Land use changes and conservation threats in the eastern SelousNiassa wildlife corridor, Nachingwea, Tanzania

Wilbard A. Ntongani1*, Pantaleo K. T. Munishi2 and Bonifas P. Mbilinyi3

Department of Forest Biology, Sokoine University of Agriculture, PO Box 3010, Morogoro, Tanzania, 2Department of Forest Biology, Sokoine University of Agriculture, PO Box 3010, Morogoro, Tanzania and 3Department of Agricultural Engineering and Land Planning Sokoine, University of Agriculture, PO Box 3000, Morogoro, Tanzania
1

Abstract
SelousNiassa miombo woodland ecosystem has been and continues to face conservation threats. Understanding of changes happening in such ecosystem overtime is important for establishing management baseline data. This study identied land use changes, socio-economic factors and conservation threats to the SelousNiassa wildlife corridor across Nachingwea district, Tanzania. Landsat images of 1978, 1993 and 2000 were used to assess land use changes. Household survey was conducted to obtain socioeconomic data; logistic regression model was used to analyse the data. In 15 years (19781993) cultivated land only increased by 131% while forestlands decreased by 8.7%. In 12 years (19932005) cultivated land increased by 65.6% while forestland decreased by 10.7%. Land cover change per year has been found 0.54% relatively low compared to national land cover change of 45% per year. Land tenure, shifting cultivation and crops prices were major factors inuencing land use changes while wildres, farm encroachment and illegal timber harvesting were major conservation threats. Basing on the results, it was recommended that there is a need for a government to introduce community-based natural resource management plans to improve natural resource utilization and reduce human stress to the corridor. Key words: corridor, land, miombo ecosystem, Nachingwea, threats

pour sa gestion. Cette etude identie des changements dutilisation des sols, des facteurs socioeconomiques et des risques qui menacent la conservation du corridor pour la faune sauvage de Selous-Niassa, dans le district de Nachingwea, en Tanzanie. Des images Landsat de 1978, 1993 et 2000 ont ete utilisees pour evaluer les changements dutilisation des terres. On a realise une etude dans les foyers pour obtenir des donnees socioeconomiques et on a ` utilise un modele de regression logistique pour analyser les donnees. En quinze ans (1978-1993), les terres cultivees seules se sont etendues de 131% alors que les forets per daient 8,7%. En 12 ans (1993-2005), les terres cultivees ont gagne 65,6% alors que les forets etaient reduites de 10,7%. On a decouvert que le changement de couverture vegetale etait de 0,54% par an, relativement faible par rapport au changement national de couverture vegetale qui est de 45% par an. Le droit foncier, lagriculture itin erante et le prix des denrees recoltees etaient les facteurs qui inuencaient le plus les changements dutilisation des ` sols alors que les feux sauvages, lempietement des fermes et les coupes illegales de grumes etaient les principales menaces pour la conservation. En se fondant sur ces resultats, on a recommande que le gouvernement introduise des plans communautaires de gestion des res sources naturelles an dameliorer lutilisation des ressources naturelles et de reduire le stress humain exerce sur le corridor.

Resume
` ` La conservation de lecosysteme forestier a miombo de Selous-Niassa est menacee depuis longtemps. Il est important de comprendre les changements que subit cet ` ecosysteme avec le temps pour etablir des donnees de base
*Correspondence: E-mail: ntongani26@yahoo.com

Introduction
The concerns about land use and land cover change globally emerged due to realization that change of nature of land surface inuence climate and those changes have impact on ecosystem, goods and services that are derived from it (Turner et al., 1990; Turner, Meyer & Skole, 1994;

