Leadership Skills

Royal Holloway School of Management Masters Development Workshop

Leadership Skills Course Notes

These are detailed notes. Much more than a copy of the lecture or workshop slides, they provide a detailed review of the topic with additional concepts and exercises.

Academic year: 2004/5

David White, Whitehorn Consulting, 2004

Page 1

Management Development Programme

Contents
LEADERSHIP SKILLS ..........................................................................................................1 COURSE NOTES ....................................................................................................................1 ACADEMIC YEAR: 2004/5....................................................................................................1 DAVID WHITE, WHITEHORN CONSULTING, 2004...................................................1
...............................................................................................................................................................8 Book 1 Leadership and Management.................................................................................................9 The need for leadership......................................................................................................................10 The need for clear goals....................................................................................................................10 Key leadership qualities....................................................................................................................10 The Leader and the Team..................................................................................................................10 Mintzbergs 10 Managerial Roles ....................................................................................................12 Management style...............................................................................................................................12 The Managerial Grid.........................................................................................................................13 Grid Styles That Cause Conflict........................................................................................................14 A Style without Conflict...................................................................................................................15 Behavioural Style another dimension............................................................................................16 Action centred Leadership.................................................................................................................17 Motivating individuals and teams.....................................................................................................18 Maslow's Hierarchy Of Human Needs.............................................................................................18 The levels in detail............................................................................................................................19 Herzbergs Theory X and Y - Why People Work.............................................................................20

Page 2

Leadership Skills Life Orientations.................................................................................................................................23 LIFO Managerial Categories.............................................................................................................23 Management Style Descriptions........................................................................................................24 Decision Taking Processes.................................................................................................................24 Handling meetings..............................................................................................................................26 Types of Meeting..............................................................................................................................26 Skills For Handling Meetings...........................................................................................................27 Working Effectively as a Group........................................................................................................31 Content and Process..........................................................................................................................31 Behaviour related to Content or Process...........................................................................................31 Behaviour in Effective Groups..........................................................................................................32 Behaviour in Ineffective Groups.......................................................................................................34 The Team Building Process...............................................................................................................36 Forming............................................................................................................................................37 Storming...........................................................................................................................................38 Norming............................................................................................................................................39 Performing........................................................................................................................................40 Coaching..............................................................................................................................................41 What is Coaching?............................................................................................................................41 Coaching in context..........................................................................................................................41 Performance related..........................................................................................................................43 Behaviour related..............................................................................................................................43 Summary of intervention types.........................................................................................................44 Why is coaching and mentoring more important than ever before?..................................................44 Coaching and motivation...................................................................................................................45 Coaching models ...............................................................................................................................45 Input coaching ..................................................................................................................................45 Page 3

Management Development Programme Output coaching................................................................................................................................45 The importance of awareness............................................................................................................47 How coaches develop their people....................................................................................................48 Moving from controller to coach.....................................................................................................48 Coaching Qualities............................................................................................................................48 Who can be coached?........................................................................................................................50 When coaching doesn't work............................................................................................................50 Benefits to the coach.........................................................................................................................50 Giving feedback..................................................................................................................................50 The Seven Rules for Giving Feedback..............................................................................................53 Receiving Feedback............................................................................................................................54 The GROW Model.............................................................................................................................54 Stages of one-to-one coaching .........................................................................................................55 Plan for coaching session..................................................................................................................55 Check: is it a coaching need?............................................................................................................56 Brief for coaching session.................................................................................................................57 Define the challenge/problem...........................................................................................................58 SMART Goals..................................................................................................................................58 Evaluating SMART Goals................................................................................................................58 Fact-finding and recognising reality..................................................................................................59 Reality questions...............................................................................................................................59 Explore Options for improvement.....................................................................................................60 Prioritise the options.........................................................................................................................62 Develop an action plan, what will happen.........................................................................................62 Way forward Questions....................................................................................................................62 Monitor Progress...............................................................................................................................62 Leading international teams..............................................................................................................63 Trompenaars Seven Cultural Dimensions........................................................................................63 Page 4

Leadership Skills Conclusions.........................................................................................................................................64 Further reading..................................................................................................................................65 Book 2 Report Writing.......................................................................................................................65 Introduction........................................................................................................................................65 Definitions .......................................................................................................................................67 Section 1 - Preparation.......................................................................................................................68 Purpose.............................................................................................................................................68 Types of report....................................................................................................................................69 Monitoring & Controlling Operations...............................................................................................69 Implementing policies & procedures................................................................................................69 Sales & Funding Proposals...............................................................................................................70 Format:................................................................................................................................................70 Documenting work in progress.........................................................................................................70 Reports for Guiding Decisions..........................................................................................................71 Reports to analyse and interpret........................................................................................................71 Readership..........................................................................................................................................72 Who are the intended primary readers? ............................................................................................72 Who are the secondary readers?........................................................................................................72 What do you know about your readers?............................................................................................72 Research............................................................................................................................................73 1. What are the facts about the subject? (Quantitative Research)......................................................73 2. What are the opinion and views of those who might be involved? (Qualitative Research)...........74 Reflection..........................................................................................................................................74 Section 2 - Arrangement....................................................................................................................74 Objectives.........................................................................................................................................75 Ideas/Key issues................................................................................................................................75 Selection...........................................................................................................................................75 Page 5

Management Development Programme Structure of the argument..................................................................................................................76 Visual evidence.................................................................................................................................77 Section 3: Writing...............................................................................................................................77 Format...............................................................................................................................................77 Style..................................................................................................................................................78 Flow..................................................................................................................................................78 The Classic Structure........................................................................................................................78 Readability..........................................................................................................................................81 Subheadings......................................................................................................................................81 The Fog Factor..................................................................................................................................81 Paragraphing.....................................................................................................................................82 Concrete vs. abstract ........................................................................................................................82 Active vs. Passive voice....................................................................................................................82 Tone of Voice...................................................................................................................................82 Page layout........................................................................................................................................82 Section 4 - Revision and delivery.......................................................................................................84 Final reflection..................................................................................................................................84 Delivery method and follow-up........................................................................................................84 Conclusions.........................................................................................................................................84 Book 3 Effective Presentations..........................................................................................................85 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................85 The Advantages of Presentations......................................................................................................85 Preparing to Prepare..........................................................................................................................85 The Key Stages of Preparation..........................................................................................................87 Content..............................................................................................................................................87 1. The Introduction............................................................................................................................87 2. Objectives.....................................................................................................................................88 3. Structure of the presentation.........................................................................................................89 Page 6

Leadership Skills 4. Review 'the problem'.....................................................................................................................89 5. Present 'the solution' .....................................................................................................................89 6. Summarise ...................................................................................................................................90 7. Confirm that the objective has been achieved...............................................................................90 Seek acceptance of your solution......................................................................................................90 The 3 C's..............................................................................................................................................90 Contact..............................................................................................................................................90 Control..............................................................................................................................................90 Confirmation.....................................................................................................................................90 From Written to Spoken....................................................................................................................91 Scripts..................................................................................................................................................91 Cue Cards............................................................................................................................................92 LCD/OHPs/35mm slides....................................................................................................................92 No script..............................................................................................................................................92 Visual Aids..........................................................................................................................................92 The Speaking Environment...............................................................................................................93 Layout...............................................................................................................................................93 Equipment.........................................................................................................................................93 General Environment........................................................................................................................94 Skills of Persuasion.............................................................................................................................94 1. Objectives.....................................................................................................................................94 2. Credibility.....................................................................................................................................94 3. Level of appeal..............................................................................................................................94 Handling Objections.........................................................................................................................95 Stagecraft............................................................................................................................................95 The Initial Impression.......................................................................................................................95 Page 7

Management Development Programme Reach out to them.............................................................................................................................95 Movement and Gesture ....................................................................................................................95 Voice.................................................................................................................................................95 Humour.............................................................................................................................................95 Handling Questions............................................................................................................................95 Policy ...............................................................................................................................................96 Attitude.............................................................................................................................................96 Listen................................................................................................................................................96 Summarise & repeat..........................................................................................................................96 Be aware of questioner's motives......................................................................................................96 Your answer......................................................................................................................................96 Handling awkward questions............................................................................................................97 ]............................................................................................................................................................97 And remember................................................................................................................................97

Page 8

Leadership Skills

Book 1 Leadership and Management

While some people are born leaders, most need to develop the skills required to create vision, communicate it to others and motivate the team. This is particularly important during periods of rapid change or growth where the team are all the more reliant on the support and direction given by their immediate manager or supervisor. This course sets out to introduce the key skills for people, who are about to take on, or who are relatively new to, people management responsibility By the end of the programme delegates will be able to:
Understand the need for leadership and management skills in any supervisory role Recognise the specific qualities of leadership and the needs of the team Identify the impact of leadership on the task, team and individual Set and communicate goals Delegate and coach Monitor and support team work Deal with conflict and dissent through effective communication skills Motivate and build the team

The feedback elements of the course will enable delegates to get a measure of their own natural style and how this fits an appropriate set of people management behaviours. This course is an introduction covering a wide range of skills, which delegates may wish to revisit in more detail on the courses listed below.
Appraisals On the job training Interviewing skills Delegation skills

Page 9

Management Development Programme

The need for leadership

Leaders are people who influence the actions of others Leadership only makes sense in the context of a group - or a number of groups (subsystems) Leadership is about achieving group or organisational goals Leaders are not necessarily those who are formally appointed - they can emerge in any organisational context without the trappings of formal power.

The need for clear goals

They can increase performance, They can clarify expectations, They provide benchmarks for controlling, They can increase motivation.

Key leadership qualities

Research has shown that the following qualities mark out leaders from non-leaders:
Drive (achievement, ambition, energy, tenacity, initiative) Leadership motivation to lead or influence others (personalised or socialised) Honesty and integrity Self-confidence (including emotional stability) Cognitive ability (the ability to marshal and interpret a wide variety of information) Knowledge of the business

The Leader and the Team

The concept of synergy refers to the collective output of a work group being greater than the aggregate of individual members contributions, or "making two plus two equal five. The author Bennet identifies some of the following causes of group synergy:
Cross fertilisation of ideas within a group; Stimulation of innovation, effort and efficiency through group activity; Cost reductions resulting from undertaking several activities simultaneously rather than one after another; Combination of individual knowledge, talents and experiences.

Page 10

Leadership Skills Teams are variously distinguished from groups in general as special and ideal examples of a kind. Newstrom defines a team as "a co-operative small group in regular contact that is engaged in coordinated action." Bennet defines them as groups whose "members voluntarily co-ordinate their work to achieve group objectives." What is stressed is the interdependence of team members in terms of their efforts, with a high level of interaction and a shared perception of issues. Teamwork involves knowing the team's objectives and giving enthusiasm, responsibility and support to the task and to each other. 1 Such mutual regard produces a sense of satisfaction derived from belonging to the group. John Adair identifies that a "high-performance team" is more flexible, creative, innovative and productive than an ordinary work group. He ascribes these qualities to traits of its underlying triadic structure: leadership, membership and common strategies/methods of working together. 2 Good leadership exists where personal qualities complement functional skills in both task and group areas. Leadership skills are partly developed and partly innate, with the best teams consisting of members who complement the strengths and weaknesses of the leader and of each other. The supportive environment depends on co-operation and trust, which a good manger can generate through her/his direction, inspiration, vision and enthusiasm. Team members can be oriented towards the overall task through policies and reward systems (financial or recognition), contingent on group performance, which ensure that everyone pulls their weight and is valued. A good team member should have the skills to complete the team task, along with a desire to cooperate with the others. Knowing each others roles within the team creates mutual understanding and awareness of actions, facilitating effective responses and enabling the achievement of team goals. Effective common methods of working will ideally provide a framework for decision-making, problem solving and innovative thinking. It is clear that the ideals of a work group operating as a team bring together many of the strands of group operation with which we have been concerned in this chapter. A group should be designed and managed to meet the needs of the individual, the group and the organisation, bearing in mind the prevailing cultural and environmental context. The role of group leadership and management is crucial. If a leader can inspire loyalty and trust then the group members will feel that they have his support and commitment and will respond with their own commitment to the leader, the team and the company. What roles does the manager have?

1 2

Newstrom, J. W., Davis, K.(1993) Organizational Behaviour: Human Behaviour at Work (9th ed.) McGraw-Hill Adair, J. (1986) Effective Teambuilding Pan

Page 11

Management Development Programme

Mintzbergs 10 Managerial Roles

Role
Figurehead Leader

Description Interpersonal
Performs symbolic duties of a legal or social nature. Builds relationships with subordinates Communicates with, motivates and coaches them Maintains networks of contacts outside work Unit who provide help and information.

Liaison

Informational
Monitor Seeks internal and external information about issues that can affect organisation. Disseminator Spokesperson Transmits information internally that is obtained from either internal or external sources. Transmits information about the organisation to outsiders.

Decisional
Entrepreneur Disturbance handler Resource allocator Negotiator Acts as an initiator, designer and encourager of change and innovation. Takes corrective action when organisation faces important, unexpected difficulties. Distributes resources of all types including time, funding, equipment and human resources. Represents the organisation in major negotiations affecting the managers area of responsibility.

Source: Based on Henry Mintzberg, The Nature of Managerial Work, Harper & Row, New York, 1980.

Management style
Management style has to do with management's basic function - achieving purpose through people. Style is the cluster of behaviours that are exhibited as the manager interacts with others while planning, implementing, or evaluating the organisation's work. Coherence and consistency are the first requirements of style; knowing what to expect from your manager indicates that he or she has a style, which can go a long way towards helping your sense of well-being. The most important requirement for a competent style, the one that distinguishes management's low performers from its high performers, is how the style affects participation and teamwork.

Page 12

Leadership Skills

The Managerial Grid

Robert Blake and Jane Mouton developed a two-dimensional model, the Managerial Grid, for dramatising management style. For managers it helps make descriptions of style, such as "autocratic" or "permissive", more concrete. Thus, once style is recognisable in realistic terms, a manager is in a better position to assess his or her own behaviour and consider other alternatives to current practice. As shown in the figure overleaf, the Blake-Mouton Grid reflects the basic function of management achieving purpose through people - as it depicts a manager's concern for people and production. The scale along each axis indicates that the two concerns may be felt by managers on a "more-or-less" basis. The scale value of "1" indicates a minimum degree of concern on either axis but could range to a high concern of "9". Since the two dimensions are independent, a manager's specific level of concern can be cited on each axis, and the resulting pair of numbers be used to plot their position on the grid. Blake and Mouton stressed that the degree or concern expressed by manages for either people or production reflects their attitudes not their achievement. To have a high concern for either factor does not mean a manager will gain the highest possible level of production or build sound relationships with his or her people.

Page 13

Management Development Programme

High 9 8 7 6 CONCERN FOR PEOPLE 5

Country Club Management - (1/9) Production is incidental to lack of conflict and "good fellowship".

Team Management - (9/9) Production is from integration of task and human requirements into a unified system of interplay towards organisational goals.

Middle of the Road - (5/5) Push for production but don't go "all out". Give some, but not all "Be fair but firm".

