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10666
20. JUll
KWH
Ma,
an
High-Purity
Distillation Column
degree
of
presented by
HANS-EUGEN MUSCH
accepted
on
the recommendation of
Prof. M.
Steiner, examiner
Prof. Dr. D. W. T.
Rippin,
co-examiner
1994
Leer
Vide
Empty
To my
grandparents
Acknowledgments
was
written
during my years
as a
Laboratory
persons
at the
opportunity
this project.
to
thank the
numerous
who
have
supported
gratitude
are
to Prof. M. Steiner. He
arranged this
to
overcome
Many
clarity.
thanks
essentially
its
numerous
suggestions
mentioned.
gave rise to
important contributions
never lost her patience with my never ending questions concerning the English language. Without her willingness to correct the manuscript,
the choice of the English language for this thesis would have been
impossible.
Content
Symbols
Abstract
13
15
Kurzfassung
17
Introduction
"Modern Control:
19
1.1 1.2
19 21
21 21
Distillation
as a
unit
operation example
Earlier research
Robust control and nonlinear
plants
22 22
1.3 1.4
23 26
References
An Industrial
2.1
Example
29 29
Introduction Column
2.2
29
32
2.3
2.4
Steady-state behavior
Composition dynamics
Control
2.5.1
35 37 39 40
2.5
problem
2.5.2
2.6
Tray temperatures
2.6.1
as
controlled outputs
41 42
Pressure-compensated temperatures
2.6.2
2.7
Temperature
measurement
placement
44 45
References
Distillation Columns
3.1
Introduction
Conventions
3.2 3.3
3.4
The
objective
of modelling
48
48
Simplifying assumptions
Balance
3.5.1
3.5.2
3.5
equations
51
51
52
Material balances
3.6
Fluid
3.6.1
dynamics
55
rates
Liquid flow
Pressure
55 57
59 59 60
3.6.2
3.7
drop
Phase
3.7.1
equilibrium
Vapor phase composition Boiling points
3.7.2
3.8
Volumetric
3.8.1 3.8.2
properties
60
61 61
PVT relations
Density
3.9
Enthalpies
3.10.1 The
62 63
63 66
3.10.2 Formal
representation
of the DAE
66
67 71 74
Notation
References
Linear Models
77 77
4.1
Introduction
How to linearize the
4.2.1 4.2.2
4.2
rigorous model?
78 78 80
80
The state,
4.3
Linearization of a
4.3.1
4.3.2
The
simplified model
80
84
Analytical linearization
4.4
86 86 88
89
4.5
Comparison of the
4.5.1
89
92
4.5.2 4.6
4.7
Singular values
Order reduction
94 96
97 101 101
102
Summary
4.8
4.9
Scalar values
4.10 References
103
A Structured
Uncertainty Model
105
105 106
Introduction
Limits of
uncertainty models
Input uncertainty
Model
5.4.1
107
110 110
uncertainty
Column
nonlinearity
dynamics
5.4.2
Unmodelled
117
Measurement uncertainty
118
Specification of the
controller
performance
Summary
References
|0,-Optimal
Controller
Design
123
123
6.1
6.2
6.3
The
design model
130
133 134 137 137
148
6.4
6.4.2 6.4.3
6.5
structures
...
149
6.5.2
6.5.3
156 161
164
decoupling
6.6
Summary
References
6.7
166
Controller
Design
for
Unstructured Uncertainty
A
Comparison
169
7.1 7.2
Introduction
Diagonal Pl-control
7.2.1
11
7.2.2
172 174
177 182 187 187
Pi-control with
decoupling
H optimal design
Summary
References
8 8.1
Feedforward Controller
Design
Introduction
The
8.2
design problem
The
8.2.1 8.2.2
design objective
or
One-step
two-step design?
8.3 8.4
8.5 8.6
Hro-minimization
Optimization approach
Summary
References
9 9.1 9.2
Practical
Experiences
203
203
204
Introduction
Controller implementation
Composition
Controller
estimators
207
performance
208
214
Economic aspects
Summary
214
10
Conclusions and
Recommendations
217
10.1
Introduction
217
12
10.2 10.3
10.4
Controller
synthesis
or
218 219
220 221
State-space
PID control?
10.5 10.6
Recommendations
10.6.1 Academic research
Cooperation industryuniversity
Curriculum vitae
225
Symbols
8
A
operating point
8
k
Condition number,
ov
ind.x
/o_.
nun
X (j, p
a
Eigenvalue
Structured
singular value
B D d
e
product
stream
(mol/s)
or
diagonal scaling
matrix
signals
Control
error
(mol/s)
7t
G(s)
Gu
I
signals
to
output signals
Identity matrix
Controller Reflux (mol/s) Joint
K(s)
L0
M
P
p
(P, K)
^(P, K)
Weighted plant
Pressure
(N/m2)
Reference
signals
=
Se(s)
[I [I
G (s) K (s) ]
-1
Su(s)
T
Su(s)
K(s)G(s)]_1
Tr
u
signals
to
output signals
Control
signals
V51
W(s)
w(s)
xrj xg xF
y
Boilup (mol/s)
composition (mol/mol)
Output signals
15
Abstract
are
difficult to
strongly
within
nonlinear behavior.
a
are
operated
necessary to
as
well
as
high
a new
composition control
distillation column
design,
column,
operating
an
example of
designs by |x-synthesis
or
controllers robustness
are
distinguished by
high
controller
guaranteed for
enables the
the u-optimal
tuning
The
can
be
improved
design
design design
yields
be
employed.
representing the
outstanding
of state-space controllers
by Hm -minimization
or an
control structures
by parameter optimization
working
in
an
industrial environment
are
conscious
high
16
lers in
on
controller
PID
or
industrial
tures is
expected
lag significantly
behind the
performance of highperformances of
controllers,
detected.
are
simple implementation
significant
The
loss of controller
performance.
schemes
confirmed by the
on a
implementation
of
an
advanced PID
control scheme
more
expended.