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Lambin, Geist & Lepers, 2003). One of the important land use change is that the worlds forests, grasslands and woodlands have declined, the cropped land areas have expanded in the same magnitude (Skole & Tucker, 1993; Slayback, 2003). Tanzanias ecosystems have been vulnerable at the expense of human driving forces like demand of land for agriculture, pasture, logging, charcoal making and mining (Kideghesho, 2001; Ogungo & Njuguna, 2004). Land use changes along wildlife corridors have been said to cause negative impacts on corridors in northern Tanzania. Noe (2003) studied land use changes and their impacts on wildlife corridor between Mount Kilimanjaro and Amboseli National Park, Tanzania and found that settlements and agriculture expanded into wildlife grazing and dispersal areas which reduced the actual size of the corridor from approximately 21 km2 in 1952 to approximately 5 km2 in 2001, changed the number of migration routes, animal numbers and distribution in the corridor. Kideghesho (2002) revealed the emergence of agriculture, mining and small business enterprise in the wildlife corridor between Lake Manyara National Park and Tarangire National Park, which blocked wildlife movement from one park to another. The former common land use was pastoralism. The current land uses are not compatible with wildlife and biodiversity conservation and they pose threats that contribute notable progressive decline in ecological value of landscapes to support wildlife in the corridor. SelousNiassa miombo woodland provides an important biological link between Selous game reserve, largest protected area in eastern and central Africa recognized as a world heritage site and habitat to Africas largest elephant, buffalo, sable and other wildlife populations, and the Niassa game reserve of Mozambique, one of Mozambiques largest protected area and very famous for its large elephant population (Hofer et al., 2004). In spite of its importance, it has been observed in recent years that there is a persisting problem of uncontrolled encroachment and wildres in the corridor and movement of people from formal villages to informal settlements. The distribution of elephant movements in Selous Niassa miombo ecosystem has been documented (Mpanduji et al., 2002; Hofer et al., 2004). However, the extent of land use changes overtime in the corridor was not yet established either in part of the corridor or whole area of the corridor. Thus, the study identied different land use changes and possible causes of identied changes in the corridor for about 30 years ago and explained causal effect

relationship behind the effect of human disturbances on miombo ecosystem and nally provided a base for developing a sustainable utilization and management of the natural resources for improving social and economic benets at local and national levels.

Materials and methods

Study site The study was conducted in Nachingwea District, Lindi Region where the eastern part of SelousNiassa wildlife corridor crosses the district heading to Masasi district thereafter crossing Ruvuma river to Niassa Game Reserve in Mozambique (Fig. 1). The corridor is referred to as Selous Masasi corridor. The selection of the study area was motivated by Selous and Niassa conservation potentialities with regard to wildlife and miombo ecosystem of the region. The land use and land cover assessment were carried out at the width of 40 km along the wildlife corridor crossing Nachingwea district where all land use changes found in the 20 km to the Eastern part of the corridor and 20 km to the Western part of the corridor were assessed.

Materials Materials used in the study were Landsat MSS of 10 August, 1978 spatial resolution of 79 m 79m, Landsat5 TM imagery of May, 1993 and Landsat7 ETM+ of 29 May, 2000 both with resolution of 30 m 30 m (Jensen, 1996). Topographical maps with scale of 1 : 50,000 were used for georeferencing Landsat scenes. Global positioning system (GPS) was used in land use cover map verication and updating land use land cover map to include land use patterns up to year 2005.

Methodology An extensive review of secondary information about land use change in wildlife corridors and others on research methodologies were reviewed. Primary data about land use change were obtained from satellite images. Information about qualitative data was collected by interviews using questionnaires; focus group discussion and participant. A random sample of households was selected according to Boyd, Westfall & Stasch (1981) and Lalika, Kajembe & Luoga (2008) where above 5% from sampling population is recommended. A total number of 80

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Tanzania

Selous Eastern corridor

Western corridor Niassa Mozambique

NACHINGWEA Nahimba Kiegei Kilimarondo Matekwe Mbondo

Wildlife corridor Nachingwea district Lake Nyasa Village Nachingwea district boundary Country boundary Game reserves

4000

4000

8000

Miles
Fig 1 Location map of the study site.