4 3 2 1 Low

Impoverished Management - (1/1) Effective production is unobtainable because people are lazy, apathetic and indifferent. Sound and mature relationships are difficult to achieve because human nature being what it is conflict is inevitable. 1 2 3 4 5

Task Management - (9/1) Men are a commodity just as machines. A managers responsibility is to plan, direct and control the work of those subordinate to him.

7 High

Low

CONCERN FOR PRODUCTION

Grid Styles That Cause Conflict

While managers may share a basic assumption that people and work do not mix very well, they may deal with the conflict with different styles. Three pure and one mixed style flow from a conflict theory of production and people. In each case a manager unconsciously chooses between the two because they are incompatible. 9/1 Task Management Style Men are a commodity just as machines. A manager's responsibility is to plan, direct and control the work of those subordinate to him. With a high concern (9) for production and a low concern (1) for people, the 9/1 managers behaves like "the Boss". The manager is in charge of the planning, directing and controlling functions and expects compliance to orders because, after all, "Planners plan and doers do". Such a style does not take into account the individual need for meaningful work or sound relationships. In fact the work should be

Page 14

Leadership Skills accepted without question: "These are your instructions. Do it, and don't give me any lip. If there's anything I detest, it's insubordination." 1/9 Country Club Management Style Production is incidental to lack of conflict and good fellowship. The 1/9 position is as extreme as the 9/1 style. To have the lowest concern possible for production while taking the concern for people to the limit overlooks why we work - to get something done. The 1/9 manager is likely to be very busy being nice to others and making sure everyone is in good spirits. In short, a manager with such a style strives to create a "country club" atmosphere where everyone gets along with each other. Permissiveness and acceptance mark the 1/9 style. If an error is made by a subordinate, the 1/9 manager dismisses it with, "Oh well, we all make mistakes". 1/1 Impoverished Management Style Effective production is unobtainable because people are lazy, apathetic, and indifferent. Sound and mature relationships are difficult to achieve because, human nature being what it is, conflict is inevitable. A 1/1 manager does not want to deal with he production-people conflict at all. The style is called "impoverished" because little value is placed on either. 1/1 managers have graduated from the "school of hard knocks". Having been burned once they do not want it to happen again: "I do just enough to keep from getting hassled, never get involved in personal disputes, and, generally, try to stay out of the way". If action must be taken, it will be done "by the book". 5/5 Middle of the Road Style Push for production but don't go all out. Give some, but not all. Be fair but firm. By staying in the middle of the Grid, a manager with a 5/5 style strives to take advantage of 9/1 and 1/9 concerns and stay out of the kind of trouble that produces 1/1. Underlying 5/5 style behaviours is a belief in compromise: "To get a little, you have to give a little". He knows how to look good in public and who to deal with behind closed doors.

A Style without Conflict

Only one position on the Managerial Grid sees no conflict between people and production -that people and work mix very well together. 9/9 Team Management Production is from the integration of task and human requirements in order to achieve organisational goals. A manager with a 9/9 style sees the team as the best way to get the job done. Page 15

Management Development Programme Planning is a prime example of 9/9 behaviour. All team members work together to set goals and select the methods to achieve them. The 9/9 manager believes such participative decision making produces the best ideas and most support. Often the 9/9 style is misperceived by 9/1 and 1/9 managers as well as those striving to maintain a low profile of 5/5 balance. The 9/1 Task manager is likely to see the 9/9 as "soft" for seeking so many ideas from subordinates. On the other hand, the 1/9 Country Club manager is likely to see the 9/9 as "hard" since production is at the forefront of his or her efforts. Those who feel that playing it safe is the best way to manage will see the 9/9 as foolish, as an idealist striving for the impossible. No one other than those striving for the 9/9 style see excellence in achieving purpose through people as a realistic and achievable goal available to any manager who is willing to learn.

Behavioural Style another dimension

The following generalisations will help you understand and appreciate the different behavioural styles. You will find some of them amusing. See if you can relate them to people you know!

Amiable
Behaviour Pattern: Pace: Priority: Appearance: Workplace: Supporting and indirect Slow/relaxed The relationship/ communication Casual Conforming Personal Relaxed Friendly Friendship Co-operation Sudden change Compatibility with others and depth of relationships Involvement Being needed Listening Teamwork Follow-through

Analytical
Controlling and indirect Slow/systematic The task or process Formal Functional Structured Functional Formal Preparation Thoroughness Criticism of their work Precision Accuracy Activity The process competence Planning/organising Systematising Numbers

Driver
Controlling and direct Fast/decisive The task or results Business-like Powerful Busy Efficient Structured Control Leadership Being taken advantage of Results Track record Progress Winning/ control Delegating Leadership Inspiring others

Expressive
Supporting and direct Fast/spontaneous The relationship and interaction Stylish,sometimes outrageous Stimulating Personal Cluttered Playfulness Others approval Loss of prestige Recognition Status Number of friends The chase Being included Persuading Enthusiasm Entertaining

Source of Security: Fears: Measures Personal Worth by: Internal Motivator: Strengths:

Page 16

Leadership Skills

Weaknesses:

Oversensitive Slow to start Goal setting Insensitivity Impatience Submissive Indecisive Made with others Acceptance information

Perfectionist Critical Slow decisions Disorganisation Unpredictability Withdraws Headstrong Well thought out Accuracy and bottom-line

Insensitive Impatient Dislikes details Inefficiency Indecision Dictatorial Critical Decisive Productivity/ results

Restless Ignores details No time discipline Routine Perfectionism Sarcastic Superficial Spontaneous Recognition and fun

Irritations: Under Stress: Decisions Are: Seeks:

Action centred Leadership

The above discussion on style takes as its start point your own personality. While it is important to know ourselves, in any role we may need to moderate our own style to carry out the job. This is true of people management. The essence of teamwork is where the members work together towards a common goal, respecting each others abilities and failings and, in addition, progressing towards the completion of the task, are interested and active in the team development process. Consequently a team development process involves the teams progress as a coherent whole, the achievement of the task and the development of each individual within this. John Adair expresses this in the three circle model of Task, Team and Individual:
Task - a leaders or group's function is to accomplish defined results and thus actions and interactions are task centred Group - to accomplish a task, working relations should be developed and maintained and thus interpersonal relations should be people-centred to some extent. Individual - people work to satisfy their basic survival needs, but beyond this are motivated by needs for security, self-esteem, self-fulfilment and the respect of others

Ideally, all these needs should be met simultaneously through the leadership process, as they are interrelating and thus inter-dependent, where achievements in one of the areas will have impact on achievement in the other areas. The model identifies the team process as requiring the satisfaction of the three factors, not as discrete, independent aspects, but as over-lapping, mutually dependent areas. If the needs of only the group receive attention the completion of the task can suffer and the individuals might not support the group needs but concentrate on their individual needs that night not get satisfied. This is demonstrated Page 17

Management Development Programme graphically below by the overlap of the circles, the amount of overlap depending on the variety of factors that demand attention. If the needs of the individuals and the group are treated in a balanced way, and the task requirements receive similar treatment, task achievement and people progress are much more likely.

Action centred Leadership

John Adair

TASK

INDIVIDUAL

TEAM

Motivating individuals and teams

Motivation concerns the factors pulling or pushing us to behave in certain ways. It comprises three main components:
Direction - what a person is trying to do. E.g. making sales Effort - how hard a person is trying. How many customers they see or speak to? Persistence - how long a person continues trying. E.g. do they give up after a bad morning with no sales?

So, in simple terms, motivation is concerned with what makes us act in a particular way, and is likely to be a combination of internal factors such as psychological needs and emotions, and external factors such as time schedules, the availability of resources and general working conditions.

Maslow's Hierarchy Of Human Needs

SELF FULFILMENT NEEDS * Creativity * Self Realisation * Freedom to

EGO STATUS NEEDS * Public

Page 18

Leadership Skills
Recognition * Promotions * Responsible for the Group * Title * Special Benefits * Merit Raise Innovate/Create * Freedom to Fail * Opportunity for Growth and Development * The Work Itself

BELONGING NEEDS * Social Groups SAFETY NEEDS * Job Security BASIC NEEDS * Tools * Payslip * Training * Cafeteria * Heat and Light * Work Breaks * Fringes/Benefits * Job Description * Seniority System * Cost of living Adjustments * Work Standards * Teamwork * Friendly Superiors * Union * Company Outings * Time to Chat

The levels in detail

Physiological Needs Food, clothing, shelter. These needs are usually associated with money in terms of what it can buy to satisfy these needs. These basic animal needs are, in the main, taken care of in the developed world and only come to the fore in terms of strength if threatened, e.g. With job loss. Safety (Security) Needs The motive here is for self preservation - now and in the future. These needs can be expressed as a careful approach to decision taking and risk taking. The analytical styles primary motivations of wanting respect, for following the process and for being seen to be correct are likely triggered by safety needs. Organisations often respond to security needs by providing fringe benefits. Safety needs can be addressed by ensuring clarity around expectation (job descriptions, contracts, objectives). Social (Affiliation) Needs Since people are social animals, individuals like to interact with others in situations where they feel they belong and are accepted. The amiable styles primary motivations of approval and caring are likely triggered by affiliation needs. These needs can be expressed in terms of a need to work with others. In the work environment strong informal groups can form as a result of social needs. Organisations respond to these needs by encouraging teamwork and by encouraging after-hours social events. Page 19

Management Development Programme Esteem (Recognition) Needs The key motive related to esteem is prestige. People seek prestige throughout their lives in various ways - material symbols and level of importance in a company. The expressive styles primary motivation of visibility, recognition and status are likely triggered by esteem needs. Organisations usually respond to these needs by having in place promotion structures, grades, and with awards and presentations for high achievers. Self Actualisation (Achievement) Needs Two motives are seen to be related to self-actualisation - personal competence and achievement. The competence motive can reveal itself as a desire for job mastery and professional growth. The driver styles primary motivation for power and control over situations and people is likely triggered by the need to be seen as the best. Organisations respond to this motivation by offering independence from the usual constraints, by offering promotion to positions of control. Opportunities to develop job competencies (training courses, study leave, professional qualifications, etc) are also used to satisfy this motivation.

Herzbergs Theory X and Y - Why People Work

Properly motivated, people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts toward accomplishing organisational goals. Theory X assumes that most people are by nature lazy and are not interested in assuming responsibility. It assumes that people are motivated by money and the threat of punishment. Theory Y assumes that most people can be self-directed and creative at work if properly motivated that is, that the level of need is recognised, that the rewards are personally appropriate, and timely. It should be an essential leadership task to unleash this potential in people. Assumptions of Human nature that underline McGregors Theory X and Theory Y:
Theory X Work is inherently distasteful to most people Most people are not ambitious, have little desire for responsibility, and prefer to be directed Most people have little capacity for creativity in solving organisational problems Motivation occurs only at the physiological and safety levels Most people must be closely controlled and often Theory Y Work is as natural as play if the conditions are favourable Self control is often indispensable in the achievement of organisational goals The capacity for creativity is widely distributed in the population Motivation occurs at the social, esteem and selfactualisation levels, as well as physiological and safety levels People can be self directed and creative at work if

Page 20

Leadership Skills
coerced to achieve organisational objectives properly motivated

It would be over-simplistic to assume that Theory X is bad and Theory Y is good. McGregor implies that most people have the potential to be mature and self motivated - therefore think of X and Y as two ends of a continuum. Assess your people as individuals and consciously choose the leadermanager style appropriate to the individual and the task in hand. Herzberg discovered that there were certain factors associated with job satisfaction (motivation factors) and a completely different set of factors associated with dissatisfaction (maintenance or hygiene factors). For example, he discovered that an inadequate salary could cause dissatisfaction at work but that a high salary would not necessarily cause job satisfaction. Herzbergs work challenged the assumption that job satisfaction was uni-dimensional, ranging along a continuum from satisfaction to the opposite end, dissatisfaction. Instead, he found motivation to be two dimensional. His theory, which has been labelled the two-factor theory is summarised below:

Page 21

Management Development Programme

Maintenance Factors Supervisory methods Salary Relationships with colleagues Working conditions Company policy, administration Personal life Status Interpersonal relations

Motivation Factors Challenge of work Promotional opportunities Sense of achievement Recognition of job done Sense of responsibility

Herzberg claimed that maintenance factors, if correct, do not cause dissatisfaction, but neither do they motivate workers. However, when they are not right , they lead to dissatisfaction and exert negative impact. The implication for teams is that when true motivating factors, such as recognition, acceptance and responsibility are present, team members are likely to be highly motivated. If these factors are ignored, motivation is likely to be low, even though the maintenance factors may be adequate. The theory also implies that motivation is not increased by simply removing the causes of dissatisfaction. The basic ideas proposed by Herzberg are presented below:

Maintenance Factors Effects of Factors When Right No dissatisfaction Do not motivate When Wrong Dissatisfaction Negative impact

Motivation Factors

When Right Job satisfaction Increased motivation

When Wrong No job satisfaction Dissatisfaction

Page 22

Leadership Skills
HYGIENE FACTORS DISSATISFIERS * * * * * * * * * * * * Wages Fringe Benefits Security Facilities Working Conditions Company Policies Holidays/Hours of Work Organisation Structure Administration Behaviour Style of Supervisors Factors Peripheral to the Work Co-workers' Personalities MOTIVATOR FACTORS SATISFIERS * Feeling "in on things" * Opportunity for self-determination * Appreciation * Responsibility * Praise * Achievement * Advancement * Earned Recognition * Personal Growth * Acceptance * The Work Itself * Opportunity to Create/ Freedom to Fail If you have got these then you'll feel satisfied.

If you have got all these, you will not be dissatisfied.

Life Orientations
LIFO Managerial Categories
1. SUPPORTING - GIVING (HELPFUL) Supporting-giving executives believe they must work conscientiously and prove their worth by sheer excellence. They are thoughtful, idealistic and trusting, loyal, helpful and receptive. Carried to extremes, however, this will lead to their giving way too readily and too often to others; losing a sense of priorities; feeling depressed by failing to achieve their own expectations; being over-critical of themselves and others, and devoting too much time to rescuing everyone else who is under stress. 2.CONTROLLING - TAKING (DIRECTIVE) The controlling-taking type copies by making things happen. They are the activists. They are confident, have a sense of urgency, are willing to take risks and can be forceful. When all that goes too far they are autocratic and domineering, distort things, are impatient, gamblers and coercive. 3.CONSERVING - HOLDING (CONSOLIDATIVE) Conserving-holding managers build on what they have. They are practical and factual, economical, likely to be a bit reserved, steadfast and thorough. Their problem is that these characteristics can lead them to be negative towards others' flair and creative ideas. They'll want to analyse the minutiae of the ever-increasing data for which they have such an insatiable appetite that they don't actually reach a decision. They can be mean-minded and unfriendly and very stubborn.

Page 23

Management Development Programme 4. ADAPTING - DEALING (ADAPTIVE) Adapting-dealing people find out what others need and want and then try to give it to them. Flexible, they'll be enthusiasts: youthful and inspiring, tactful and adaptable. Under pressure, they become inconsistent, childlike, unwilling to face up to realities, placatory to the point of aimlessness.