17
Kurzfassung
Bekanntermafien sind Rektifikationskolonnen mit hohen Produktreinheiten wegen ihres schlecht konditionierten und stark nichtlinearen Verhaltens
Bereich
schwierig
was
zu
Zulaufkonzentrationen
und
-mengen
betrieben,
Dennoch
ist
eine
gute
notwendig,
zustellen.
um
einerseits einen
Produktqualitaten sicher-
neuen
von
Konzentrationsregelungen,
Rektifikationskolonne
einer
berucksichtigt.
Am
Beispiel
einer industriellen
binaren Rektifikationskolonne wird ein strukturiertes Unsicherheitsmodell entwickelt, welches das nichtlineare dynamische Verhalten der Rektifikationskolonne
durch mehrere
Modell-Unsicherheiten
bildet
die
Basis
gut
den
beschreibt.
Entwurf von
Dieses
Unsicherheitsmodell
fur
Reglern mittels u-Synthese oder u-Optimierung. Die resulzeichnen sich durch eine
-
tierenden
Regler
aus.
hohe
Zustandsregelungen
Einstel-
lungen
Die
fur erweiterte
PID-Regelstrukturen.
bereits
zufriedenstellende
Unterdriickung
von
Storungen
der
Zulaufmenge
Storgrofienaufschaltung
Konzepte
bei
von
Storgrossenaufschaltungen,
dem
Storgrossenaufschaltungen
18
von
Storgroflenaufschaltungen
Schwierigkeiten, die
dezentralen
Daher ist der
terten
mit der
Zustandsregelungen auf
ProzelJleitsystemen
von
PID-Regelstrukturen
Regelgiite hinter
der
von
Zustandsregelungen
entworfenen
schrittenen
deutlich zuriick.
Zustandsregelungen Regelstrukturen,
und die
mit einfachen
entsprechenden unkonventionellen
eine
Regler-Einstellungen vorausgesetzt,
der
von
die
Zustandsregelungen
in dezentralen
nahekommt.
iiberraschende
Implementierung
erweiterten PID-
Regelstrukturen
Verlust
Die
an
ProzelJleitsystemen
ohne wesentlichen
Regelgiite.
eines
Erprobung
Regelungsentwurfs
an
auf der
Grundlage fortRektifikations
in der
geschrittener
kolonne
PID-Strukturen
der
industriellen
Wirtschaftlichkeit,
Projekt notwendige
gerechtfertigt ist.
Why
19
Chapter
Introduction
Why
paper written
by R.
based
process models
can
in broad
classes of
process ments
application. Yet,
in
demanding
better
can
in the
appreciably."
changed. The modern control theo
provide
a
tools for
these controllers
tuned
are
usually
use
publications.
Neverthe PID
can
less,
be
more
loops
in the process
industry
few
applications
are
discussed
below.
20
1 Introduction
place
hardware
a
problem.
His
configuration of
modern DCS
are
DCS,
an
implementation
coupling with
requires
either the
an
external computer
are
or
the programming of
troublesome and
to this
(e.g.,
Dynamic Models
Linear
dynamic models
design. However,
on
are
no
the
foundation
of
modern, robust
are
controller unit
general dynamic
models
available for
must be devel
or on
oped,
system
expensive and
very time-
most
plants
in
the process
show
nonlinear
dynamic
linear model.
to be
significantly
than
one
underestimated. A benchmark
use
of
improved
process control
Group's profits"
[1.1]. Another
study
shows
massive benefits
it is not necessary to
problems
in the process
industry
are
tech
niques for
1.2
Scope
and
significance
of this thesis
21
1.2
Scope
and
significance
as a
of this thesis
1.2.1
Distillation
one
unit
operation example
Distillation is
of the most
case,
feed of
components into
top product
and
a
(with
high
fraction of the
a
low-boiling component)
tion of the flow rate and the feed
bottom
product
In
an
stream
(with
high frac
high-boiling component).
ating conditions.
This
separation
a
consumes a
huge
an
economic
require (1)
streams
product
and
interesting
1.2.2
test
case
design methods.
Earlier research
Without any doubt the distillation process is the most studied unit oper
ation in terms of control.
Skogestad
estimates that
new
papers in this
field appear at
[1.7]. It is
practically
impossible
Waller
to
give
publications.
The interested
Waggoner [1.8],
review of
recent
Skogestad [1.7].
If
we
focus
we
our
interest
on
the
design of linear,
time-invariant control
lers,
control
design
methods
distillation
columns.
one
design
for just
22
1 Introduction
yet.