households from 1058 households of Matekwe and Mbondo villages were selected for interview. The questionnaires were addressed to extract information like demand of forest resources, farm expansion, price of agricultural products, households size, livestock, and immigration, land right, knowledge of land cover change, farm productivity and level of education, sex, marital status and others. The enhanced images in ERDAS Imagine Software were exported in Arcview GIS 3.3 for interpretation. The image analysis extension in Arcview helped to sharpen more features for better visual identication of features of greatest interest in the study area. Different land cover categories were extracted using photo texture. False colour composite was formed using red, green and blue (RGB) for band 4, 3, 2. On screen digitization procedure was used in identifying land. The analysis of land cover in the wildlife corridor was carried out in an area covering a total of 201,476.7 ha and the area was stretched to include bigger area to cover village land bordering the corridor to relate socio-economic

factors inuencing land cover changes along and within the corridor. The change detection was performed through overlay method basing on generated vector themes of different years. The change detection was carried out between datasets of 19781993 and 19932005 years. The overlay was performed by intersecting of feature themes so that the boundaries and attributes of themes were combined to form the derivative output theme. The attribute tables of the output themes were summarized in denition tables and results were exported in MS Excel Package to compile areas of change for each information category. For the purpose of this study, land use cover was classied according to Msilanga (2004) forest cover was referred to land spanning more than 0.5 ha with trees higher than 5 m and a canopy cover of more than 10%. Wooded land was referred to land with trees spanning more than 0.5 ha with trees higher than 5 m and a canopy cover between 5% and 10%. Open woodland included area with trees canopy cover above 10% able to reach height of ve at maturity. Bushed grassland was used to include land with mixed cover of

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shrubs and grasses excluding land under agriculture, settlement and scrub. The information collected using participatory rural appraisal was analysed by the help of the participants through focus group discussions and the results were communicated back to them for conrmation and verication. Content and structural-functional analysis approaches were used to analyse qualitative information. According to Singleton, Staits & Straits (1993), content analysis is a set of techniques for analysing the symbolic content of any communication. The basic idea is to reduce the total content of communication to some set of categories that represent some characteristics of research interest. Through this approach, the information gathered using verbal discussions with the key informants were recorded and broken down into small meaningful units of information. Kajembe (1994) recommends this technique in explaining the way how social facts relate each other in a social system and the way they relate to the natural physical environment. The descriptive and inferential statistics were carried out. Kajembe (1994) reported that the inferential statistics provide an idea on whether the patterns explained in the sample population are likely to apply to the population from which the samples were taken. The logistic regression model was used in analyzing inferential statistics. Regression model: Yi 1=1 ez where Yi = ith probability of event to occur for the dependent variable (land cover change as aggregate of households land sizes in the study area), binary variable of 1 if there is a change and 0 other wise. The linear combination: Zi b0 bX1 bX2 ::: bkXk e Zi = the ith observed value of the independent variables. bb0 = the constant term of the model without the independent variables. b1 to bk = independent variables coefcients estimates from data showing marginal effects (whether negative or positive) of the unit change in the independent variables on the dependent variable. e = a natural logarithm base approximately 2.718. i =1, 2, 3, , k where k is a total number of variables X1 to xk = independent variables (socio-economic factors). The probability of not to occur was estimated as: Probability of no event = 1-probability of event. The hypotheses tested in this study were:

(H0): b = 0 Implied that the regression coefcients are equal to zero and thus no correlations between dependent (land use change) and independent variables (socio-economic factors). (Hi): b 0 implied that the regression coefcients are not equal to zero and thus there is either a positive or negative correlation between dependent (household land size land use change) or independent variables.

Results
The interpretation of satellite images, ground truthing, map preparations and computations of land use cover areas revealed that in 1978 open woodland dominated the area by covering 38.8% followed by scrubland 27.7%, closed woodlands 17%, forest 11.3%, cultivated land 3.1%, grasslands 0.9%, and settlements 0.7% and bushed grasslands 0.4% while the earth dam occupied 0.0003% %0% of the total area. On the other hand, in 1993 open woodland continued to occupy the largest area of 36.8% followed by scrubland 27%, closed woodlands 14.4%, semi-evergreen forest 10.3%, cultivated land 7.3%, grass 0.9%, settlement 0.8%, bushed grassland 2.4% and the lowest cover remained the earth dam occupied. During this period closed woodlands, semi-evergreen forests decreased in area while cultivated land settlements and bushed grassland increased in area. Furthermore, in year 2005 open woodlands decreased in terms of coverage from previous 36.8% to 34.9% of the total area but it continued to take the lead in coverage of the area followed by scrubland 25.1%, bushed grassland 11.8%, cultivated 10.6%, semiever green forest 9.2%, closed woodland 5.4%, grassland 1.7% and earth dam occupied 0.0003% %0%. The calculation of amount of percentage change was based on initial values of individual land use classes for year 1978 and 1993. For instance, in 19781993 bushed grassland increased by 658%, cultivated increased by 131%, settlements increased by 22.9% while forest decreasing by 8.7%. In 19932005, bushed grassland increased by 64.2%, cultivated increased by 65.6%, settlements increased by 67.9% while forest decreasing by 10.7%. Table 1, Figs 2 and 3 show land use changes that have taken place for about 30 years ago. Signicance of socio-economic drivers for land use changes along the wildlife corridor was tested by using logistic regression model, three parameters out of seven were found statistically signicant at (P<0.05). Land tenure, shifting cultivation and cash crop prices were