Management Style Descriptions

Productive Use SUPPORTING - GIVING Thoughtful (HELPFUL) Idealistic Modest Trusting Loyal Helpful Receptive Responsible Seeks excellence Co-operative CONTROLLING - TAKING Controlling (DIRECTIVE) Quick to act Self-confident Seeks change Persuasive Forceful Competitive Risk-taking Persists Urgent CONSERVING - HOLDING (CONSOLIDATIVE Tenacious Practical Economical Reserved Factual Steadfast Thorough Methodical Detail orientated Analytical Flexible Experimenting Youthful Enthusiastic Tactful Adaptable Socially skilful Negotiating Animated Inspiring Excessive Use Self-denying Impractical Self-denigrating Gullible Obliged Parental Passive Overcommitted Perfectionist Easily influenced Domineering Impulsive Arrogant Anarchistic Distorts Coercive Contentious Gambling Pressurises Impatient Last ditcher Uncreative Mean Unfriendly Obsessed with statistics Stubborn Over-elaborate Plodding Nit-picking Hyper-critical Inconsistent Aimless Childlike Volatile Avoids confrontation Spineless Manipulative Over-compromising Melodramatic Self-deluding

ADAPTING - DEALING

Decision Taking Processes

1. Lack of Response (Plop!)

Go through the ideas (laboriously?) until one is found that the group appears willing to act upon. Page 24

Leadership Skills 2. Authority

Decision by Chairperson, expert, or strong group member. 3. Minority Rule

Railroading Manipulation Alliances in collusion 4. Majority Vote

Sounding points of view Voting Minority 5. Consensus

Understanding of different point of view Cases stated and appreciated Acceptance of the minority Exploration 6. Unanimity

Total agreement and harmony Each method has its place and influencing factors are: The psychological needs of the group Time available Type of problem Relative importance of task accomplishment balanced against group cohesion

Page 25

Management Development Programme

Handling meetings
Types of Meeting
1. The purpose of a meeting can be:2. The meeting should go through the following stages: 3. How many people can join the meeting? Any number Information and orientation only a. to inform people b. to get advice from people Information, judgement and finding criteria for a solution Not more than twelve splitting up into subgroups of four to six to report back 4. Who should attend? 5. The emphasis in the meeting lies on:Those who must know The content - clear - logical - sensible 6. What procedure should one use? 7. Style of leadership Talk, lecture with questions Formal and highly structure Those who can contribute Content and effective interaction - listening - understanding - evaluation Group discussion through to judgement stage Less formal with exchange of opinions Those who are responsible Information, judgement, content, interaction and procedure, leading to a decision - who does what and when Group discussion through to decision making stage More formal in the decision making phase c. to make a decision Information, judgement, finding criteria for a solution plus a final decision Not more than twelve; seven or four even better

CONCESSION I concede that point........................... I agree with you there ........................ I'm prepared to accept that ................... I will do as you say .......................... I don't want to offend you .................... What is your preferred outcome ................

CONSENSUS Let's work together on this .................. What is mutually acceptable .................. What do we disagree........................... Let's find some common ground................. Let's investigate the problem ................ My position is........what's yours............

Page 26

Leadership Skills You have convinced me ......................... I'm glad we agree on this ..................... What is the basic problem .................... COMPROMISING Let's find a quick solution ........................... I'll give you .......... if you give me ............... Let's split the difference ............................ I suggest we meet halfway ............................. We can't both win, but let's not both lose ............ Let's be satisfied with .............................. I'm prepared to .................. if you do .......... Let's both come sway from this with something ......... COULDN'T CARE LESS I can't take responsibility for this decision ....................................... I'd prefer not to discuss that now ............. Let's talk about that later .................... That is outside my brief ....................... I won't be drawn on that ....................... I have no comment on that ...................... I'm not in a position to discuss ............... I don't want to talk about ..................... I don't see your point ......................... COERCION I'm not prepared to change my position .............................. I must make my position quite clear ... My view is clearly the most rational .. I'm sure mine is the best way ......... If you don't go this I'll ............. I know best, you'd better ............. Do as you're told ..................... Where do we differ ........................... How can we solve this ........................

Skills For Handling Meetings

Preliminary Preparations: Make notes and relevant action points on:Page 27

Management Development Programme WHY is the meeting being held Objectives general goals and specific objectives/outcomes regular reporting/up-dating, and information sharing joint/participative problem-solving resolution of potential conflict apportioning blame, recrimination influencing, persuading exchanging new ideas, generating alternatives

WHO will attend mixture of levels/status, range of ability, expertise likely numbers (note:10 or more increases the need for someone to chair, and larger numbers

make for greater formality) WHEN and WHERE whose is the "home ground" and possible territorial advantage what facilities e.g. white-boards or flipcharts, possible noisy surroundings

How to organise the seating: - need to balance the parties place in opposition across the table deliberately mix up groups to avoid "power blocks" create an open atmosphere with round/oval seating, sitting alongside the opposition

Ensuring Effective Contributions and Outcomes One could easily be tempted to think that if all the preparation has been carried out, then the meeting is bound to be a success. Particularly if the other party/department, company representative has asked for the meeting to be held, and they make the effort to attend. This could prove to be a very costly assumption. It is the core of the problem about poor and ineffective meetings; everyone has assumed that everyone else is genuinely committed to achieving useful outcomes - AND all of us are naturally able to converse in our native language! So why do meetings fail?

Page 28

Leadership Skills In the late 1960's and early 1970's a lot of useful research into what helps to create effective meetings, was carried out by Neil Rackham and Peter Honey. (British Airways was one of the companies which took part in the practical fieldwork). The key features of their conclusions were: 1. Meetings tend to be overloaded with people supplying information data and, naturally enough, lots of their own views and opinions. Everybody wants to contribute their "two penny worth of thoughts", so it is very easy for those attending to become saturated with data and sometimes bored, even fatigued with a lot of garbage statements. If there is not a skilful person in the chair, then the meeting will either go on for an excessive length or run out of time to cover agenda items. So GIVING INFORMATION NEEDS TO BE CONTROLLED (see points 3 & 4) 2. Meetings can also be overloaded with too many proposals - so much so that most of the proposals are ignored or not developed in any way. This can cause the makers of the proposals to feel discouraged or even negative towards the suggestions of others. Such meetings are known as FILTER MEETINGS, where most proposals are filtered out. The research proved that meeting where there is a conscious attempt to limit the initial proposals to approximately 6, and for all participants to co-operate in developing 2 or 3 of these, there is generally a higher quality of ideas and a lot more energy put into constructive development of ideas. If this system is purposefully adopted, then there is far less chance of an individual feeling miffed because a "precious jewel of a thought" has been ignored, or worse still never had change to be aired amidst the welter of other proposals. This type of structure is know as an AMPLIFIER MEETING, because the energy is directed in increasing the power and impact of one or two selected proposals. 3. The positive research findings were: Clarifying Skills These help meetings to have structure and to have greater chance of achieving their aims A) Seek Information If individuals ask questions and try to get others to answer their queries, then this will help to counter the tendency for meetings to be overloaded by a series of statements, or worst of all, to be dominated by one person, who perhaps enjoys the sound of his/her own voice. When information is sought, questions are generally fairly short expressions, so this in itself help to give variety. Often the quieter participants can be encouraged to increase their contributions by questions. It is important that questions are put in a positive and encouraging way - NOT in any sense taking the form of an interrogation, which would be completed counterproductive.

Page 29

Management Development Programme B) Test/Check Understanding Problems can arise in meetings when people make assumptions or take things for granted. As well individuals sometimes fail to understand what is being said (distracted, confused by jargon, or outside their experience/knowledge), yet they are reluctant to seek clarification for fear or appearing in any way foolish. This is why testing your understanding can be so useful. In certain types of meeting e.g. bidding for resources, agreeing contracts, checking commitments, skilled and experienced participants will take great care to establish what precisely has or has Not Been Agreed. C) Summarising At the end of a meeting, people will remember to make some form of summary, but this is not enough, particularly if discussion has gone on for more than 20 to 30 minutes. Other research has shown that level of attention and ability to recall details falls off enormously after 20 minutes of input. Summaries at intervals - particularly at the end of a topic or major section - help to refresh what has been said. It also gives a sense of progress, or, alternatively can be used to prevent endless repetition or the same or the same argument. If there is a formal Chairperson, then he or she should undertake the summarising, but the activity can be done by anyone as appropriate. Development Skills These help to create a positive and supportive climate within meetings. A) Support Positively This means that you actively tell others what you like about their ideas and suggestions. Sadly, our UK culture, which likes to underplay reactions and to keep emotions well hidden, seems to imply that individuals should not need to have any praise or recognition for their contributions to meetings. In contrast, Americans do more readily express their feelings. Rackham demonstrated hat their meetings could generate a greater quantity and quality of ideas and new approaches. The other by-product of giving positive support is that recipients or recognition tend to reciprocate and see the good features of the ideas of others. Build On The Ideas Of Others It is natural to want to put one's own ideas and suggestions into the meeting, but too much of this and there is danger of over-loading or possibly "switching-off" people. At first it can be hard to deliberately suppress one's own ideas and instead try to build on and develop those of others. But it does work and adds vitally to creating a positive and supportive climate. The research showed that meetings where participants raised negative criticism or indulged in 'nit-picking' failed to produce many or any new ideas, and were generally seen as a waste of time. Page 30

Leadership Skills

Working Effectively as a Group

Most of us spend a great deal of time working in groups of one type or another but we very rarely consider what is going on in them. These notes are intended to help you to do this and identify ways in which groups can work more effectively.

Content and Process

For any group to work really well its members need to learn not only how to approach the task, but also to handle the personal and organisational problems that arise whenever a group of people come together apparently with a common purpose. The terms 'content' and 'process' are used to differentiate these two types of group behaviour and it is usually helpful to make this distinction when focusing on group activity. For example, when we observe what a group is talking about, we are focusing on the content. When we try to observe how a group is handling its communication, e.g. who talks, how much and to whom, we are focusing on group process. Most topics emphasise the content - 'what is good leadership', 'how can I motivate my subordinate', 'how can we make meetings more effective', and concern issued which are ' there and then' in the sense of being abstract future or past oriented and not involving the individual members directly. Group process looks at what a group is doing in the 'here and now', how it is working in the sense of its present procedures and organisation. Looking at process involves focusing on what is going on in a group and trying to understand it in terms of its connection with previous events and situations within the group. Rejection of an idea, a decision going against somebody, personal animosities, - all these and more are likely to have their effect on the working of the group.

Behaviour related to Content or Process

Behaviour in the group can be viewed from the point of view of what its purpose or function seems to be, i.e. whether it relates to the accomplishment of task (content) or the interrelationship of group member activity (process). Content The following types of behaviour are relevant to the groups fulfilment of its task.
Initiating ideas; proposing tasks or goals; defining a group problem; suggesting a procedure or ideas

Page 31

Management Development Programme

for solving a problem...... Seeking information or opinions; requesting facts; seeking relevant information about group ask; requesting a statement or estimate; seeking suggestions and ideas...... Giving information or opinions; offering facts; providing relevant information about group task; suggestions and ideas........ Clarifying and elaborating; interpreting ideas or suggestions; clearing up confusions; defining terms; indicating alternatives and issues before the group...... Summarising; pulling together related ideas; restating suggestions after the group has discussed them; offering a decision or conclusion for the group to accept or reject..... Testing whether the group is ready to take a decision; lit flying a possible conclusion......

Process The are the types of behaviour relevant to the groups maintenance of good order, establishment or appropriate style, continuation of harmonious relationships which permit maximum use of members' resources.
Harmonising; attempting to reconcile disagreements; reducing tension; getting people to explore differences....... Helping to keep communication channels open; facilitating the participation of others; ensuring opportunities for contributions from quieter members...... Encouraging; being friendly, warm and responsible to others; accepting others' contributions...... Compromising if admitting error; modifying interest of group cohesion or growth..... Testing whether group is satisfied with its procedures; suggesting procedures; pointing out explicit or implicit norms which have been set........ To be effective, every group require both kinds of behaviour and needs to work out an adequate balance of content and process activities.

Behaviour in Effective Groups

The "atmosphere", which can be sensed in a few minutes of observation, tends to be informal, comfortable, relaxed. There are no obvious tensions. It is a working atmosphere in which people are involved and interested. There are no signs of boredom. There is a lot of discussion in which virtually everyone participates, but it remains pertinent to the task of the group. If the discussion gets off the subject, someone will bring it back in short order.

Page 32

Leadership Skills The task or the objective of the group is well understood and accepted by the members. There will have been free discussion of the objective at some point until it was formulated in such a way that the members of the group could commit themselves to it. The members listen to each other! The discussion does not have the quality of jumping from one idea to another unrelated one. Every idea is given a hearing. People do not appear to be afraid of being foolish by putting forth a creative though even if it seems fairly extreme. There is disagreement. The group is comfortable with this and shows no signs of having to avoid conflict or to keep everything on a plane of sweetness and light. Disagreements are not suppressed or overridden by premature group action. The reasons are carefully examined, and the group seeks to resolve them rather than to dominate the dissenter. On the other hand, there is no "tyranny of the minority". Individuals who disagree do not appear to be trying to dominate the group or to express hostility. Their disagreement is an expression of a genuine difference of opinion, and they expect a hearing in order that a solution may be found. Sometimes there are basic disagreements which cannot be resolved. The group finds it possible to live with them, accepting them but not permitting them to block its efforts. Under some conditions, action will be deferred to permit further study of an issue between the members. On other occasions, where the disagreement cannot be resolved and action is necessary, it will be taken but with open caution and recognition that the action may be subject to later reconsideration. Most decisions are reached by a kind of consensus in which it is clear that everybody is in general agreement and willing to go along. However, there is little tendency for individuals who oppose the action to keep their opposition private and thus let an apparent consensus mask real disagreement. Formal voting is at a minimum; the group does not accept a simple majority as a proper basis for action. Criticism is frequent, frank, and relatively comfortable. There is little evidence of personal attack, either openly or in a hidden fashion. The criticism has a constructive flavour in that it is oriented toward removing an obstacle that face the group and prevents it from getting the job done. People are free in expressing their feelings as well as their ideas both on the problem and on the group's operation. There is little pussyfooting, there are few "hidden agendas". Everybody appears to know quite well how everybody else feels about any manner under discussion. When action is taken, clear assignments are made and accepted. The chairman of the group does not dominate it, nor on the contrary, does the group defer unduly to him. In fact as one observes the activity, it is clear that the leadership shifts from time to time, depending on the circumstances. Different members, because of their knowledge and experience, are in a position at Page 33

Management Development Programme various times to act as "resources" for the group. The members utilise them in this fashion and they occupy leadership roles while they are thus being used. There is little evidence of a struggle for power as the group operates. The issue is not who controls but how to get the job done. The group is self-conscious about its own operations. Frequently, it will stop to examine how well it is doing or what may be interfering with its operation. The problem may be a matter of procedure, or it may be an individual whose behaviour is interfering with the accomplishment of the group's objectives. Whatever it is, it gets open discussion until a solution is found. These and other observable characteristics are generally found in the effective task group. Every one of them represents important ways of dealing with forces which are present in every group. A substantial amount of sensitivity, understanding, and skill is required of all the members - not of the leader alone - to create such a setting as this.