1.2.3
plants
or
LQG/LTR
tured
are
based
on
the assumption of
at
one a
unstructured, frequency
dependent uncertainty
output,
or an
location in the
plant. Such
at
an
unstruc
or
uncertainty may be
additive
multiplicative uncertainty
plant input
uncertainty.
operating
range of
a
A controller
design
one
distillation
prob
Due to the
an
estimation of unstructured
very
acceptable
controller
design.
any arbitrary, smaller uncertainty performance (RP) and robust stability not for the entire oper
A controller
design using
ating
1.2.4
range.
u-optimization
guarantee robust performance and robust stability for the entire oper
ating
optimal tuning
shown that with these
of
be achieved
even
23
Standard
approaches
Improved approach
Uncertainty
Linear model for
a
model
describing
for entire
column
dynamics
range
operating
Robust control
design
(i-synthesis
(X-optimization
IL LQG/LTR,
Weak
point:
Advantage:
RS & RP for whole
guaranteed
operating range
Figure
design approaches
1.3
A
distillation column
typical
course
is illustrated in
Figure
1.2.
The results and methods of each step influence all the The consideration of just
one
following steps.
of these
steps
are
natural
course
24
1 Introduction
Nonlinear Model
Uncertainty
structure
Controller
synthesis
Nonlinear simulations
Tests
on
plant
Implementation
in DCS
Figure
1.2:
The
following chapter consists of three parts: The first part describes the design and operating data of the distillation column, followed by an
overview of the
for this part discusses the control objectives and control configuration
use
of pressure-compensated
temperatures
as
controlled outputs.
are
They
are
discussed in
Chapter
3.
25
The main
subject of Chapter
are
different methods
neglect
dynamics, respectively.
A structured
operating
range is
developed
in
Chapter
Based
5.
on
that structured
can
be
designed
chapter presents
the
u-
is dedicated to
u-optimal design
In
are
compared
on an
by
more common
design
methods, based
unstructured uncertainty
description.
a
flow rate is
distilla
significantly improve
Chapter
8.
A controller
dynamic simulations but also in the real plant. The results of the prac
tical
implementation
presented
Chapter
9.
The conclusions
Chapter
10
complete
special
notations
are
given
chapter.
26
1 Introduction
1.4 References
[1.1]
241-250 (1993)
M. L. Brisk: "Ben
[1.2]
Marlin,
T.
E., J. D. Perkins, G.
Barton, and
a
joint industry-university
study,"
[1.3]
J. Proc.
Cont, 1,
68-83
(1991)
of Recent Distillation
5-21
McAvoy,
T. J. and Y. H.
Wang, "Survey
Transactions, 25,1,
(1986)
[1.4]
Industry," Proceedings
on
ference
Skogestad,
a
S.:
of Distillation Columns
on
Critical
Dy
1-25
(1992)
[1.8]
Review and
in Instrumen
tation, 35, 1,
[1.9]
Dual
Composition
Con
1.4 References
27
Conference
28
1 Introduction
2.1 Introduction
29
Chapter
Example
2.1 Introduction
A distillation column is not
toaster process
or
just any mass-produced article such as a washing-machine. Each distillation column is a unique
substance mixture.
basic dynamics
always the
same.
column
First in this
chapter,
the
design
and
distillation column
are
outlined, followed by
brief
description
of the
composition dynamics.
objectives,
of tray temperatures
as
2.2 Column
design
and
operation
an
industrial
binary
distillation column. A
synopsis
of the most
important
30
An Industrial
Example
lation column is
given
(Fig. 2.1)
is
equipped
from the
total
condenser, and
on
steam-heated
tray 20 (counted
a
mixture of two
are
impurities, these
a
is considered to be
are
binary distil
product
product
B. As these
can
product purities
as a
relatively high,
this
distillation column
be classified
column."
Table 2.1:
Steady-state
data
Column data
No. of trays
50
0.8
20
=0.4
1.61
Operating
data
0.99
Top
Nominal
pressure
(mbar)
operating point
0.8
33
65 104
L0 (mol/min)
2.2 Column
31
Vacuum
Condenser
D,xD
Reflux accumulator Reflux
Feed
20
F,xp
47 48
49 50
Boilup
Bottom
product
32
An Industrial
Example
Feed disturbances The distillation column is connected in series lation columns, which operate in of these two columns
are
buffered
periodically
(typical period:
composi
are
high at standard
atmo
spheric
vacuum.
Because of
thermal
component
is
at
higher
operated
a vacuum
under
Correspondingly,
cooling
kept
top
pressure is controlled
by
pump.
by overflow. manipulated
Hence the
top
a
product flow
composition
as
variable for
control system.
2.3
Let
e.g.,
Steady-state
us assume a one
behavior
lating
tions
kept perfectly
profile
is
S-shaped composition developed within the distillation column. Figure 2.2 shows the
at their
set-points, and
simulated
composition profiles
steady-state profiles
2.3
Steady-state behavior
33
1i
1ir
xp xp xp
0.9 mol/mol
20 mol/min
F F
33 mol/min
46 mol/min
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Composition (mol/mol)
2.2: Simulated
Figure
34
An Industrial
Example
depend essentially
setpoints,
on
the feed
If we want to
compositions close
tion in the middle
must allow
we
profile
Consequently,
composi
of the column.
can
be illustrated in
similar
manner.
Figure
liquid and
operating
are
point. As
well
as
the feed
boiling point.
profile
at
Liquid Vapor
flow
flow
Figure
liquid
operating point
60
80
100
120
2.4
Composition dynamics
35
therefrom. The
reason
for the
slopes of the
two
ping
and
rectifying
2.4
The
Composition dynamics
composition dynamics within
a
distillation column is
effectively
described
by
movements
and
shape
profile.