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statistically signicant at (P<0.05) while level of education, population migration, forest products and farm productivity were not signicant drivers Table 2. On the other hand, communitys perceptions on threats along the corridor in Table 3 indicated that wildres ranked 65%, encroachment 15%, illegal timber harvesting 10%, poles cutting 6% and re wood collection 4%.

Discussion
Agriculture expansion is among reported activities, which have signicant effect on natural vegetation change (Mbonile, Misana & Sokoni, 2003; Noe, 2003). This might have been caused by increase in human demand on land for subsistence agriculture. The expansion of cultivated land for subsistence purposes towards adjacent existing natural vegetation has also been reported by Kideghesho (2001), Mbonile et al. (2003), Ogungo & Njuguna (2004) and Campbell et al. (2003). The same case of agricultural activities was found to expand and changed land cover in Kitendeni wildlife corridor between Amboseli National Park and mount Kilimanjaro were used as area for grazing and wildlife (Noe, 2003). Furthermore, the introduction of Structural Adjustment Programmes in the countrys economy in 1990s where trade liberalization reforms went hand in hand with removal of farm input subsidies is likely to have contributed to changes in the study area. Mbonile et al. (2003) and Msambichaka, Kilindo & Mjema (1995) agree that removal of subsidies on farm inputs in this period had impact on land resource use. Farmers had to choose traditional extensive agriculture, which caused land use changes. On the other hand trade liberalization opened up competitive markets for agricultural products which raised

KEY

Wildlife corridor Sharpen Landsat MSS, August, 1978 :Layer_4 :Layer_3 :Layer_2

Fig 2 Satellite image 1978.

prices. Attractive prices in cashew nuts in the study area attracted people to acquire more land. The eld survey indicated that cashew nuts and simsim prices have been increasing since 1990s to date and it has led every adult and energetic household member to engage in cultivating cashew nuts and simsim crops, which have created a demand of more land for cultivation. The entrance of more numbers of people in agriculture will always require new land acquisition where the most vulnerable areas are miombo ecosystems. The inuence of price on farm expansion was also observed in Kilimanjaro by Noe (2003) due to commercialization and trade liberalization, which caused prices of crops like wheat and maize to rise.

Table 1 Land use cover distribution in hectares for 1978, 1993 and 2005 Year Class Bushed grassland Closed woodland Cultivated Earth dam Forest Grassland Open woodland Scrub Settlement Total 1978 Area 868.5 34,318.50 6286.10 7.8 22,803.90 1782.10 78,272.90 55,763.20 1373.70 201,476.70 % 0.4 17 3.1 %0.0 11.3 0.9 38.8 27.7 0.7 100 1993 Area 6588.90 29,039.80 14,579 7.8 20,824.70 115.7 73,648.40 54,983.90 1688.50 201,476.70 % 3.3 14.4 7.2 %0.0 10.3 0.1 36.6 27.3 0.8 100 2005 Area 10,820.20 23,635 24,138.60 7.8 18,603 1619.30 69,657.40 50,160.20 2835.10 201,476.60 % 5.4 11.7 12 %0.0 9.2 0.8 34.6 24.9 1.4 100