Behaviour in Ineffective Groups

Now let us look at the other end of the range. Consider a poor group - one that is relatively ineffective in accomplishing its purpose. What are some of the observable characteristics of its operation? The "atmosphere" is likely to reflect either indifference or boredom (people whispering to each other or carrying on side conversations, individuals who are obviously not involved, etc). or tension (undercurrents of hostility and antagonism, stiffness and undue formality, etc.). The group is clearly not challenged by its task or genuinely involved in it. A few people tend to dominate the discussion. Often their contributions are way off the point. Little is done by anyone to keep the group clearly on the track. From the things which are said, it is difficult to understand what the group task is or what its objectives are. These may have been stated by the chairman initially, but there is no evidence that the group either understands or accepts a common objective. On the contrary, it is usually evident that different people have different, private, and personal objectives which they are attempting to achieve in the group, and that these are often in conflict with each other and with the group's task. People do not really listen to each other. Ideas are ignored and overridden. The discussion jumps around with little coherence and no sense of movement along a track. One gets the impression that there is much talking for effect - people make speeches which are obviously intended to impress someone else rather than being relevant to the task at hand.

Page 34

Leadership Skills Conversations with members after the meeting will reveal that they have failed to express ideas or feelings which they may have had for fear they would be criticised or regarded as silly. Some members feel that the leader or the other members are constantly making judgements of them in terms of evaluations of the contributions they make, and so they are extremely careful about what they say. Disagreements are generally not dealt with effectively by the group. They may be completely suppressed by a leader who fears conflict. On the other hand, they may result in open warfare, the consequences of which is domination by one subgroup over another. They may be "resolved" by a vote in which a very small majority wins the day, and a large minority remains completely unconvinced. There may be "tyranny of the minority" in which an individual or a small subgroup is so aggressive that the majority accedes to their wishes in order to preserve the peace or to get on with the task. In general only the more aggressive members get their ideas considered because the less aggressive people tend either to keep quiet altogether or to give up after, short, ineffectual attempts to be heard. Actions are often taken prematurely before the real issues are either examined or resolved. There will be much grousing after the meeting by people who disliked the decision but failed to speak up about it in the meeting itself. A simple majority is considered sufficient for action, and the minority is expected to go along. Most of the time, however, the minority remains resentful and uncommitted to the decision. Action decisions tend to be unclear - no one really knows who is going to do what. Even when assignments of responsibility are made, there is often considerable doubt as to whether they will be carried out. The leadership remains clearly with the committee chairman. He may be weak or strong, but he sits always "at the head of the table". Criticism may be present, but it is embarrassing and tension-producing. It often appears to involve personal hostility, and the members are uncomfortable with this and unable to cope with it. Criticism of ideas tends to be destructive. Sometimes every idea proposed will be "clobbered" by someone else. Then, no one is willing to stick his neck out. Personal feelings are hidden rather than being out in the open. The general attitude of the group is that these are inappropriate for discussion and would be too explosive if brought out on the table. The group tends to avoid any discussion of its own "maintenance". There is often much discussion after the meeting of what was wrong and why, but these matters are seldom brought up and considered within the meeting itself where they might be resolved.

Page 35

Management Development Programme

The Team Building Process

In order to satisfy the balanced requirements suggested by Adair, we need to have a team which, as suggested earlier, may need to be developed from scratch. This apparently is a simple case of ensuring that the individuals possess all the appropriate skills and are aware of and active in behaving as a team rather than a group of people. This development, however, is far from simple, particularly with regard to development of the individuals as a team. Following a considerable amount of research by observers of the groups and teams, a major conclusion has been reached about the stages that most groups and teams pass through as they develop, these stages being virtually predictable, and, to some extent, controllable. The four stages are commonly described as:
Stage 1: Forming Stage 2: Storming Stage 3: Norming Stage 4: Performing Stage 5: Adjourning

Each stage is quite readily identified and in the majority of cases follows a cycle, any stage rarely being omitted, except perhaps in the case of an existing group that is trying to develop into a team. In this case stage 1 may not occur and some aspects of stage 2 may be missing, although beware of assumptions. The stages are represented graphically below.

Stage 1: Forming Stage 4: Performing Stage 2: Storming

Stage 3: Norming
Page 36

Leadership Skills

Forming
This stage is sometimes known by the title Confusion as this can represent accurately the state of mind of the new team members coming together initially. The stage of development will be at a low, immature level, the members being in an unusual situation and reacting to this. Typical behaviours in this stage, certainly in the early parts of it, include:
Uncertainty Confusion Where am I? Closed attitude to others Cautious Reserved Polite Withholding true feelings Wondering about personal acceptance What is going to happen? Will I be able to cope?

This uncertain behaviour pattern will be based on a set of rules, rules that are either generally understood or are assumed:
Avoid disclosing too much personal information If discussing feelings, do so in a minimum way Avoid serious or deep topics Avoid movement towards the emergence of feelings Avoid controversy Present simple ideas Make statements that will almost certainly be acceptable Play it cool for a while If not already decided, what sort of role am I going to present ?

As the group starts to settle down with the passage of time, other feelings (usually undisclosed) will emerge. These will include: Page 37

Management Development Programme

Impatience with the lack of progress Impatience with the apparent absence of structure and purpose Feelings of wanting to be somewhere else Feelings of hostility to leader and other members Continuing not to communicate fully Feeling uncomfortable in the silences and pauses Seeking leader help and guidance

During this period of confusion, uncertainty and the membership seeking structure, purpose and guidance, the team leader plays a vital part and can be significantly responsible for (a) the success of the stage and (b) the length of time in which the group stays in the stage. Some key team building activities here include:
Being aware of, identifying and acknowledging without denigrating them, the attitudes and feeling of the individuals Encouraging expectations, hopes, worries and concerns to emerge openly Suggesting rules for the event, discussing these with the group and obtaining as much agreement as possible Using team building techniques, particularly active and experiential ones rather than passive listening

The basic aspect of the team in this stage is one of dependency on the leader and, as development occurs, the start of a team entity, however superficial this may be. However, one attitude that may prevent progress or bode ill for development is the forming of liaisons or cliques. This is natural when the individuals start to find others who appear to have similar attitudes etc. to them to whom they look for support.

Storming
The group starts moving out of the forming stage as attitudes and feelings start to emerge more strongly, and attitudes of competition, conflict and the bidding for power start to develop. Various individuals may react strongly against bids made by others, particularly if they want to put forward their own bids. In the forming stage members found that the suppression of their own feelings held them back and allowed others to become dominant. In this stage they will probably decide to make their presence felt - as others may be doing this at the same time it is easy to see how conflicts can arise. Some of the behaviours emerging in the early parts of this stage can be summarised as: Page 38

Leadership Skills
Assertion to the point of aggression Strong expression of views Frequent challenging of views of others Lack of collaboration Little listening to the views of others Substantial defensiveness Challenges for leadership and to the existing leadership Use of cliques to obtain power Withdrawal by some members Development of an emotional state Use of formal approaches e.g. majority voting to reach decisions

In many ways the group in this stage is forming into three camps - one trying for individual or clique power; one strongly opposing these attempts and pushing forward their own; a third that withdraws from these battles from shyness, confusion or an averse feeling to conflict. The leader is in a difficult position with the possibly formal leadership being challenged strongly from resentment or misunderstanding. It can be easy for the group to give up any ideas of forming a team at this stage, and indeed many groups never progress beyond this. To progress to the next stage the members must realise the effects their behaviours are having, and the leader must use highly effective techniques to achieve this. What the latter must avoid is trying to move the group on before they show any signs of coming out of the stage. The leader must exert control and guidance to enable progress to occur, but not be over dominant or obvious, and the principal action must be to enable the members to realise the constricting effect of their behaviour. Feedback can create even more conflict, but this action alone will give the members a negative view of themselves and as many controlled reviews as possible should be attempted. Once the strength of the characteristics of this stage start to recede the group can start on the real path to development as a team.

Norming
The development of this stage is a result of and is evidenced by a distinct shift in attitudes to each other and the ways of achieving success. The role of the leader is one of guiding and facilitating, making available every opportunity for the members to take part in activities that will strengthen this development. During the storming stage the members were operating as individuals or as cliques; here Page 39

Management Development Programme the emphasis is beginning to be on mutual aid, the use of each individuals skills and expertise, and a greater degree of tolerance each to the other, particularly the weaker members. During the norming stage, behaviours are characterised by:
Shared rather than unique leadership Real listening to the views, opinions and feelings of others Flexible ways of working and decision making, rather than formal, rigid ones Preparedness to modify behaviour or ideas to help the team progress Participation by all, including the shy, reserved, previously uncertain members Open exchange of ideas and receptiveness to the views of others Conflicts faced realistically and solved amicably High levels of trust between members becoming evident Tolerance to others needs, strengths and weaknesses

Performing
During the norming stage the initial group has gradually changed into a team, with the tolerance, trust, close working, etc factors becoming stronger until the team can be readily described as such. The members see themselves as a cohesive team and the behaviour characteristics will include:
High flexibility of contribution and operation High level of mutual trust and openness Strong loyalty to the team and each other High creativity in problem solving and decision making Sharing of leadership according to flexible needs Strong relationships but not as cliques Acceptance of views of others, but without blind agreement Ready resolution of conflict and disagreement Flexibility of structure and methods High feelings of achievement and success, in both team development and task

Page 40

Leadership Skills

Coaching
Todays organisations feature fewer management layers and emphasise individual responsibility. But successful delegation and empowerment relies on effective coaching. This programme focuses on the methods by which managers develop the performance of individuals in their team. It looks at the two main types of coaching and provides opportunities for managers to apply them. The programme also defines and makes the case for mentoring, which focuses on longer-term career development and helps improve leadership development and the retention of key people. There is a strong relationship between coaching and mentoring and many of the skills required are common to both.

What is Coaching?
The simplest definition of coaching is Bringing out the best in people However, the term means different things to different people and it is therefore important that we all know exactly what we mean by coaching.

Coaching in context
To understand coaching it is important to put it into the context of the range of management development interventions that we can make.

Discipline

Counselling Mentoring

Coaching

Training

The spectrum shown above all involve discussing performance with an individual with a view to achieving an improvement. While the purpose of this workshop is to improve your coaching skills, it is important to understand the nature of the other activities, when they should be used and who should undertake them. Training Whether on-the-job, self-study or in the context of a formal training course, training is about inputting into the individual the knowledge and skills they require to do a job or specific activity. Page 41

Management Development Programme For task-related training, most staff accept and welcome the need for specific training (and qualifications) to enable them to do their job better. Training decisions are relatively straightforward and objective. The manager, or other people, may carry out the training. That decision is based on such factors as expertise in the subject, time availability and the ability to train. Coaching Coaching is an essential part of the managers people management responsibilities. All members of staff are capable of constant performance improvement and coaching focuses on the subtle changes in behaviour that can liberate improved performance. Coaching can relate to general behaviour but also applies to the fine-tuning of specific technical skills. This will be developed further during the rest of the workshop and in this manual. Mentoring Mentoring is a specific type of coaching that usually involves a more experienced senior person assisting in the long-term development of a probably younger individual. Mentoring is a confidential process. The mentor does not usually have a line responsibility for the mentee and is able to look at problems without self-interest or an over concern for the task. The mentor may also facilitate opportunities and networking. In the context of the organisation, this would typically involve a senior manager/director mentoring a younger person. Equally, senior mangers may benefit from executive mentoring from a professional mentor from another organisation. Outside the organisational environment, mentoring programmes are used to assist and guide young people in the community. As with coaching, this will be developed further during the rest of the workshop and in this manual. Counselling Counselling is not a frequent, ongoing activity like coaching. Instead, it takes place in response to a work performance problem, the cause of which may be unknown or which lies outside the normal issues of knowledge, skill or competency. Counselling is about identifying with an individual the problem that is affecting their work, and then facilitating their efforts to find a solution. It is a sensitive process as it involves the manager intruding into a staff members private life but only so much as the issue affects their work Page 42

Leadership Skills performance. The important principle to accept is that the managers role is limited. Once the problem has been identified the key activity is to facilitate the individuals seeking of help from appropriate third parties. A typical example would be an individual whose performance has suddenly deteriorated. Sensitive probing and concern from the manager may identify such causes as relationship or health related problems. In these cases, the relevant professional help would come from such people as Relate counsellors or the individuals GP, respectively. The HR function in some organisations may include counselling skills, but it is an activity that has pitfalls for the untrained or inexperienced, however good their intentions. Discipline Disciplinary interventions fall into two main categories:

Performance related
In this context, the staff member is failing to achieve key performance targets, in terms of quality or quantity. Invoking a performance-related procedure is usually the culmination of training and coaching interventions, which have (sadly) failed to deliver the performance improvement needed. The procedure will vary by organisation, but typically involve giving the individual clear evidence of their performance deficit and setting and agreeing objectives for their improvement. The manager and organisation will provide the help and assistance needed to help the individual to bridge the performance gap. The individual will be given a specified period (often 3 months) in which to achieve the performance improvement. Failure to do so will have obvious consequences.

Behaviour related
In this case, the issues relate to behaviour rather than business performance. Examples might include relatively mild issues such as timekeeping, through to gross misbehaviour such as sexual harassment or criminal activity. The intervention will depend on the seriousness of the behaviour deficit. Mild behaviour weaknesses may involve agreeing on behaviour improvement targets and monitoring their achievement. Serious misbehaviour may mean summary dismissal. In cases of inadequate performance or behaviour, the HR department is there to assist the manager both prior to, and during, the procedure.

Page 43

Management Development Programme Any manager or supervisor with staff responsibility must be familiar with and prepared to use these vital procedures. In most cases, they will result in the individual taking their performance shortfall very seriously indeed and acting rapidly to remedy it.

Summary of intervention types

Intervention Training Situation Any staff member with a knowledge or skills gap, e.g. IT skills Coaching Any staff member with a performance improvement need that is best addressed in the context of the work they are doing Mentoring Capable individual with development potential, e.g. Graduate Trainee Counselling Any staff member with a personal problem that is affecting their work performance Disciplinary Any staff member whos performance or behaviour fails to meet minimum requirements Activities Courses, on-the-job training, self-study, professional qualifications One-to-one formal and informal development discussions, usually an element of any one-to-one review meetings One-to-one periodic confidential and client-centred discussions One-to-one identification and discussion of problem, facilitating the introduction of appropriate professional help where necessary. Joint discussion involving HR department and the organisations formal procedures More senior, experienced manager or professional external consultant Manager initially, followed up by appropriate professional involvement (e.g. HR, medical, financial, psychological) Manager, with support from HR and senior management as appropriate Delivered by Trainers, manager, external organisations as appropriate The immediate manager or member of training department

Why is coaching and mentoring more important than ever before?