In order to illustrate
this, let
us
distillation column
the reboiler heat
by
to
the bottom
product flow
a
B, and let
us
keep
duty
a
step
responses of the
composition profile
rate
are
5% increase and
shown
Consequently,
towards the
to
column
more
decrease
moves
composition profile
product composition.
important properties of the composition
These
plots illustrate
two
dynamics:
Column
are a
nonlinear
function of the
compo
more
sition
by
0.007
mol/mol, but
degrades
it
by
Strong interactions:
change of
reflux
or
product compositions.
The interaction between both
boilup
called
has
a severe
36
An Industrial
Example
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Composition (mol/mol)
a)
Figure
2.4: Simulated
Composition (mol/mol)
b)
composition profiles (light component) duty, feed
flow rate and for
a
step change oi
composition
are
kept
at their
a)
L0=1.05*L0>nom
b)
L0=0.95*L0inom
2.5 Control
37
Ill-conditioned behavior.
This is best
both
explained by another
exact
two
examples. If we like
we
to increase
boilup by
boilup by
+19%
(Figure
keeps composition profile's posi slowly intensifies the S-shape of profile. However a
size for the reflux
(Fig.
of the bottom
faster. Therefore
required
in order to achieve
even
product
purities. Consequently,
[L, V]T may lead
to undesired results.
K.
-.tq> <Jmi{G(jo)))
a
of the
behavior.
2.5 Control
(inventory control)
quality control
Satisfaction of constraints
The first
objective includes the control of the vapor holdup (top pres sure), the reflux accumulator level, and the reboiler level. Generally, objectives
are
these control
The second
PI controllers.
objective
is the most
important objective. It is strongly ecological optimal operation of a distillation product qualities minimizes the
energy
Tight
control of both
amount of products
to
simple task
38
An Industrial
Example
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Composition (mol/mol)
Composition (mol/mol) b)
a)
Figure
2.5: Simulated
step change of
(see
kept
at nominal condition
Table 2.1).
a)
Lo=1.265*L0>nora
b)
L0=1.260*L0,nom
V51=1.19*V51inom
V51=1.19*V51>noln
2.5 Control
objectives
and
configurations
39
as
variations control
Tight composition
main
topic of
pressure
drop
are
damage
of the column.
Each control system must handle such constraints to enable safe opera
tion. This
topic
is well discussed
by Buckley
et al.
[2.4].
2.5.1 A
problem
as
the industrial
here, presents
control
problem
Top composition
Bottom
composition
Reboiler level
Top
pressure
manipulated variables
Reflux
product
flow rate
rate
This
problem
problem. As
mentioned
by
a vacuum
accumulator level
a
by overflow.
problem
is reduced
3x3 control
40
An Industrial
Example
Controlled outputs
Manipulated inputs
Top product
Bottom
xp xB
Reflux L
product
Reboiler level
Mb
product flow
rate B
Condenser level
MD
rate D
Top
pressure p
Vp
rate,
(Cooling
water flow
vacuum
pump)
5x5 control
problem
problems
Figure
2.5.2 In
Control the
principle,
in this
case
problem
does not
one
cause
any
particular difficulties.
disables all control
sensor or
actuator
or sensor
loops. Due
ator
are
to the
high sensitivity
of MIMO controllers to
actu
failure,
composition
control
usually
independently designed, thus improving the robustness of the control system and simplifying the controller design. The corresponding
design approach
1.
In
manipulated variables
names
for the
are
the control
example,
if the top
composition
xrj is controlled
by reflux
2.6
Tray temperatures
as
controlled outputs
41
bottom
composition
variables
xjg is controlled
tion is called
lated
composition
are
remaining
three
manipulated variables
configuration
Relative Gain
Index,
or
ability
seems
neglect
of
inventory control:
Yang
on
[2.9] point
influence of
inventory control
the
configuration selection
based
to the interaction of
neglected.
control
The most
common
inventory control dynamics [2.9] and has shown good results within
experimental comparison
2.
In
simple PI
increase of
boilup.
boilup
as
manipulated
designed
5-8.
as a
third step
design.
chapters
2.6
Tray temperatures
as
controlled outputs
On-line composition
analyzers are frequently used to determine product compositions. However, their investment and maintenance costs are
42
An Industrial
Example
of at least 10 C
are
separated
not
extremely stringent,
composition
pressure-compensated
measurements
may
substitute
2.6.1
For
boiling
f(p,x)
(2.1)
2.7 for the two components
Figure
entering
sition
measurements
by
temperature
measurements
requires
compensation
measurement
can
compensated by
are
sition
denoted
by the index
=
Compensated
T +
gp
(P-PN)
N
(2.2)
In
case
of
larger
pressure
variations,
supplied:
T
Compensated
Qp
N<p-PN>+5aprT
(p-pN)2
N
(2.3)
Estimation
It is
of tray composition
to infer the
possible
{x, T, p}
can
be
calculated. An
example
x
=
is
given by
+
e]
Q2(T: + TCon)+e3p
Q4p2
(2.4)
2.6
Tray temperatures
as
controlled outputs
43
Figure
2.7:
44
An Industrial
Example
Such
an
equation
to
temperature and
pressure is
simpler
implement
in
an
equation
e1
e2(T-TN)+e3(p-pN)+e4(p-pN)2
estimate is
a
(2.5)
One
temperature
measurements. Practical
bias
of up to 2 C is to be
to heat
by
the parameter
TCoTT
In
principle,
possible
to
include
errors
cross
terms such
as
0Tp
in the
regression
model. However,
in the absolute
cross
temperature
values of these
terms.