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Table 2 Logistic regression model analysis of socio-economic factors 95% CI for Ex(b) Variable Education Land tenure Shifting cultivation Cash crop prices Population migration Forest products Farm productivity Constant b )1.075 1.795 3.164 1.994 0.911 1.166 1.496 )3.372 SE 1.349 .906 1.547 0.625 0.765 0.861 1.443 0.887 Wald 0.635 3.925 4.181 10.182 1.417 1.834 1.076 14.454 df 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Sig. 0.426ns 0.048* 0.041* 0.001*** 0.234ns 0.176ns 0.300ns 0.000 Ex(b) 0.341 6.021 23.657 7.344 2.486 3.209 4.466 0.034 Lower 0.024 1.019 1.140 2.158 0.555 0.594 0.264 Upper 4.804 35.568 490.889 24.994 11.139 17.351 75.487

Model Chi-square, 31.883; Degree of freedom, 7,-2; Log likelihood, 67.49; Overall percentage, 80% Number of cases, 80; ns, statistically not signicant at 0.05 level of signicance; b, Regression coefcients which stand for the odds ratio of probability of success to the probability of failure. SE, standard error of the estimate; Wald statistics, [b SE]2; df, degree of freedom; Sig, signicance level; *signicant; **more signicant; ***most signicant; Ex (b), eb where e = 2.718.

The continuous increase in land use changes is also reected in an increased area under settlements. Settlements expansion has an implication on increase in population size; as a result demand for more resources and area for cultivation and other economic activities. In this period of about 30 years, three new villages emerged in the area. The villages that were formed include Nakalonji, Namatunu and Majonanga. This situation expanded the boundaries of cultivated area towards the natural vegetation of the corridor resulting into narrowing the width of the wildlife corridor. The emergence of new settlements in wildlife corridors has been reported in other studies to have adverse impact on natural land cover and wildlife habitat (Noe, 2003). Increased trend of establishing new settlements and farms might have been caused by unstable land tenure, where land is obtained without any permit from existing local authority and land owned is not registered or under any local regulations prevailing at local level.

The business of timber harvest has been encouraged by existence of an all weather road from the study area to other parts of the district and neighbouring districts like Masasi. Although pitsawing is not supposed to affect vegetation if is properly managed due to the fact that felling of trees will include mature and permitted number of trees (Munishi, SHEAR & Temu, 2003). Field surveys showed that very rare loggers get permission from authorities responsible for resource management for resources falling under villages or public land except in forest reserves. However, the overall rate of land

Table 3 Ranking of community perceptions on environment threats No. of Respondents 52 12 8 5 3 80 % of respondents 65 15 10 6 4 100

Threat Wildres Encroachment farming Illegal timber harvesting Poles cutting Fire wood collection Total

Ranking 1 2 3 4 5

KEY

Wildlife coridor Sharpen Landsat ETM,2000 :Layer_4 :Layer_3 :Layer_2

Fig 3 Satellite image May 2000.

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use cover change is relatively low 1078 ha (0.54%) per year in the corridor while the country land cover change of forests including the miombo woodlands is estimated at 91,000 ha per year (Ministry of Natural Resources, 2002), this is equivalent to 45% forest cover change in the area. If two rates are compared it can be said that land cover change has been fairly low for the past 30 years. This situation calls for the need of rapid resource assessment in other parts of the country to understand changes happening in such ecosystems. The occurrence of land use changes in areas adjacent to the Selous Niassa wildlife corridor across Nachingwea district has not only reduced wildlife habitat that is rich in plant species like Dalbergia melanoxylon, Milicia excelsa and Pterocarpus angolensis but also may result into blockage of wildlife movement from either part in future if the situation is left unattended. Therefore, the government needs to introduce community-based natural resource management in villages bordering the corridor to dene and use forests and wildlife areas sustainably.

Acknowledgements
We thank the administration of Africa Forest Research Network (AFORNET) for nancing this work. We also thank Trasias Kagenzi who was the District Executive Director for accepting to carry out this study in Nachingwea district. We thank Matekwe and Mbondo village governments for the assistance they provided during the household data survey. We thank Vedast Makota for GIS technical advice. Finally, we thank Elias Tindyebwa for proof reading this paper.

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