In today's highly competitive environment, it is essential, that we maintain a strategy of continuous, constant improvement in terms of both employee and business performance. This will involve some coaching. Those organisations that implement coaching, as an everyday part of management activity will gain bottom line success as a result. Why? Because of all the assets of an organisation, the most underutilised in development terms are the people. We have to develop people if they are to cope with and deliver change. Effective coaching helps make this a reality.

Page 44

Leadership Skills

Coaching and motivation

Coaching trades on models of motivation, as already discussed. According to Maslow, once people have fulfilled their basic physiological needs, they will seek recognition and respect from others and then opportunities to develop themselves.

Keys to Competence
Attitude

Knowledge
COACHING & MENTORING

Skills

Coaching models
Input coaching
For a lot of people coaching is specifically about advising on ways that people can improve their skills so that they can perform better. There is a sense of creating improvement by transferring some of the skills, knowledge and expertise of the coach to the person being coached. This is clearly a useful activity. But it is probably better described as training as it is about inputting knowledge and skills rather than helping the individual develop their own ways of improving performance.

Output coaching
The obvious implication of output coaching is that the coach must have some superior knowledge and ability that they can transfer to the other person. This suggests that managers cannot coach in areas where they may not know more about the subject than their coachee. Yet with the ever-increasing pace of change, it is unreasonable to expect that they will be able to keep abreast of all the latest developments that their staff need to know about. Page 45

Management Development Programme The other problem with a telling style of coaching is that the message is unlikely to be accepted or even remembered. The table below shows how ineffective telling people what to do differently is in comparison to direct experience a key element of coaching.

Teaching Effectiveness
TOLD TOLD & SHOWN TOLD, SHOWN & EXPERIENCED

Recall after 3 weeks Recall after 3 months

70%

72%

85%

10%

32%

65% Source:John Whitmore

COACHING & MENTORING

The more modern and accepted model of the coach is one who avoids dictating inputs, but instead works with the coachee on improving their outputs. Here, the emphasis is on pulling out rather than putting in. There are less telling and more asking and the person being coached does far more of the talking than the coach! This approach can be referred to as Achievement or Output Coaching. Research has been shown that if we approach coaching in this way, the people we are coaching will be much more receptive to skills and competency development. They will also be less defensive and willing to see the faults in their own performance. The coach will get results faster and gain commitment by focusing on the individual's needs and objectives, rather than just their own and those of the organisation. This approach also helps to overcome one of the most common barriers to coaching - a fear of having less knowledge than the other person. In fast changing and complex working environments our skills will always be less specialised than those of most of our staff. Achievement coaching allows us to coach without needing expert knowledge of the subject we do not need to be an expert in everything!

Page 46

Leadership Skills

Putting In * * * Skills Knowledge Experience

Pulling Out * * * Coach does most of the Potential Commitment Expertise

Talking

Listening

The importance of awareness

Alongside motivation models, it is also useful to remember how we learn. The cycle of awareness and competence shown below mirrors the experience of being coached. At first we are unconsciously incompetent. The good coach helps us become aware of incompetence and then find ways to become consciously competent. We then learn the new habits to become unconsciously incompetent

The learning process

unconscious competence conscious competence conscious incompetence unconscious incompetence

COACHING & MENTORING

Page 47

Management Development Programme

How coaches develop their people

Guiding people to winning results Helping them to learn-by-doing on the job And they do this by knowing: * * * * Who the person they coach really is What they can do What their goals are How to help them achieve their goals

Moving from controller to coach

In terms of what managers spend their time doing, supervising, instructing, administrating and directing is being replaced by coaching as the key activity. At the same time, knowledge is replacing capital as the company's most valuable asset for managers to manage. Traditionally management was seen as a process - the management machine managers seek to minimise issues of individual behaviour. For them conformity is king, people issues are a waste of time and separate from business issues. But if we accept that people are the key to business success, then people issues are a key and integral part of business issues encourage individualism and harness the power of it (individual abilities, potential, aspirations) for the good of the organisation.

Coaching Qualities
Focusing on the individual
You need to know the person and develop a positive, not adversarial relationship with them The relationship must be a mutually respectful adult-adult one. Parent-child relationships are common in the traditional hierarchy Each individual is unique and you therefore need to know what approach works best for them. Determining this needs to be an interactive process Each situation is unique and therefore you need to be flexible enough to cope. What works well in one situation may not work well in another Lack of time is no excuse for not coaching

A Continuous Process
Building relationships takes time. You are never `finished' coaching. It is a continuous 2-way

Page 48

Leadership Skills
process. It is not a process in the sense of batch processing with set ingredients. It requires a complex and unique combination of skills Good coaching skills take time to develop and there is no substitute for learning-by-doing. In order to learn from experience you should be prepared to experiment with your coaching style. Learning by experience will also inevitably mean that not every encounter will be a success ... but that's OK. Skilled coaches constantly look for opportunities to coach (without butting in or taking over) recognising that informal coaching can be done at any time and does not need to be planned. To be truly effective coaching must happen at every level of the organisation.

Focusing on the views of the coachee

Realising that you do not have all the answers all the time is a major strength of an effective coach Asking the right questions: Lets the coach use the experience and insights of individuals and teams to improve business performance Prompts self-awareness Draws people in

While it is a major ego boost to be asked for advice, it is much more useful to deflect the question back to the person asking it. This helps the individual work the solution for them rather than it being given to them. Learning from and valuing failure
A person who is never wrong or who has never failed has not really done very much Risk taking should be encouraged because it is often true that we learn more from bad judgements or mistakes than we do from getting it right all the time

Recognising that it is the coachee who does the work

This is one of the most difficult things for a manager who has traditionally had a `command and control' approach When the person is successful, the coach puts them centre stage. When things go wrong, it is the coach that accepts responsibility and shields the person A coach derives their satisfaction from the success (not defeat) of other people

Focused on work goals

Work centres on reaching goals, whether personal, team or corporate

Page 49

Management Development Programme

People `own' their goals, even if the coach has set them. You will be likely to get `but-in' if people are involved in setting their own goals

Who can be coached?

Anyone, from new frontline employees to experienced top executives can be coached. Although each will have different start points, the outcome will be the same: an overall improvement in performance and an increased level of personal and job satisfaction. Coaching is best seen as a conversation between peers or equals, rather than between the boss and a member of their staff.

When coaching doesn't work

During emergency or crisis, a benevolent dictatorship may be more effective, but only if people were coached well previously and trust built up. BEWARE! Some managers will use crisis as an excuse to return to old familiar comfortable ways. They then view management as a series of never-ending crises, simply so that they can remain in their comfort zone!

Benefits to the coach

Becoming a coach can be an extremely positive experience and can increase our own productivity
You will no longer feel responsible for every little thing. You should therefore have more time for what you need to do and your stress levels should be lower You will have more opportunities to become a better leader You will build better relationships with your people, who in turn will perform better

Giving feedback
Giving and receiving feedback is a part of a managers/team leaders job. Feedback can be positive or negative. The objective of giving negative feedback is usually not clear. It should generally only be used for disciplinary issues where something serious has happened. It is not usually productive in most ordinary management situations The objective of giving positive feedback to a person is to help improve their performance Giving positive feedback is not about:
Criticising

Page 50

Leadership Skills
Letting off steam Taking out your anger on someone else Judging

Giving positive feedback is not easy for many people. The reasons for this are that you have to:
Think hard Be aware of the other person Understand the other persons viewpoint Use language in a controlled way Listen actively Understand how to ask the right questions Avoid getting emotionally involved Avoid making judgements based on your own prejudices

When asked to give feedback on someone elses performance it is very easy to:
Focus on the negative Tell the person where they are going wrong Tell the person what they should be doing Explain how they can improve

A good coach who is seeking to improve performance will not tell and will not focus on the negative. One of the main reasons why a telling approach does not always work well (though it can be useful sometimes) is that it often causes a number of negative feelings to emerge in the person receiving feedback, such as, feelings of:
Inadequacy Resentment Embarrassment Shame Anxiety Self-blame Loss of self-esteem

Page 51

Management Development Programme It is fairly well understood today that people perform at their best when they feel positive and good about themselves, when they have high self-esteem and when they do not have negative feelings. They Perform at their worst when the opposite is true. So if we are seeking to improve performance it is illogical to stress the negative. Giving effective feedback should:
Improve self-esteem Encourage Give positive strokes Give recognition Build trust and rapport

What, you may ask, if someone is performing poorly? How can you encourage and be positive when they need to know that their performance is not at a high enough level? One key point we must take account of is that people take things on board a lot better if they reason things out for themselves. Simply telling them they are performing poorly does not usually work. For a start you are making a judgement about their performance that they may not share. Secondly, they are likely to respond instinctively in a defensive manner. Once hostility sets in it is very difficult to get anyone to see anything about their behaviour because all their efforts are channelled into resisting what you are saying. Avoid direct confrontation except in certain controlled circumstances when you might use it as A technique to break through a barrier that has resisted all other strategies. In any case, most peoples performance is not all bad. They are probably doing some things well but there are some areas where they are perhaps not performing as well as they could. This may be for a whole host of reasons, some of which you may know nothing about. So, apart from other considerations, it is very dangerous to approach the feedback issue in an unconsidered way without knowing the facts. Far better to start with something positive. You can do this by reviewing something that has been done well. This approach:
Is positive Establishes rapport Gets things off to a good start

Page 52

Leadership Skills
Relaxes them Reduces anxiety

Asking relevant questions can follow this up. Often a person who is performing poorly is unaware of the fact, or if aware of the fact, is unaware of what can be done to put things right. Asking the right sort of questions will enable him/her to recognise the problem in the first place and then to address it in a positive light. In addressing the problem, in order to improve, it is important that an individual way forward is developed which suits his/her particular needs. Questioning is a key tool in giving feedback. Questioning serves to uncover the problem from a more oblique angle. Open questions are particularly good as they force the person to talk. The following questions are all possible ways of taking the conversation forward:
How do you feel you did? What more do you think you could have done? Why do you think you didnt give many new ideas? Do you normally find you have lots of good ideas? Tell me about some good ideas you have had in the past.

There are now a whole host of leads that could be followed up, all of which are building on what the person originally said. None of these questions really puts the person on the spot; none are embarrassing; none should cause anxiety but may set the person thinking about specific issues that they feel they can talk about. The downside of the above questions is that they all focus on the past. If one of the objectives of feedback is to improve performance then we must at some stage look to the future. Questions focusing on past and present behaviour are useful as long as the emphasis then moves on to the future. What can the person do to improve future performance? After all that is the ultimate rationale for feedback.

The Seven Rules for Giving Feedback

Rule 1 Focus on what you see, not on what you believe Rule 2 Focus on behaviour, not on personality Rule 3 keep it neutral - dont make judgements Rule 4 Use it to inform, not to advise

Page 53

Management Development Programme

Rule 5 Make it supportive, rather than threatening Rule 6 Keep it simple, dont overdo it Rule 7 If you give it, you have to be able to take it!

Receiving Feedback
It is not always easy to receive feedback. This is mainly because many of us do not like criticism We often feel threatened by having our performance discussed. People often take up a defensive position and our instinct is to deny what we are hearing and defend why we acted or behaved in the way that we did. When receiving feedback it is important to realise that:
The person giving the feedback is making a valid point. It is not a question of right and wrong; it is simply a question of what they observed and what they felt about the situation Feedback can help improve our performance. Everyone wants to do that and so the feedback should not be treated as a threat Feedback may contain things we do not wish to acknowledge but that is our problem, not the problem of the person giving feedback When we receive feedback we should note the actions we will have to take in order to improve. We should try them out, see if we are comfortable with them and see if they work. If not they can easily be discarded The purpose of feedback is not to criticise but to comment on behaviour observed - how it appeared to others. All too often we are oblivious to the effects that our behaviour can have on other people. It is very valuable to get such feedback in a controlled environment Feedback should be all about trust, support and improvement We should not take feedback as personal criticism. We should take a more measured view. We should try to see it as an objective comment on a mode of behaviour which we happened to use but which - because of circumstances we may not have been aware of - was possibly inappropriate at the time

The GROW Model

So far we have put the case for coaching and outlined a general approach and its benefits. Turning to the practical process involved, the model below is accepted and robust.

Page 54

Leadership Skills

The GROW Model

G R O W

GOAL REALITY OPTIONS WAY FORWARD

What do you want? What is happening now? What could you do? What will you do?

Source:John Whitmore
COACHING & MENTORING

The GROW Model offers us a useful framework around which to build a comprehensive checklist for coaching. The Model has been superimposed onto the checklist - look out for the key words; GOALS, REALITY, OPTIONS and WAY FORWARD. The stages outlined below represent the competencies against which you will be assessed. Where appropriate some examples of questions to use during the coaching process have been provided. These lists are by no means exhaustive and are not meant as a `script' that you must learn. Remember, it is important to be yourself during the coaching process, so maybe these questions will be helpful to you when developing some of your own.

Stages of one-to-one coaching

Think of the following stages not as a closed series, but as a circle with gaps. Not all coaching uses all the stages all of the time. The core activities will be assess, evaluate, feedback constantly. In longerterm relationships, e.g. end of year review or at the start of a major project, you will often go through more of the stages.

Plan for coaching session

Identify topic for coaching Consider: are you the best person to do the coaching? Schedule time convenient for you and the individual Book an appropriate venue

Page 55

Management Development Programme

Arrange for no interruptions

Check: is it a coaching need?

There will be times when we are unsure whether the development need that we have identified will be best tackled with coaching. To help you with this decision we have listed below some alternative approaches you might take or suggest when tackling a development need.

Page 56

Leadership Skills

Training
Knowledge

Options
Skills

Examples

Product knowledge Background knowledge Knowledge of how to do something

Questioning skills Presentation skills Training skills Organisational skills Formulating recommendations

Training Options

Read training manuals Read reference books/material Read newspapers/magazines Attend seminars Attend relevant meetings Listen to audio tapes Watch TV/videos Ask manager/colleagues Ask technical experts Train others Computer based training (CBT) Multimedia training

Watch videos Read books Write out scripts/responses Case studies Practice on own Observe demonstration Observe colleagues Role play with manager/colleagues

Tested by ...

Written/oral test including ... Listing Explaining Describing Comparing/contrasting

Live demonstration Role play Case study

Brief for coaching session

Put them at ease and build rapport Introduce session in a positive and constructive way Praise what they do well Mutually agree goals and desired outcome of the coaching session Agree assessment criteria

Page 57

Management Development Programme

Define the challenge/problem

Question and listen actively. Remember, the person is likely to be the best one to define the challenge/problem and get to the root cause, with your help. Work with the individual to determine their Goals and expectations. These should be SMART Goals i.e. Specific, Measurable, Agreed, Realistic and Timed.

SMART Goals
Below is a list of questions (not exhaustive) from which you can select the most appropriate to use when agreeing the goals the individual wants to achieve and indeed to set the goal for the session for itself).
What do you want to achieve? (Be specific and state in positive terms) How will you know, specifically, that you have achieved this goal? What are the performance criteria? How will these be tested? What positive things (however small) do you get out of the current situation or your current behaviour? How will you maintain these things in your new outcome? What are the potential knock-on effects of your desired outcome? Who else and what else will it affect? When will you achieve this goal? What else will improve Under what conditions would you not want to implement your goal? What stops you from having your desired outcome already? If you could have it now, would you take it?