Pressure compensation
as
well
as
composition
are
easily implemented in a process control system. Without a pressure compensation, it is impossible to use tray temperatures in a vacuum
column
as
analyzers
are a
necessary. For
temperature
top,
bottom,
we a
have to
expect higher
pressure
variations, and
compensa
tion with
second-order
polynomial
is recommended.
2.6.2 The
Temperature
measurement
placement
near
changes
product compositions
enough,
distance from the column ends. Figure 2.2 shows simulated steady-state
hand,
and tray
temperature
2.7 References
45
column ends. A
tion and
sensitivity
important
In the
case
on
trays
tray,
10 and 44
on
chosen
as
temperature
it is
expected to be sensitive
dynamically,
2.7 References
[2.1]
Ariburnu, D., C. Ozge, and T. Gurkan: "Selection of the Best Control Configuration for an Industrial Distillation Column,"
Preprints of 3rd IFAC Symposium
on
387-392 (1992)
Buckley,
Research
P.
Society of America,
Triangle Park,
NC (1985)
[2.3]
[2.4]
Shinskey,
F.
M. Morari: "Control
Configuration
Selection
[2.6]
"Selecting
the
Configuration,"
[2.7]
on
46
An Industrial
Example
trol
of Chemical Reactors, Distillation Columns and Batch Pro April 26-29, 1992, College Park, MD,
1-25 (1992)
cesses,
[2.8]
Experimental Comparison
of Four
on
Distillation
Composition Con
71-
76(1993)
3.1 Introduction
47
Chapter
A
of
Distillation Columns
3.1 Introduction
The rigorous
dynamic
an
accepted and
design [3.11].
widespread
Increasing
require
same
an
in controller
competition
and
environmental
optimization
a
obtained
only by
substantial
knowledge
on a
of process
dynamics. At the
are can
running plant
desired.
and simulation
replace long
such
for
high-purity distillation
are
time
constants and
reproduc
new
for the
large
[3.17].
In this
chapter,
is
48
3 A
of Distillation Columns
treatment of the
resulting algebraic-differential equations is outlined. The modelling and control fields use very different notations. Therefore the
system of
notation used within this
chapter
is
explained
in section 3.11.
3.2 Conventions
Figure
3.1 shows
nt
schematic
representation of
distillation column
accumu
equipped with
lator) is denoted by the index 0, the trays with the indices 1, 2,... nt, and
the column bottom
index nt+1. To
simplify
description
designated
described in
Chapter 2,
by
a
vacuum
operated
constant
as
cooling
well
as
are
therefore not
is
considered here. For other applications, the model extended with appropriate model equations.
presented
easily
3.3 The
The control
objective
or
of
modelling
(e.g., tray temperatures, product
process
various
important
process variables
compositions) as a function of the time-varying column inputs. The objective of a dynamic model is an approximation of the real process input/output behavior by a system of differential and algebraic equa
tions. These model equations
as
are
based
on
well
as on
thermodynamic
and fluid
dynamic correlations.
3.4
Simplifying assumptions
a
Within
physical phenomena
occur.
on
Although it would
possible
3.4
Simplifying assumptions
49
Qo
1
Condenser
Reflux accumulator
R
.1.
(=L0)
.2. .3.
4
Si,
V;
nt-2
nt-2
5v,nt-l
nt.:!
nt
Vnt+1
Qnt+1
B
Reboiler
&
nt+1
Figure
50
3 A
Columns
from
the trays, for the dead time caused by the transport time of vapor flow one tray to the next one above, or for the heat exchange with the
very high order. As earlier, the aim of modelling the distillation column
a
dynamics
This
is
means
that
interested
the trays.
substantial improve
with
more
are
can
including effects
micro
following assumptions
usually
accuracy
The
holdup of
of the
the vapor
to the
holdup
liquid phase.
vapor
phase
are
on
all trays,
are
phase
inde
on
the tray.
liquid
in the downcomer is
a
neglected.
on
liquid enthalpy on
is not
assumption
applicable
evaporator.)
for all
In the literature
so
constant
holdups
problematic
because it
may
dynamic effects
implies a neglect of flow dynamics. Essential remain unmodelled, e.g., a non-minimum phase
an
behavior (inverse response) of the reboiler level and the tray composi
tions in the lower section of the column to
increase in reboiler heat
supply.
3.5 Balance
equations
51
3.5 Balance
equations
3.5.1
Material balances
The differential
each component
tray
are
derived from
outgoing
streams
(Figure 3.2).
Figure
on
trayj (k=l,
...,
nc;j=l,
...,
nt)
dnVi
"dT
=
d(n-xt-)
dT1^
(3.
52
3 A
In the
same
column bottom
formulated:
Material balance
...,
nc)
dnk0
dt
d(n0xk0)
dt
(Vi-Sv,.)yk,i-(Lo + D)xk,o
...,
(3.2)
Material balance
nc)
are
by
natural convection
by
pump.
