminishing returns. The repeated visualization of these mathematical phenomena through graphs might be a major contributing factor to a clear understanding of the mathematical process involved in the solution of these problems, thus resulting in a better performance by the experimental group on the conceptual part of the examination. On the computational part of the examination which was assigned to both the groups as a take - home exam, students were asked to determine the critical numbers, the open intervals where the graph of a given function f, is increasing or decreasing, is concave upward or concave downward, and the relative extrema. The students of the experimental group were allowed to use computers to solve these problems. Once the derivative and the second derivative functions of a given function are graphed, solutions to these questions almost become obvious. Hence, answering these questions with the help of computers turned out to be an easy routine for most of the students in the experimental group. But for many students in the control group, finding the roots of some of the equations arising from these problems (in the process of finding the critical numbers or the inflection points) appeared to be the greatest hurdle standing in the way of solving these questions. The higher course passing rate for the students in the experimental group (90%) as compared to those in the control group (85%) can not be solely attributed to the use of Mathematica as an instructional tool. As stated earlier, students in the experimental group did not use computers to solve the homework problems relating to exponential and logarithmic functions, velocity, and acceleration. For the computation of the final grades, students scores on the evaluation of these objectives were also taken into account. The findings of this study support the previous research that adding graphical and numerical viewpoints to the traditional symbolic ones gives a clear insight behind the mathematical ideas being addressed. Computer graphics appeared to be very effective in visualizing functions or relations between functions and their derivative functions, and variables. As a result, the abstract analytical solutions of many of the application problems become meaningful to students.
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APPENDIX A
CONCEPTUAL PART OF THE EXAMINATION FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL AND THE CONTROL GROUPS
1. Consider the slope of a line through Q and P. What is the limit of the slopes of the secant lines as Q approaches P along the curve? (Answer in words)
12 10 8 6 4 2 0.25 12 10 8 6 4 2 0.2 12 10 8 6 4 2 0.2 0.4 Q P 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 0.4 0.6 0.8 Q P 1 1.2 1.4 0.5 0.75 P 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 Q
2. Let f '( x ) = 3x 3 + 3x 2 - 6 x . Note that increasing or decreasing.
f (-2) = f (0) = f (1) = 0. Identify the open intervals on which f is
44 3. You are given the graph of f (x) .
Tiwari
i) Find the open intervals on which the graph of f(x) is increasing or decreasing. ii) If f(x) represents the revenue function then find the number of units x that will maximize the revenue.
2 1 -1 -1 -2 -3 1 2 3 X- axis Graph of f' x
H L
4. What are the asymptotes (if any) of the graph of f if