Evaluating SMART Goals

The goal should be stated in positive terms. i.e. it states what you do want as opposed to what you don't want to happen. e.g. what do you want to achieve? What is possible? What is the payoff? Can it be initiated and maintained by the person desiring it? e.g. Page 58 what will you do to achieve this goal?

Leadership Skills Is the goal measurable i.e. will evidence be available to demonstrate that the goal is being reached? e.g. how specifically will you know when you achieved the goal? What are your performance criteria (or measurements)? How will they be tested? Preserves the positive elements of the current situation or behaviour e.g. what positive things, in any way, do you get out of the present way of doing things/current situation. How could you maintain these when working towards you new goal? Do you have a clear understanding of the context in which you will be working? Have you thought through the consequences of your planned actions? e.g. under what conditions would you not want to implement this new goal? Who and what else could it affect?

Fact-finding and recognising reality

assess where the person is now: what are their skills, attitude and level of satisfaction i.e. what's the

Reality of the situation.

allow them to describe in their own words what they know. Remember, this is no time for you to boast about your own abilities. encourage them to identify a specific example to illustrate current position make sure you have got it right. Keep second and third hand information in its proper context.

In eliciting this information, stick to WHAT, WHERE, WHEN and WHO questions where possible.

Reality questions
What is the current situation? What happens at the moment? How do you know that this is an accurate view? When does ..... happen? When does ..... not happen? What are your reactions to this? What effect does this have? What have you tried/done about this so far?

Page 59

Management Development Programme

What results did that produce? Who else is involved? Which/what is most important? (use this type of questioning to establish, priorities or levels of importance) What are the major constraints to moving forward? What else is relevant to this situation?

Try to avoid `Why' questions as these can appear judgmental e.g.. `Why do you want to do that?'. If you do need to find out the person's motive for some action, question the purpose, e.g.. `What is the purpose of that?'. This helps the other person clarify the aim for themselves. Above all, be sensitive with your questioning - remember, this is not an interrogation! The diagram below hints at the range of areas to covered with sensitivity.

The Johari window Ingham Joseph Luft and Harry

more Exposure more Feedback less Known by others

Arena

Blind spot

Facade
Known by self

Unknown

less

Unknown by others

Unknown by self

COACHING & MENTORING

Explore Options for improvement

ask questions and listen actively encourage the person to come up with a number of solutions. guide them to other options only if their solutions are either inadequate or impractical.

Option Questions:
How could you achieve that?

Page 60

Leadership Skills
What else could you do? Which of those options do you prefer? If you could do anything you wanted to, what would you do to achieve your goal? Would you like some suggestions from me? What if ....?

Listen carefully to the individual's language. Be particularly alert to statements like:

I can't do that We are not allowed to .... That's not possible/an option That won't work

and any others that might infer that something is not possible or can't be done. Gently challenge their thinking by using the following types of questions to discover the `blocks'.
What stops you ...? What prevents you ...? What would get in the way if you did ...? What if that obstacle did not exist? What would have to happen so that you could ...? ... and what would that mean? What if ...?

Similarly be alert for words such as `have to', `should', `must' and `ought' as these statements infer rigidity in what needs to be done.
We have to do it this way I should do it this way I must complete my calls within 2 minutes I ought to ...

Once again challenge their thinking with questions that explore the consequences of doing something different.
What would happen if you didn't ...? What if you didn't do that ... what would be the consequences? ... and what would be the consequences of that?

Page 61

Management Development Programme

Prioritise the options

jointly evaluate the consequences of each proposed action rank in descending order of preference

Develop an action plan, what will happen

determine specific steps and actions needed i.e. establish the Way create and encourage hands-on learning opportunities discuss and agree critical path and deadlines don't leave it as a `whenever you have time' project agree follow-up timescale and process

Forward

Way forward Questions

What are you going to do? When are you going to do it? What else are you going to do? How are you going to achieve XXXXX? How will doing XXXXX mean that you have met your goal? How will you measure your progress? What could get in the way?/what problems could you face? How will you overcome them? Who else needs to be involved? What support do you need from them? How will you get this support? What support do you need from me? On a scale of 1 - 10, how likely are you to carry out this action plan and achieve your outcome? What needs to happen to rate this a 10?

Monitor Progress
monitor progress regularly by reviewing individual's training file check activities are being completed within agreed timescales seek out ad hoc opportunities to discuss progress

Page 62

Leadership Skills

Leading international teams

A key concern for managers working in an international environment is the way in which they have to adapt their style. Fons Trompenaar has done a lot of analysis of different national cultures and derived a useful model featuring seven dimensions.

Trompenaars Seven Cultural Dimensions

1 Relationships with People

Universalism versus Particularism. The universalist approach is roughly: What is good and right can be defined and always applies. In particularist cultures far greater attention is given to obligations of relationships and unique circumstances. For example, instead of assuming that the one good way must always be followed, the particularist reasoning is that friendship has special obligations and hence may come first. Less attention is given to abstract social codes. Individualism versus Collectivism. Do people primarily regard themselves as individual or primarily as part of a group? Furthermore, is it more important to focus on individuals so that they can contribute to the collective as and if they wish, or is it more important to consider the collective first since it is shared by many individuals? Neutral or Emotional. Should the nature of our interactions be objective and detached, or is expressing emotion acceptable? In North American and north-west Europe business relationships are typically instrumental and all about achieving objectives. The brain checks emotions because these are believed to confuse the issues. The assumption is that we should resemble the machine to operate them more efficiently. But further south and in many other cultures, business is a human affair and the whole gamut of emotions deemed appropriate. Loud laughter, banging your fist on a table or leaving a conference room in anger during part of a negotiation is all part of business. Specific or Diffuse. When the whole person is involved in a business relationship there is a real and personal contact instead of the specific relationship prescribed by a contract. In many countries a diffuse relationship is not only preferred, but necessary before business can proceed. Achievement versus Ascription. Achievement means that you are judged on what you have recently accomplished and on your record. Ascription means that status is attributed to you, by birth, kinship, gender or age, but also by your connections (who know you) and your educational record (a graduate Page 63

Management Development Programme of Tokyo University or Haute Ecole Polytechnique). In an achievement culture the first question is likely to be What did you study? while in a more ascriptive culture the question will more likely be Where did you study?
2 Relationships with Time

Attitudes to time. In some societies what a person has achieved in the past is not that important. It is more important to know what plan they have developed for the future. In other societies you can make more of an impression with your past accomplishments than those of today.
3 Relationship with the Environment

Some cultures see the major focus affecting their lives and the origins of vice and virtue as residing within the person. Here, motivations are derived from within. Other cultures see the world as more powerful than individuals. They see nature as something to be feared or emulated.25 These differences between countries will often lead to friction when managers from different countries deal with each other.

Conclusions
I didnt come here to work. I came here to be inspired from Jerry Maguire, the movie written and directed by Cameron Crowe, 1996 This course has set out to show that the job of the supervisor or manager is a challenging one. You need to:
set goals create a positive working climate delegate the work to others build the team that will achieve the goals coach the individuals within the team maintain good relations across cultures in an increasingly global world

But, make no mistake, this is a great job to do. Do it well, and you wont have to do the work yourself.
25

Trompenaars op cit p 8-10

Page 64

Leadership Skills What better pay-off could there be?

Further reading
Leadership in Organisations, Gary Yukl, Prentice Hall, 1998 Coaching for Performance, John Whitmore. Nicholas Brealey Publishing, 1996 Coaching, Mentoring and Assessing: A Practical Guide to Developing Confidence, Kogan Page 1992

Book 2 Report Writing Introduction

Report writing is a vital and extremely tedious part of every manager's working life. They tend to be very important at decisive moments - preparing budgets, securing funding for new staff or equipment, proposing changes in the way processes are carried out, making sales, analysing problems or crises. Whether we like them or not, we need the skills to identify:
when a report is needed the argument to be communicated the format it should take who should read it and how they will respond the information which should (and should not be included) when and how it should be delivered

So this short course is designed to help us write effective and persuasive reports. It is not designed to help us produce government white papers, an academic treatise, or, thankfully, Jeffrey Archer novels. By the time you reach the last page or the end of the session - whichever comes sooner - we hope to have achieved the following objectives. You will:
know the different types and styles of report and when to use them have practised elements of report writing to give you the skills to put your knowledge into practice feel comfortable about your rights and responsibilities and those of your readership. If you can take the trouble to write a report, you have a right that it be read, and if decisions are demanded of the readership, that they be made. Writing reports is a miserable experience - don't do it unless there is a

Page 65

Management Development Programme

commitment from your readership that your work will not be in vain.

A report is a very powerful weapon when used correctly. At other times it is useful for nothing more than levelling a wobbly table or helping your manager get to sleep at night.

Page 66

Leadership Skills

Definitions `to present with conclusions and recommendations, etc.' `a formal or official presentation of facts' `a loud noise, esp. one made by an explosion'
There are four main stages in report writing: Stage 1 - Preparation
purpose type readership research reflection

Stage 2 - Arrangement
objectives idea/key issues selection structure of the argument visual evidence

Stage 3 - Writing
format style flow

Stage 4 - Revision and delivery

final reflection delivery method and follow-up

Page 67

Effective Team Leadership

Section 1 - Preparation
Purpose
Why are you writing a report? All too often the answer is very simple - because you have been asked to. But why? The reasons are various, some are good and some are not.
To monitor and control operations (e.g. volume of business, productivity statistics, etc.) To help implement policies and procedures (e.g. course manuals, compliance guides, procedure manuals) To comply with legal or funding requirements (e.g. returns to industry or government bodies) To obtain new business or funding (e.g. sales proposals, grant applications, capital expenditure requests) To document work in progress (e.g. project updates, appraisals, minutes of meetings) To guide decisions on particular issues (e.g. to comment on plans or proposals) To analyse and interpret (e.g. essays, investigation reports)

These are generally good reasons, but sometimes we may find ourselves writing reports to:
Delay a decision that could be taken on the available evidence To add to the bureaucracy and red tape that already binds and limits us To provide peripheral and marginally useful information, purely for the sake of completeness

So regardless of the stated reason, you have to ask yourself (and the person who has commissioned the document) the following questions:
1 2 3 4 What is the general purpose of the document (inform, present an argument, lay down procedures, analyse an incident, etc.) Exactly what do you want to know - that we don't know already What is the report going to do - what do you want the reader to KNOW, FEEL and DO? (This will vary depending on the general purpose of the document) What is the focus and scope of the report - it is always better to zoom in close on one area than try to produce a wide angle view.

Another way of looking at purpose is to consider the problem you are setting out to solve. If your report does not define and solve a problem, then it is unlikely to be very helpful. The problem can be that of identifying the key performance indicators and finding a way to regularly monitor achievement. It may also be the opportunity created by a new export market and how the organisation should address it. A report without a problem is unlikely to attract much interest. Most managers are concerned to read about solutions - but only if potential solutions are also offered.

Page 68

Effective Team Leadership EXAMPLE A recommendation to improve customer service levels will only find genuine favour if you can show that current service levels have caused customers to go elsewhere, or the service offered by competitors is actually giving them a competitive advantage.

Types of report
Having established the purpose of a report, it is a relatively short step to identifying a suitable basic type of document.

Monitoring & Controlling Operations

Typical documents:
Plans (short term to 5 year) - provide internal co-ordination, set goals, motivate and establish available resources Operating Reports - providing hard data on sales performance, production, financial health, Personal activity reports - sales call reports, expense reports

Format:
Direct order Standardised format or pre-printed form Quick to assimilate Regular

Implementing policies & procedures

Typical documents:
Procedure manuals Position papers (corporate policy) Issue comments (the house view, possibly in magazine format)

Page 69

Effective Team Leadership Format:

Stylised Authoritative, but persuasive Written with concern to the knowledge and attitudes of readership Tone a matter for judgement Mouthpiece for senior management Periodic, or periodically updated and revised

Sales & Funding Proposals

Typical documents:
Sales proposals Grant applications Capital expenditure/new resource requests

Format:
Recognised general structure Objective tone, but persuasive Written with concern to the knowledge and attitudes of readership Length and format varies in proportion to scale and complexity of application aimed externally/upwards

Documenting work in progress

Typical documents:
Project updates Minutes of meetings Legal case updates Building project progress reports

Format:
style varies from pre-set to free form

Page 70

Effective Team Leadership

periodic rather than regular indirect order concise, objective

Reports for Guiding Decisions

Typical documents:
Research Reports (new business opportunities, new processes, new product development) Justification Reports (internal proposals frequently following on from research reports and designed to seek commitment to implement new initiatives) Trouble-shooting reports (Answering 4 basic questions - how did we get into this mess? How bad is the damage? What should we do about it? How can we stop it happening again?)

Format:
Event driven aimed upward Analytical and detailed Direct order

Reports to analyse and interpret

Typical documents:
Essays (in almost any subject where the author is describing or analysing) Investigative Reports (analysis of a critical incident where the document will set out primarily to describe and interpret, but may then go on to guide decisions)

Format:
Event driven aimed upward or to a tutor Analytical and detailed balanced argument

Page 71

Effective Team Leadership

Readership
`I can't write without a reader. It's precisely like a kiss you can't do it alone' John Cheever
Reports may only have one author, but they will have many readers. The person commissioning the report may not be the most important reader; in fact he or she may not even read it at all! Once again, you have the need and right to develop clear answers to the following questions.

Who are the intended primary readers? Chief Executive? Board? your immediate manager? staff? clients? regulatory body? funding council? tutor?
As you can imagine, the motivation and purpose of each of these potential readers will vary. While you will inevitably worry about everyone into whose clutches you beautiful document falls, keep in mind the important readers - the ones for whom you are really writing. If you have not thought about who they are, you are bound to say the wrong thing.

Who are the secondary readers? Colleagues? staff? Senior management? future employers?
Do not forget about the effect your report may have on the secondary readers. If you are laying blame, or making contentious remarks, consider the extent to which you may need to defend/justify them in the document. All too often, the written word comes back to haunt us. Once written, it can never be retracted.

What do you know about your readers? What are their motivations? What is their attitude going to be to your document? What do they already know, what do they need or want to know? Are they familiar with the subject area you are covering?
If they are likely to be unfavourable, you need to work hard to persuade them both in advance of and within the document. Take care not to assume that your readers will be familiar with technical

Page 72

Effective Team Leadership language. If you need to use jargon, make sure your first usage include a short bracketed explanation. For example:

"Overuse of TLAs (Three Letter Abbreviations) can be very frustrating for the reader unfamiliar with the subject"
When thinking about the readership consider carefully their:
level (in the organisation) background (attitudes, cultural perspective) outlook (are they objective, or do they see the world only from their department) views (what are views are on the subject of the report?)