Assuming perfect
mixing
we
obtain
dnk,nt+1
dt
d(nnt+lxk,nt+l>
dt
(3.3)
~~
*-'ntXk, nt "Xk, nt
~
%t
^k,
nt
on
sum
of the
vidual substances:
nc
nj
X
k= 1
nk,
(3.4)
3.5.2
Energy
balance
a
equations
distillation column
same are
calculated
by
an
energy
to the border in
Figure 3.2,
(35)
-(S^ L^-V^
+
following
holds
3.5 Balance
equations
53
dni
dh'i
rt(nih'i)=h'jdF+nniF
If in
(3-6)
(3.6)
we
substitute the
term dn-/dt
according
to
^
the
VLj-i+vj+i-svj+i-si,rLrvi
equation holds
following
A "h'
energy balance
W=
Usually,
or a
tFi<hVj-h'P+LJ-i^j_1-h-j)
+
(3g)
the
assumption
n-
(dh'./dt)
0 is
on
the trays,
With this
assumption
we can
equation
(3.8)
h-i^[Fi(hF,rhi)+Li-1(hj-1-hj)
equation
is formed for the
n-
(39)
A similar balance
(dh'./dt)
neglected.
Since
causes an
consequently
increase of
boiling temperature
in reboiler heat
evaporator, the
a
change
supply
with
time
lag.
Hajdu et al. [3.9] present a model for this vapor flow lag. We
that
an
can
imagine
energy stream
Q supplied
causes
to the
part
an
increases the bottom temperature. Written obtain the energy balance equation
54
3 A
Rigorous Dynamic
AQ
^
AH
,AV
, v, nt
, nt+.
dAT
+ n
nt
+
lVnt+lPnt+lCp,nt+l
nt+1
(3.10)
Jt
To achieve
term
AVnt+1,
the differential
dATnt+1/dt
a
differential term in
a
AVnt+1.
drop
due to the
changing
can
(assuming
constant total
holdup
on
tray)
be estimated with
A(APj)
K J
+
AV.
(3.11)
change
in the evaporator
can
be
approximated for
by
A<Pnt+l)
=nt
UVj J
+
8APj
)
AV,
nt+1
(3.12)
caused
to
by the increase
in
be calculated
according
AT
nt+1
3Pnt+l
Mi,
nt
+
A(Pnt+l)
1
(3.13)
Substituting (3.13)
tion is obtained:
in
equa
AQ-AHVjnt+1AVnt+1
^nt+l
nnt+lVnt+lPnt+lCp,
nt+1
V
3p
nt
r9APj^dAVnt UVi
+
Hnt+17
(3.14)
dt
Therefore, the
be described
supply
can
3.6 Fluid
dynamics
55
^-g
with the time constant
T3(Q-Qlag)
lag
(3.15)
nnt+lVnt+lPnt+lcp,nt+l 9Pnt+l
lag
nt
UVj J
+
AH^
holdup balance equation in
(3'16)
the energy
balance
equation
dn+,
,
=
"nt+l-ir1
the
Lnth'nt + Qlag-Bh'nt+I-Vnt+1h"nt+1
(3.17)
Lnt(nnt-h'nt+l>
_
^lag
V5
Iv
n
1Sx
"nt+1
nt
The parameters
(e>Tnt+))/(9pnt+1)
or
and
(3Ap)/(3V-
1)
canbeeval-
uated
numerically
3.6 Fluid
In the
dynamics
as
holdup dynamics,
discussed.
liquid
drop is
3.6.1
Liquid flow
rates
The volumetric
liquid
flow rate
over
the weir
on
tray j
can
be calculated
according
([3.16], [3.10]):
56
3 A
of Distillation Columns
LV;j
For
u^2i|bwh^
0.64
;j
(3.19)
sharp-edged
the
weirs
jo.
holds. Perfect
mixing
on
the trays,
including
liquid
in the
downcomers,
is assumed.
,
Nevertheless, if we
liquid head
hLW
edge,
we
have
liquid phase fraction ej and the liquid volume in the downinto account (Figure 3.3). The liquid level in the downpipe is the
liquid head
on
of the
to the
pressure
drop according
to
in downcomer
p- -p=
(3.20)
Pjg
liquid
on a
The
liquid head hL
of the pure
tray (without
on
vapor
phase
o o o o o
Pj
"LWJ
Pj-Pj -l
1
Pj*
thLJ
Figure
3.3:
Liquid
levels
on a
tray
3.6 Fluid
dynamics
57
liquid
volume
-
in
>
the
downcomer
due
to
area
pressure
drop
AB (P:
Pj
j) / (Pjg)
AA + AB:
Vj
Pj-Pj-1,
Ki
For the
AA + AB
formula, we
(3.21)
application
pure
For
effective
liquid
VjTi.W.j
Pi-Pi_L-i
-h
Pjg
+
AA AB
-jhw
(3.19),
we
(3.22)
Substituting (3.22)
volumetric
obtain the
tray j
Vr
Pj-p'izi.
3/2
u-v^tv
Lj
=
pjg
AA + AB
jhw
(3.23)
columns, calming
on
zones
exist in front of
we
liquid
phase fraction
3.6.2
Pressure
drop
a
A vapor flow
through
tray in
on
pressure
drop.