x 1-
lim f ( x) = -, lim f ( x) = +, and lim f ( x) = 1? +

x1 x
3 2 5. Given R ( x ) = - ( x - 9 x - 27), 0 x 5, where R is the revenue and x is the amount spent on advertising.
Identify the point of diminishing returns for the input-output function.
4 9
6. Given below is the graph of f. The sign of f at the point ( 3, -5 ) is: (a) Negative (b) Positive (c) Zero (d) The sign can not be determined.
Graph of f x 6 4 2 -2 -2 -4 2 4
H L
International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007 APPENDIX B COMPUTATIONAL PART OF THE EXAMINATION FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS
45
In problems 1 - 3, find all critical numbers and inflection points (if any) of the graphs of the given functions. Then find the intervals on which the functions are increasing or decreasing. Also identify the intervals on which the graphs are concave upward or concave downward. 1) 2) 3)
f ( x ) = x 4 - 8x 3 + 18x 2 - 16x + 5 f ( x) = x x2 + 1
f ( x) = x 4 - x 2
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Tiwari REFERENCES
Armstrong, G., Garner, L., & Wynn, J. (1994). Our experience with two reformed calculus programs. Primus, 4 (4), 301 - 311. Bennett, R. E., & Whittington, B. R. (1986). Implications of new technology for mathematics and science testing. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing service. Boyce, W. E., & Ecker, J. G. (1995). The computer - oriented calculus course at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. The College Mathematics Journal, 26 (1), 45 - 50. Cipra, B. A. (1988a). Calculus: Crisis looms in mathematics future. Science, 239, 1491-1492. Cipra, B. A. (1988b). Calculus for a new century: A pump not a filter. (MAA Notes No. 8) Washington, DC.: Mathematical Association of America. Douglas, R. (1986). Report of the conference/workshop to develop curriculum and teaching methods for calculus at the college level. (MAA Notes NO. 6). Washington, DC.: Mathematical Association of America. Dreyfus, T., & Eisenberg, T. (1982). Intuitive functional concepts: A baseline study on intuitions. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 13, 360 - 380. Dubinsky, E. (1992). A learning theory approach to calculus. In Z. A. Karian (Ed.), Symbolic computation in undergraduate mathematics education (pp. 43-55). Washington, DC.: Mathematical Association of America. Even, R. (1993). Subject-matter knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge: Prospective secondary teachers and the function concept. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 24, 94 - 116. Francis, E. J. (1993). The concept of limit in college calculus: Assessing student understanding and teacher beliefs (Doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland College Park, 1992). Dissertation Abstracts International, 53, 3465 A. Fredenberg, V. G. (1993). Supplemental visual computer-assisted instruction and student achievement in freshman college calculus (Doctoral dissertation, Montana State University, 1993). Dissertation Abstracts International, 55, 59 A. Gordon, S. P. (1993). Calculus must evolve. Primus, 3 (1), 11 - 17. Heid, M. K. (1988). Resequencing skills and concepts in applied calculus using the computer as a tool. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 19, 3 - 25.
Hundhausen, J. R. (1992). Some uses of symbolic computation in calculus instruction: Experiences and reflections. In Z. A. Karian (Ed.), Symbolic computation in undergraduate mathematics education (pp. 75 - 81). Washington, DC.: Mathematical Association of America. Judson, P. (1988). Effects of modified sequencing of skills and applications in introductory calculus (Doctoral dissertation, University of Texas at Austin, 1988). Dissertation Abstracts International, 49, 1397 A. Judson, P. (1992). Antidifferentiation and the definite integral: Using computer algebra to make a difference. In Z.
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A. Karian (Ed. ), Symbolic computation in undergraduate mathematics education (pp. 91 - 94). Washington, DC.: Mathematical Association of America. Kolata, G. B. (1988). Calculus Reform: Is it needed? Is it possible? (MAA Notes No. 8). Washington, DC.: Mathematical Association of America. Kowalczyk, R. E., & Hausknecht, A. O. (1994, November). Our experiences with using visualization tools in teaching calculus. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Mathematical Association of Two - Year Colleges, Tulsa, OK. Larson, R. E., Hostetler, R. P., & Edwards, B. H. (1995). Brief calculus with applications (alternate 4th ed.). Lexington: D. C. Heath and Company. Lefton, L. E., & Steinbart, E. M. (1995). Calculus & Mathematica: An end-users point of view. Primus, 5(1), 80-96. Leinbach, L. C. (1992). Using a symbolic computation system in a laboratory calculus course. In Z. A. Karian (Ed.), Symbolic computation in undergraduate mathematics education (pp. 69 - 74). Washington, DC.: Mathematical Association of America. National Research Council. (1989). Everybody counts: A report to the nation on the future of mathematics education, Washington, DC.: National Academy Press. Nowakowski, A. J. (1992). Computer analysis systems in mathematics education: A case study examining the introduction of computer algebra systems to secondary mathematics teachers (Doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1992). Dissertation Abstracts International, 53, 1435 A. Orton, A. (1984). Understanding rate of change. Mathematics in School, 13 (5), 23 - 26. Park, K. (1993). A comparative study of the traditional calculus course vs the Calculus & Mathematica course (Doctoral dissertation, University at Urbana-Champaign, 1993). Dissetation Abstracts International, 54, 119 A. Park, K., & Travers, K. (1998, January 25). Study by the College of Education, University of Illinois. [On - line], http://www-cm.uiuc.edu/compare/study.html. Web site dealing with the evaluation of the computer - based course Calculus & Mathematica. Porzio, D. T. (1995, October). Effects of differing technological approaches on students use of numerical, graphical and symbolic representations and their understanding of calculus. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the NorthAmerican Chapter of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Columbus, OH. Ralston, A. (1991). Calculators for teaching testing mathematics: A mathematicians view. College Board Review, 160, 81 - 26. Rochowicz, J. A., Jr. (1996). The impact of using computers and calculators on calculus instruction: Various perceptions. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 15 (4), 423 - 435. Schoenfeld, A. H. (1992). On calculus and computers: Thoughts about technologically based calculus curricula that might make sence. In Z. A. Karian (Ed.), Symbolic computation in undergraduate mathematics education (pp. 7- 15). Washington, DC.: Mathematical Association of America.
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Smith, D. A. (1992). Question for the future: What about the horse? In Z. A. Karian (Ed.), Symbolic computation in undergraduate mathematics education (pp. 1 - 5). Washington, DC. : Mathematical Association of America. Solow, A. E. (1991). Learning by discovery and weekly problems: Two methods of calculus reform. Primus, 1 (2), 183 - 197. Steen, L. A. (1988). Calculus for a new century: A pump not a filter. (MAA Notes No. 8). Washington, DC.: Mathematical Association of America. Tall, D. O. (1987). Whither calculus? Mathematics Teaching, 11, 50 - 54. Tall, D. O., & Vinner, S. (1981). Concept image and concept definition in to limits and continuity. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 12, 151 - 169. White, P. (1990). Is calculus in trouble? Australian Senior Mathematics Journal, 4, 105 - 110. Zorn, P. (1992). Symbolic Computing in Undergraduate Mathematics: Symbols, pictures, numbers, and insight. In Z.A. Karian (Ed.), Symbolic Computation in Undergraduate Mathematics Education (pp. 17 - 29) Washington, DC.: Mathematical Association of America. mathematics, with particular reference
: Tapan Kumar Tiwari : tiwtriv@netscape.net : Department of Mathematics and Computer Science Alcorn State University Alcorn, Mississippi USA
Phone Number : 601 877 6609
49
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International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

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International Electronic Journal of

International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

F1 ( x, y ) + F2 ( x, y ) , over a two dimensional domain using a

Authors E-mail Address

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International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

Optimization problems relating to Business and Economics were done analytically.

International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

Another student in the experimental group described derivative as a rate of change.

International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

A student in the control group gave this unsatisfactory explanation of derivative:

International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

2. Let f '( x ) = 3x 3 + 3x 2 - 6 x . Note that increasing or decreasing.

f (-2) = f (0) = f (1) = 0. Identify the open intervals on which f is

44 3. You are given the graph of f (x) .

4. What are the asymptotes (if any) of the graph of f if

lim f ( x) = -, lim f ( x) = +, and lim f ( x) = 1? +

Identify the point of diminishing returns for the input-output function.

International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education / Vol.2 No.1, February 2007

Authors E-mail Address

Phone Number : 601 877 6609

International Electronic Journal of

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