Research
A report is only as good as the factual material contained within it. No amount of lyrical argument and creativity can make up for a lack of solid information. The research phase is best entered into as soon as the scope and purpose of the report is decided. Gathering information is a slow process; there will be plenty of obstacles in the way. Most reports have a deadline, if they don't they probably are not worth writing. So start data gathering early. The questions to answer are:

1. What are the facts about the subject? (Quantitative Research)

the statistics (internal to the company, competition, industry and national/international) the trends (improvement/decline) the history (how has this subject developed, both specifically to the organisation and on the broader scale) don't forget to compare your data - check for discrepancies and inaccuracies

Gather facts like a magpie. Don't worry about the relevance at the early stages. You will need to sift, edit and discard later. But the more solid material you have, the more likely you are to develop an objective and informed picture. Your report should establish you as the expert on the subject, even if people don't like what you have to say. If your report is largely statistical, perhaps a regular report, then it is always valuable to review the type of data needed and to periodically consider the relevance and meaning. If a figure never changes, or your report fails to identify and plot change, then think again!

Page 73

Effective Team Leadership

2. What are the opinion and views of those who might be involved? (Qualitative Research)
You may have your own initial opinions, but be prepared to test them against the facts. The process of research may reveal some of your assumptions to be false. Gather opinion from interested parties. You may do this by formal interviews or discussion groups. Alternatively, if may just be a case of having a chat and informally seeking views and ideas. Qualitative research of this type is known as `emergent', in other words, ideas emerge from the process. You may go in without an idea in your head, but come out with some very exciting concepts. However, you must remember that everyone has a different and vested interest; don't allow yourself to be conned into firing other people's bullets! Remember to consider the views of those people who may be affected by your report. If you are reporting departmental performance, talk to team members about how they feel they should be judged. If your recommendations will effect clients, research their views on the impact of the changes.

Reflection
It is vital for you to allow time for the research phase to sink in, for the mass of ideas and information to swirl about in your mind. From this process will emerge patterns and ideas that will form the basis for your conclusions and recommendations. Don't be afraid to toy with a range of ideas at this stage. If you are working on your report with others, this is the time to brainstorm ideas and jointly make sense of what you have. A team can be a genius, while the individual members are just ordinary people.

Section 2 - Arrangement
Preparation helps us to identify what our report is really about, who it is for, to research and gather relevant information and to become masters of the subject. However, by the end of this first stage all we are likely to have is a large pile of confusing notes, some of which may be capable of illuminating the problem, some of which may also form part of the solution. This section deals with reminding ourselves of the objectives of the report, creating a solution, selecting the information needed to explain the argument, a basic structure and a concern for how we can present it.

Page 74

Effective Team Leadership

Objectives
A useful technique at this stage is to summarise the purpose of the report in a single sentence. For this document, this could be:

`To provide a simple manual for defining and writing business reports, with an emphasis on the need to research and create a strong central argument and choose an appropriate format and style.'
Hopefully, this then reminds the writer of the scope of the document and lends help to the allimportant question of a TITLE. The Title should be capable of communicating the angle you are taking as well as the subject. The title should attract the reader and give them a hint of the excitement (sic) to come. More deeply, it is useful to break your communication objectives into three areas: COGNITIVE: what do we want the reader to know? AFFECTIVE: what do we want the reader to feel? EFFECTIVE: what do we want the reader to do?

Ideas/Key issues
A strong central idea is vital to the report. A myriad of small observations and recommendations does not make for a worthwhile report. Even if you decide to make a large number of recommendations, it is best to group or theme them so that they can be seen to contributing to a strategy. In all cases, there has to be a key issue to define and a unique angle or solution to recommend.

Selection
When you have spent a long time researching information, an effort for which you are justifiably proud, it is very tempting to litter your report with all the data you have gathered. Unfortunately, this is like refusing to throw away old and tatty Christmas decorations and putting them up, despite the fact that they obscure a select number of lovely, fresh new items. Not only will you obscure your central idea and argument; you also run the risk of some of the data being seized upon by hostile readers as evidence against your case. There are three rules:
1 Discard truly irrelevant information

Page 75

Effective Team Leadership

2 3 Consign to appendices or footnotes that information which the sceptical may want to evaluate for themselves Place a reduced emphasis on data which, while important, may be unhelpful to winning your argument. Don't miss it out altogether. If you do you will be considered either ignorant or cynical.

This applies whether you are producing a short statistical report or a lengthy business case. In both cases, brevity and relevance are equally necessary. In a short report this approach helps to keep it short. In a long document, they ensure it remains crisp and that the reader remains conscious.

EXAMPLE A report recommending the purchase of a new piece of equipment should identify the features and benefits that the equipment will need. You would want to show how the preferred supplier's offering is appropriate, but not provide detailed specifications for the many competitors that do not meet standards. You may choose to name them and identify why they have been rejected though, to avoid defenders of those suppliers suggesting you have not considered them at all. Structure of the argument
Having revisited your objectives, developed your idea and selected your materials, now is the time to consider the structure of your argument. For a simple one page statistical report, you will just want to decide the order in which the data should be displayed in order to make sense to the reader. For longer, proposal style reports, a good general structure adopts a mnemonic known as the 5 Ps: Position - Where are we now and why are we writing this report Problem - Identification and summary of the problem Possibilities - Consideration of options for solving it, with the acceptance and rejection of the weak alternatives Proposal - Your central idea and recommendation/solution. Price

Page 76

Effective Team Leadership - No solutions are achieved without costs being involved - in terms of resources, time or staffing. Without a clear cost/benefit analysis, you will guarantee only one outcome: no decision and the instruction to go away and do what you should have done in the first place! In the case of all lengthy arguments, a useful technique is to formulate sections and put title and key points onto small Post-It notes. These can be laid out on a desk and shuffled around until you are confident that the argument flows logically. It is much better to do this rather than simply start writing in the hope that you will automatically create a logical flow.

Visual evidence
When a graphic artist sets to work designing the layout of a magazine article, an advertisement or product carton, they take a long look at the non-textual elements. In other words, they look at the pictures, diagrams, tables and charts. They position them and then 'flow' the text around them. Text is like water - it will go anywhere. But pictures need to be displayed properly and laid out to entice the reader in. The same is true of reports. DO NOT write the report and then look around for Clip Art graphics or other visuals to tart it up. Locate your visuals first and then work around them.

Remember: a picture is worth a thousand words.

Section 3: Writing
Format
By this stage, you will have a very clear of the format of your document. For simple reports, this may be a pre-printed sheet into which figures are placed by hand. For regular text based reports, it may be a set of topics that you will always want to write against. For the more complex, business case report, the format will be unique on each occasion. However, the basic 5 Ps outlined above should be considered.

EXAMPLE A weekly project update report could take the following format:
Section One New projects

(client, objectives, tasks to be completed, timescales, responsibilities)

Section Two

Existing projects

Page 77

Effective Team Leadership (current situation, next steps, progress against critical path) Section Three Any other issues (staffing, potential problems, etc.)

Style
Form and content go hand in hand. A short factual report will be light on text and commentary, strong on figures and short observations. A lengthier report will form more of a narrative, with the writer taking the reader on a journey - out of the wilderness (the problem) and into the Promised Land (the solution). As you can imagine, you can only get away with a sentence like that in a document of this format. On a one-page report to the Chief Executive it might look a little strange. Although the subject may be technical, always try to avoid descending into 'techno-babble. Even the most ardent enthusiast for a technical subject needs to come up for air from time to time.

Flow
The more contentious your recommendation, the more you need to consider the flow of your argument. Sometimes, it is better to take an indirect approach, building up an argument slowly rather than rushing straight in with the proposal. A conservative readership may have great difficulty accepting your recommendation if they are presented `in your face'. On the other hand, a gradual logical build-up may allow you slip beneath the reader's defences.

The Classic Structure

In any document over 5 pages, this approach is worth considering:

Title page
Title (that tells the story and grabs interest) Author/department Who it has been produced for Date Confidentiality/copyright notes (as appropriate) Logo (if going to an external audience)

Executive Summary

Page 78

Effective Team Leadership

One page (or 10% of the overall document length) Summarises the problem and solutions in a few short, convincing paragraphs Designed for the hard of reading, and capable of convincing on its own Usually written last!

Contents page
All main headings listed, including appendices must include page numbering

Introduction (Position)
Authorisation (who it is for) What the document is about Why it has been commissioned Limitations/scope Objectives of the document (not of the solution) Basic organisation of the document

Background (Problem)
Brief history of the problem Places subject into a strategic context, illustrating its relevance Ensures all readers are abreast of the facts

Objectives (of the solution)

What the solution must achieve to be worthy of the name Primary and secondary objectives Pitfalls to be avoided/special considerations

Method
Research methods used

Page 79

Effective Team Leadership

Criteria developed for evaluating solutions Constraints Limitations of scope Acknowledgement of sources and support

Summary of Findings
Key research data Detail should appear in appendices Careful of corporate sensitivities

Possibilities
Short review of options Dismissal of unworkable or inappropriate solutions

Proposal
Conceptual argument for solution Detailed description Cost/benefit analysis (Price) Timescales and implementation (Price)

Conclusions
A reminder of the problem Brief description of how the proposal solves it Restatement of the main benefits Call to action (varies depending on nature of document) Positive tone

Bibliography Appendices

Page 80

Effective Team Leadership

Readability
Subheadings
Subheads help to divide up the report and signpost stages. In a very long document, rather than simply use plain headings like `Background' or `Introduction', you may wish to add or amplify. For example,

`Background: Increasing competitive pressure'

- Will give the reader an expectation of what the main theme of the section will be. Only legal or contractual documents benefit from complex numbering of paragraphs and sections.

The Fog Factor

The fog factor is a term given to the readability of a document. It is basically a function of length. Generally speaking, use:
short words short sentences short paragraphs

However, you need to be aware of the need to balance this against variety and changes of texture. Short sentences get boring. Short words can be crude. Do not be afraid to vary sentence length and use carefully selected vocabulary when you need to be precise. Avoid talking around the point. For example, Roundabout In view of the fact that During the time that To the Point Because While

If business does not improve in the next quarter, we may be obliged to rationalise working practices really means... Some of you are going to lose your jobs in the near future. Better to be clear and direct, rather than pad out sentences. You are being kind to be cruel.

Page 81

Effective Team Leadership

Paragraphing
Likewise, short paragraphs aid understanding. Each paragraph should contain a single idea; it should develop it and then draw it to a logical close. A paragraph should usually be more than a single sentence.

Concrete vs. abstract

Concrete words are simple, vivid and frequently factual. Abstract words may hint at meaning, but are open to interpretation. For example, `a good profit' could mean anything, but a 22% net profit is absolutely clear. `Improved efficiency' is fine, but a `25% increase in output from the team really tells us something that we can work with.

Active vs. Passive voice

Verbs are the strongest part of speech, and they are at their strongest when used in the active rather than passive voice. When verbs are in their active voice, they show their subject doing the action; when verbs are passive, they show the subject being acted upon. As a general rule, put action into your verbs:

ACTIVE `The MD approved the new budget' PASSIVE `The revised budget has been approved by the MD'
Documents produced using Microsoft Word for Windows can be checked for readability using the Spelling and Grammar option contained under Tools.

Tone of Voice
Be very way of allowing a less than objective tone of voice to colour the report. This does not mean that the writer cannot allow personality to show through. However, an apparent distaste for the subject, or dissatisfaction with resources required to undertake the research, will only distract the reader from the argument.

Page layout
In the age of readily available desktop publishing, it is very easy to produce an over-stylised mess. Some useful general rules of typography can be summarised, and illustrated, as follows:

Page 82

Effective Team Leadership

Put large margins into your document, the outside margin should be larger than the inner on facing pages. Use no more than two typefaces (sans seraph faces such as Helvetica make for good headings, seraph faces, such as Times New Roman, make for readable body copy) Never use capitals for more than a VERY SHORT section; they give emphasis but are very hard to read. The same is true of underlining. Italics work best for captions, quotations or short phrases. In all cases, the aim is to contrast a small section with the rest of the standard text. The contrast is lost if it is overdone. Use a small typeface rather than one which is too large. The

latter only looks clumsy and thin.

Headers and footers are worthwhile to remind the reader of the subject of the document and the author/department, along with page numbering. Line length should be no more than approximately 40 characters Leading- the space between lines - can be increased to improve

legibility. This makes the text look airier and gives room to the reader to make notes, remarks or underline key passages. Widows and orphans should be avoided. A widow is when the last few words or line are on the next page. An orphan describes the beginning of a sentence or paragraph occurring at the bottom of a page. Be consistent. Development of a house style to documents, or at least within the document greatly aids readability and credibility. Avoid gimmicks and frills, such as fancy bullet points or drop capitals or shadows. They may be acceptable in advertising material, but unworthy of a serious report. Left justification is less tidy than full justification but avoids the problem of words spread automatically to fit the space.

Page 83

Effective Team Leadership

Section 4 - Revision and delivery

Final reflection
Inevitably, we leave writing the document so late that there is little time to re-read and revise it prior to delivery. This is, of course, a mistake. It is helpful to let the first glow of authorship subside, and to reflect on the inappropriateness of some of the examples or ideas. Remember, once it has been written and delivered it cannot be retracted.

Delivery method and follow-up

A report of almost any length will be best accompanied by a note or memo. This alerts the reader to what it is about, why they have been sent it, what they are expected to do and will give you an opportunity to encourage them to read it. If the report is designed to generate a decision, then remind people of the timescale. Be prepared to follow it up - by telephone or in person - to check it has been read, clarify any points arising, and look for the action that you hoped it would inspire. If your document is going to a group of decision-makers, then your best strategy is to create an occasion to hand over the report, such as a short presentation. But the art of giving effective presentations is the subject of another story to be found in the second half of this manual.

Conclusions
We have set out to show that any subject can be treated effectively by:
Identifying the key issues Creating a structured solution Presenting it clearly and simply Remembering the needs of the reader

To write well is not the result of a natural gift. It is about good preparation, logical organisation and having a basic set of skills. No one expects to win the Booker prize by producing a decent report. However, provided they have identified the objectives of their communication, and then achieving those is enough reward in itself. A report is only a means to an end. Never in business, should it be regarded as an end in itself.

Page 84

Effective Team Leadership

Book 3 Effective Presentations

Introduction
'If you want me to speak for five minutes, I'll need two weeks to prepare. If you want me to speak for an hour, I'll need a week. If you don't mind how long I speak, I'll get up and do it right now.'

Many of the most significant moments in your career will involve presentations. Some will be very short - a job interview, for example. Some will be much longer, such as a presentation of a report, a staff training session or a client presentation. Research in the USA would indicate there are few activities more nerve-wracking. Yet stage nerves are an essential to the job. They give you the edge. This reaction is part of the 'fight or flight' response that is essential to the nature of man. In other species it is activated by physical threat, in our civilised world it has adapted to the psychological challenges we also set ourselves. So why do we sometimes go over the edge into stage fright? This is when our body is over aroused and too many hormones are released. Just as insufficient arousal means a poor performance (lacklustre, apathetic) so over arousal causes paralysis.