Its amount
depends
holdup, and
58
3 A
Rigorous Dynamic
Usually, the
pressure
drop
is assumed to
([3.7], [3.12]):
Dry pressure drop occurring at the flow through the tray without
liquid (Aptr
j)
pressure
Hydrostatic
drop due
to
(ApLJ)
Pressure
(APa;i>
The pressure
neglected.
Dry pressure drop
With sufficient accuracy, the the
dry
pressure
drop
can
be
approximated by
AptrJ
The orifice coefficient
on
^(Re)^
either
Ao
(3.24)
J
(Re)
it
can
can
be evaluated
by
measurement
or
be estimated with
experimentally verified
correlations.
the
Ap tr,j
1-
aaJ
0.211
Ao
(3.25)
;
hydrostatic
pressure
liquid density.
liquid
3.7 Phase
equilibrium
59
ApL,i'
A.+L
sum
p>
of the two parts
(3'26)
dry pressure
drop
and
hydrostatic
pressure
=
drop:
=
APj
3.7 Phase
All
or
Pj + i-Pj
Aptr>j + ApLj
(3.27)
equilibrium
have discussed in the
equations
we
previous
implicitly
section, the most important correlations concerning the compositions and boiling points are presented.
3.7.1 The
phase
liquid
boiling-point.
Phase
few
can
equilibrium
be obtained
thus
some
leaving tray j
according
to
yEquilibrium
M*Jx
Kk
.xk j
(3.28)
phase compositions
equal
to the ratios
on
of the
partial
the tray.
The vapor pressures of the pure substances pk can be calculated with a high level of accuracy by the Antoine equation (3.29). The parameters A,
B, and C
are
^M^tTC
(3"29)
60
3 A
Rigorous Dynamic
effected
by
one
of the
liquid phase activity coefficients yk can be well known correlations (Wilson, NRTL,
.
distillation column
on
the
mass
transfer between
can
and vapor
phase.
Therefore
perfect
phase equilibrium
efficiency for the
efficiency
will deviate
be modelled
phase.
3.7.2
Boiling points
The vapor
is
temperature
Tj.
At
sum
of the vapor
a
phase mole
frac
Hence for
X
k=l
yEquilibrium
^ ^ p., ^ ^
.
(3.31)
k=l
The
boiling point
calculation, because
it relates to the
equilibrium composition.
3.8 Volumetric
properties
are
sponding
of this section.
3.8 Volumetric
properties
61
3.8.1
PVT relations
liquid phase
v'-
or
the vapor
the pressure pj, the temperature Tj, and the actual compositions x^j A great number of different equations of state has been developed ykj.
They
[3.6]), and
discussion of their
by
the
Soave-Redlich-Kwong equa
equation, [3.15], [3.6]) with the Peneloux correction. This improves the estimate of the molar volumes of the liquid
is overrated
phase, which
and their
different
possibility has
shown We
a
good
liquid phase:
by
can
polynomial regression.
be
can
approximated
as
weighted
sum
volumes:
nc
v'j
3.8.2
I xk,/k,j
k=l
(3-32)
Density phase
can
be
I xk,jMk
Liquid phase density:
o'=
k= ]
,
(3.33)
nc
I yk>JM k
Vapor phase density: p"
(3.34)
Vj
62
3 A
of Distillation Columns
3.9
The
in
Enthalpies
quantity
or
not discussed
so
far is the
enthalpy of a
a
substance mixture
is estimated
liquid
of
vapor
phase.
The
by the
sum
an
departure
function
Ah^ap
h +
j cjfdT Ahp
+
(3.35)
can
be calculated
component:
(
T
KddT= I xkHdkdT
T
k=l
Tn
(3.36)
"_iV
*0
capacities
are
often
approximated by
third-order
polynomial
cj,dk
The parameters for
substance
(3.37)
equation (3.37)
or
properties,
they
p.
can
high
accuracy
154-156).
Ah^ p
describes the
can
be evaluated
using
of the well-known
equations of
ization
are
available,
simple solution
is
possible
in
a manner
similar
63
T,
ti
V
k=ll
k,JcP,J,kdT
Tft
(3.38)
V Yk
k
=
h (3.39)
VTn
for distillation
columns,
as
intro
algebraic equations
efficient
integration using standard integration methods is not possible. This requires special adapted integration algorithms, as
outlined in section 3.10.4.
3.10.1 The
dependent
equation system
we
As
of
of
completely
sive
computation
times.
The vapor
phase composition is
an
description
composition
the tray temperature, and the tray pressure, then the vapor
in
phase phase
equilibrium
is
easily calculated by
an
explicit algebraic
dependent variables.
CO
3 crc?
65
As
one
and of minimum
tion of the vector
order, the
following
proposed (as
modifica
(Vj,
nxj,..., nncJ,
pj(
Lj}j=1> 2>..., nt
Qlag
nncnt+1,
B, Tnt+1, pnt+i,
States of the control system]
sponding
block
to these
numerically advantageous
diagonal
dominant structure.
dependent variables
y, the
following
equa
to be solved
Differential equations
nc
material balance
equations (3.1)
Algebraic equations
1 1
liquid flow
pressure
rate
(3.23)
1
1
drop (3.27)
Total:
+4
and in addition the equations for the evaporator, the condenser, and the control system. often
ential
are
equipped
resulting algebraic
differ
equations
the industrial
equations. The model for binary distillation equipped with 50 trays gives an
consists of
a
algebraic equations.