The Advantages of Presentations

The live presentation is a more persuasive medium than the written word You can guarantee attention to your argument The target audience can be gathered together and receive the information simultaneously You can test the audience's understanding or acceptance of your presentation - vital for teaching or presenting a proposal demanding acceptance

You can handle questions and objections directly

However, it is a costly approach in terms of time and coverage. For this reason it must be effectively prepared in order to make the most of the opportunity.

Preparing to Prepare
Training courses are always guilty of presenting the ideal world. This is a place where we all have the time and enthusiasm to follow through a methodology to the letter.

In reality, our activities tend to be dominated by the urgent rather than the important. So essential preparation is often left to the last minute. This is a particular problem with presentations because:

Page 85

Effective Team Leadership

We have a basic fear of the whole exercise, which can mean we put off the preparation stage for as long as possible.

We can flatter ourselves that we can 'ad lib' the presentation anyway by relying on a natural ability. Watching a good speaker can sometimes give the false impression that no preparation is the best preparation.

A failure to prepare will mean that the nerves on the day will be much greater and tip us over the edge into paralysis (stage fright).

How can we find the time and motivation to prepare properly? So often, the only emotion that will spur us into action is last minute panic. By then, it can be too late. Fail to prepare, and you should prepare to fail. A simple strategy that can be adopted whenever you are preparing a piece for work for a deadline is to: 1 Set an advance deadline ahead of the event

This should be at least a few days in advance of the presentation, to allow for significant rewriting 2 Select a mentor/adviser

To make the advance deadline meaningful, something must happen that day. A run through of the presentation with your mentor/adviser is a good candidate. The adviser could be your manager, or a member of the audience who is also a friendly colleague. They need to be able to advise you with authority, so an older, more senior person is advisable. 3 Make a list

List the stages in getting your preparation together, with a particular emphasis on the items you need that may take time to get, such as key statistics, examples, cartoons, etc. These can then be located while there is plenty of time. They are also fun to deal with and once devised will grow your confidence in the project. 4 Block out diary time

It is accepted that you are unlikely to get started straightaway on the meat of writing. So block out days in your diary leading up to your advance deadline. These must be appointments you make with yourself and treated as immovable.

Word processors at dawn

Armed with your researched items (3 above), the threat of your advance deadline, and the sense of now or never, start working as early as possible on the days you have set aside.

Page 86

Effective Team Leadership

The Key Stages of Preparation

Content
Remember that while the presentation is a powerful medium there is a severe limit on how much information we can convey before the audience is too saturated to accept more. So the key concern is how to edit the jumble of material. The presentation must have a strong and cogent structure and successfully lead any fool to the conclusions that we hope our audience will accept. The basic structure is as follows. 1. Introduction 2. Set out objectives 3. Outline the structure of the presentation 4. Review 'the problem' 5. Present 'the solution' 6. Summarise 7. Confirm that the objective has been achieved 8. Seek acceptance of your solution

1. The Introduction
A good introduction is the most important part of your presentation to perfect. Put the audience on your side and they will forgive a lot. A useful mnemonic that provides a framework for your introduction is INTRO.

Page 87

Effective Team Leadership I Interest

An opening statement, quotation, statistic, question or stories that highlights the importance of the subject and makes the audience view it in a slightly new way. N Need

Following on from the interest you have generated by the opening remark, it is important to emphasise the way it highlights the need for the research/training/new policy you are about to deliver. T Title

So what I hope to cover today is.... R Restriction

The limits of any session will mean some subjects have to be left out. It is reassuring to the audience to know that your omissions are deliberate and to feel that you are not going to try to cover everything. O Objective

People like to know where you are leading them to and now is the time to make clear what you hope they will gain from the session.

2. Objectives
Presentation objectives are the same as those for reports: Cognitive - what you want the listener to know Affective - what you want the listener to feel Effective - what you want the listener to do In all cases your communication should hope to:
Add to the listener's knowledge Change the way they feel about the subject Make them want to do something about it

Level of appeal At this stage, it is also important to decide on the level of the appeal that you wish to make. The options are:
Habit

Page 88

Effective Team Leadership

Emotions Intellect

In terms of ease of argument, it is easier to win over an audience by appealing to their habitual ways of thinking and acting. This is a typical politician's approach. If their habits are contrary to your argument, then you will be better served by pitching your argument to rouse their emotions, thus overturning their habits. Appealing to intellect is the least effective approach, unless your audience are neutral about the subject.

3. Structure of the presentation

If you are planning to use OHPs/slides, it may be useful to plan your presentation using the main headings and bullet points that the slides will contain. Boiling the argument down to the bare bones exposes the structure - or its absence. Map out the argument as a flow diagram showing how your points interact. One way that this can be done is with post-it notes.
Give each note a title to denote the point you are making Attach them to a large surface (such as a wall) in the order that you feel the argument should flow. Leave space so that the order can be changed. Talk your way through the argument; lapses of logic or missing points will emerge.

4. Review 'the problem'

A good standard structure is to begin the presentation proper by a review of 'the problem'. Your presentation is likely to propose a solution; it is important that everyone accepts and understands that there is a problem in the first place. Where possible, illustrate your points with evidence (of varying types). This is particularly important if you are about to be contentious. The audience can argue with your conclusions if they see no evidence. If you have no evidence to back your claims they have every reason to dismiss your arguments.

5. Present 'the solution'

The splitting of a presentation between problem and solution makes the structure visible to the audience. At all points the recommendations (the solution) needs to refer back to the stated problems. Present a range of possible 'solutions' prior to concentrating on that which your researches favour, taking care to explain why the others have been dismissed as inappropriate.

Page 89

Effective Team Leadership Your solution should include the benefits, practicability and cost effectiveness of the solution. Depending on how popular your conclusions and proposals are you may decide to take a direct approach, by stating them at the beginning of the presentation.

6. Summarise
Do not hesitate to repeat yourself in summary form. People will be struggling to keep up with you and it provides a method to help them organise the data you have been presenting. Your summaries also act as signposts for the various stages in the argument.

7. Confirm that the objective has been achieved

Blow your own trumpet. Remind the audience of the immensity of the task you have set yourself and that your recommendations are therefore a real achievement.

Seek acceptance of your solution

Confirm the objective and make a call to action amongst your audience. Ask for questions in a positive way, as if acknowledging that the original quality of your presentation is bound to throw up some argument.

The 3 C's
Contact
The argument will only be as strong as your understanding of the audience. So it is vital to:
Profile your audience (age, level, reasons for being there, etc.) Define their professional and personal needs Project the potential barriers/objections they are likely to have to you and your argument

Control
Based on your proposed content and the definition of your audience, attempt to create a strong structure that means your presentation is well controlled.

Confirmation
Using our model of the sales presentation, this is the most critical phase. It is when the argument is proved by the simple `yes' or `no' that signifies the customer's willingness to buy. If we are not prepared for this level of scrutiny then we are clearly not confident in our presentation.

Page 90

Effective Team Leadership The confirmation process will vary by type of presentation. Presentation Sales Presentation Training session Musical performance Telling jokes Dramatic performance Confirmation Buying signals, commitment to buy Level of participation, role-plays, test Level of attention, Dancing, Applause Laughter Rapt attention, applause

From Written to Spoken

Many presentations will involve written material to be given to the audience. This could be in the form of anything from handouts to a full report. There are two rules: 1 2 Dont read out your written material Dont give it to them physically until you have given it to them verbally

The options are:

1 2 3 4 A word-for-word script Cue cards OHPs/35mm slides No script

Scripts
Scripts have their place in the tightly disciplined world of the TV or radio presentation. Both media are very impatient of the slightest fluffs and take time very seriously. The environment is also very predictable. For a group presentation that may involve feedback from the audience a script can cut the speaker off from them. If an interruption does occur the change in style is obvious and the speaker can have difficulty finding their place. The biggest danger with a script is that it sounds precisely that - a completely predetermined and robot like presentation that might have been better recorded earlier and simply played to the audience.

Page 91

Effective Team Leadership

Cue Cards
When you see a speaker holding a small stack of cue cards you know you are about to hear a properly structured, timed and honest presentation. Each 6" X 4" card will have the main points that the speaker wishes to make - plus reminders of anecdotes or evidence to back up their argument. Easy to prepare, they can be reshuffled or edited if the logical order or timing needs to be reconsidered.

LCD/OHPs/35mm slides
These are an element of visual aids for the audience, but they are also aids for the speaker. They will reflect the information that is on cue cards because good visual aids tend to be a bullet point reflection of the speaker's argument. For a speaker using OHPs, notes on the paper copy of each slide provides a useful set of cue cards. When using 35mm slides, cue cards remain essential (one per slide) so you know what is on the slide without looking and can also plan ahead for the next point before the actual slide appears.

No script
Learn from the professionals. Radio and TV presenters may appear to be talking `ad lib', but in reality they have scripts, cue cards and autocues to keep them on course. The speaker who can talk brilliantly at the drop of a hat exists, but they are often recycling old material or merely exponents of rhetoric.

Visual Aids
The advantages of Visual Aids are that they: Grab the audience's attention Provide variety Are memorable Save time in the presentation Explain graphically Promote structure of the argument Take pressure off the speaker

Page 92

Effective Team Leadership However, they can also:

Take time and money to produce Distract the audience Intervene between speaker and audience

For Powerpoint OHPs and 35mm slides the rules are simple: 1 Pictures are better than words When using words.. 2 3 4 5 Heading plus 4 to 5 bullet points Maximum 7 words per line Main points only, avoid detail Use quotations, statistics

Live examples, models, displays are very memorable but can be inconvenient and highly distracting. Use them with care. Finally, when time is short the flip chart is very effective. Pages can be prepared before delegates arrive or key words and diagrams put up as required.

The Speaking Environment

Shortcomings in accommodation will always be blamed on the speaker, so it is important to do what you can to make the environment as suitable as possible.

Layout
Different table/chair layouts suit different types of activity. Generally a wide but shallow audience arrangement works better. You are never far away from anyone. Visual Aids should be positioned so they can be seen by everyone and in such a way that trailing wires do not threaten to trip you up.

Equipment
Equipment should be ordered well in advance and checked. Make sure you know how to use it and that consumables such as bulbs (for OHPs) or pens (for flip charts) are plentiful. In the age of the LCD data projector, it still pays to have 'hard copy' acetates should the computer fail you.

Page 93

Effective Team Leadership

General Environment
Ventilation and heating are important. Too little of the first and too much of the latter will guarantee your audience a painless session with you. But they will not recall a thing. Distractions fall into the categories of avoidable and unavoidable. Interruptions from messengers with notes for members of the audience can seem unavoidable but judicious briefing will ensure these wait until break times. The noise of cooling fans can be removed by remembering to switch off equipment when not in use. Arrive early - give yourself time for major scene shifting, in addition to last minute rehearsals. Even if you have the environment inflicted upon you by others, you must assert your right to alter it to suit your presentation.

Skills of Persuasion
The hypnotic style of mass oratory as used by dictators, trade unionists and religious leaders has no place in the type of presentation most of us will be called on to make. This will come as a great relief to us all. Instead, the skills of persuasion can be boiled down to a few simple rules.

1. Objectives
Make your objectives clear at the start and restate them again at the end. If you want someone to change their viewpoint, do not be afraid to tell them.

2. Credibility
Make your assertions credible and always back them up with evidence to add authority to your argument. This can be an anecdote, statistics or a famous quotation.

3. Level of appeal
Appeal firstly to the habits of your audience. Your ideas are more likely to gain acceptance if they fit in with the general beliefs of your listener. Appeal secondly to their emotions to convince them that your surprising and uncomfortable ideas really have merit. You should only appeal to their intellect as a last resort. Remember that there are very few people brave enough to make decisions that actually run counter to their self-interest.

Page 94

Effective Team Leadership

Handling Objections
If your presentation is to say anything worthwhile there will be objections to it. You have two options:
Pretend the counter arguments do not exist and pray your audience do not think of them Raise the objections and eliminate them as part of your presentation

The latter route is by far the safest and is a good discipline for testing the soundness of your argument.

Stagecraft
The Initial Impression
Your rehearsed and structured introduction will give you the confidence to begin. Standing up and smiling at the audience will alert them that you are ready to begin and they will settle down. Be courteous and never show impatience with your audience - they will react like an angry mob if you do.

Reach out to them

A good trick with an audience you do not know is to ask them questions to which a show of hands will signify response. This tells them you are interested in them and their attitudes. Talk to individuals at the far corners; allow yourself to make eye contact for a few seconds rather than continually roaming across the sea of faces.

Movement and Gesture

Be more expansive with your gestures and do not be afraid to move about. However, these should always seem deliberate movements rather than the restless agitation or nervous fiddling.

Voice
Check with a colleague that you are speaking loud enough to be heard at the back. Try to sound enthusiastic and interested in your subject. Pause after making key points to give emphasis.

Humour
Humour can make or break your presentation. Test reaction with a witty remark rather than a shaggy dog story. If the reaction is favourable, you may risk a joke. If it isn't then you have suffered no major embarrassment.

Handling Questions
The successful salesperson enjoys being asked questions. Questions are buying signals that say: 'I will buy if you can answer this.' Some questions can seem like an attack on you, but these can be turned to

Page 95

Effective Team Leadership your advantage - as we shall see. The method for handling questions within a presentation is as follows:

Policy
Your policy on questions and interruptions will vary depending on the type of presentation you are making. In a tutorial/workshop the style is interactive and questions will be welcome throughout. In a lecture style presentation, you may wish to save them to the end. The audience will be willing to accept your policy - as long as you tell them what it is! When you provide a question time at the end, it may be worth planting a question with a friendly member of the audience to get the ball rolling.

Attitude
Always be positive about questions, regardless of how tricky they are. You should be honest when a question is a tough one, but nevertheless not appear defensive or unwilling to answer it. If you do not have the facts you need, say so but imply that you are certainly able to find them.

Listen
Let your questioners ask their questions in full. This ensures you do not misinterpret the query and also give you more time to formulate your answer. You will also appear magnanimous. Don't let someone else add a supplementary to the question - otherwise you will be torn between which question to answer. If a single question contains more than one part, answer them in the order you find most useful.

Summarise & repeat

Other people in the audience may not hear or understand the question, so you should always summarise and repeat it. This also enables you to turn the question into something you can answer.

Be aware of questioner's motives

Be aware of the hidden agenda behind a question. You may want to make reference to it in your summary repetition and so bring the true question to the surface.

Your answer
Make your answer concise. Don't use it as an opportunity to begin another lecture. Everyone should have a chance to ask his or her question so there is no need to spend a lot of time in a dialogue with a single questionnaire.

Page 96

Effective Team Leadership

Handling awkward questions

There are a number of ways to handle a deliberately awkward question. If someone is trying to trick you, then you are entitled to use tricks to answer them. The other members of the audience will probably be on your side - don't worry!

Summarise & repeat to highlight the silliness of the question Say `Yes, but what is the real question?' Make a point and claim forcefully that it answers the question Answer `YES' or `NO' and move rapidly on to the next question

] And remember
'All the great speakers were bad speakers once' Emerson, The Conduct of Life, 1860

Page 97