66
3 A
Rigorous Dynamic
entire
dynamic
model
by the
semi-
^
0
f (t,
(t),
(t))
(t0)
n0
(3.40a)
g(t,n(t),z(t))
z(t0)=z0
(3.40b)
The vector
vector
z
the
dependent variables.
implicit form:
equiva
F(t,y(t),y'(t))
=0
y(t0)
y0
(3.41)
dependent variables.
A simulation of
equation system.
3.10.3 The index The index of
izes the
a a
set of
difficult is
defini
differential
common
tion: The
differential index
m
of the system
F (t, y (t),
y
y' (t))
0 is the min
imal number
ofF (t,
-U'""
can
an
explicit ordinary
Consequently,
m=0.
an
index of
67
proposed by C.
was soon
implicit index
is
special
algorithms for
integration
may be found in
very
frequently
based
on
distinguished
solving continuous
problems.
However, the
computational
effort grows
significantly
for
systems with discontinuities arising, for example, during the simulation of the response to several feed flow or feed composition step changes. For
such cases, the one-step methods find The one-step methods
are
more
and
more
interest [3.11].
Runge-Kutta,
Rosenbrock,
or
(RADATJ5, LIMEX) is
integrator,
success. an
as
implemented in the
differential-alge according
to
NAG Fortran
braic
Library
is used with
are
good
The
equations (DAE)
solved in
implicit
manner
(3.41).
The calculation sequence
During the integration, the right-hand sides of the differential and alge
braic
to be evaluated for
given
vector y of
the
t. The
are
algebraic equations,
an
well
solved in
implicit integra
supplied
to the
tion,
are
right-hand
sides of the
equations
68
3 A
(that
the
means
evaluating these
terms is
stringent: If,
for
example,
(3.31),
we
calculate the
right-hand
tion
we
side of the
of the
whole
model,
Figure
3.5 results.
routine
(Step a),
tray
pressures,
as
well
all vapor
In
a
phase compositions
step, the
in
equilibrium
of the
be calculated
next
Kk
obtained in the
previous
are
computed
in
step d. The
vapor
phase
compo
deviate
from
the
computed (Step e). Since for the computation of the effective vapor
tray
must be
n
=
known,
computation
bottom, assuming
enthapies,
are
applied, resulting vapor flow rates and the flow rates supplied by the integra
are
same
Similarly
of the
liquid
computed
in
steps i and j.
compositions calculated
in the
69
a)
b)
Error for
boiling point
k
at
c)
Calculation of the
thermodynamic
states
d)
yk,J
<yk^"lbnum-yk,J+iJ+yk,]+,
hVhVv'rv>>"j
for condenser, all trays, and evaporator
hVh*j
Figure
Explanation:
text
70
3 A
Rigorous Dynamic
leaving evaporator
h)
Lnt(hnt-hnt+l>+Qlag
h"
"nt+1
-h'
nt+1
"nt+1
Error for
liquid
streams
3/2
i)
13
p,g
A
+
B
,
J
AA+AB
If
drop
j)
P]+1-P3-AP]
(Equation (3.27))
' '
Differential
k)
flow
lag
< '
1)
and (3.3))
'
'
m)
errors
Figure
3.5 continued
3.11
Notation
71
between
errors
of the
are
combined in
one
vector and
supplied
3.11
Notation
A0 AA
Ab
Hole
area
in
tray
area
Tray
area
without downcomer
area
Downcomer
bw
pid LP
Length
of weir
[J/mol-K]
capacity
CP,1
[J/kg-K]
[m]
[mol/s] [J/mol]
do
Fj
h
enthalpy
h'j
[J/mol]
[J/mol]
Molar Molar
h"j
hL hw
enthalpy
of vapor
[m] [m]
Liquid level
Weir
above upper
height
on
AHv,k,j
AHvj
[J/mol]
[J/mol]
tray j
tray j
on
Kkj
LJ
Wj
Mk
nt
[mol/mol]
[mol/s]
tray j
[m3/s]
[g/mol]
H
of component k
72
3 A
Rigorous Dynamic
nj
[mol]
Total
holdup
on
tray j
k
on
nkj
nc
[mol] [-]
Holdup of substance
tray j
Number of components
Pressure Pressure
on
Pj
[N/m2]
tray j
over
APj
[N/m2]
[N/m2] [N/m2]
[J/s] [J/s] [m]
drop
tray j
K
P
Heat
supply to evaporator
supply
Qlag
s
"active" heat
SU
Jvj
[mol/s]
product flow
rate from
tray j,
product flow
rate from
tray j,
vapor
t
phase
[s] [K]
Time
Temperature
TJ
Vj
[K]
Temperature
Vapor
on
tray j tray j
[mol/s]
stream from
VVj
xkj
[m3/s]
[mol/mol]
of
tray j
XF,ko
[mol/mol]
tray j
ykj
[mol/mol]
Yk
[-]
3.11
Notation
j
Tl
V
[m3/m3]
[mol/mol]
on
tray j
V'j V"j
%
phase
phase
on
tray j tray j
on
P'j
[kg/m3]
[kg/m3]
Liquid density
Vapor density
on
tray j
P"j
on
tray j
74
3 A
Rigorous Dynamic
3.12 References
[3.1]
so
of initial-value problems
in
differential-algebraic
equa
Byrne, G. D., P.
R.
Application
(1988)
and Solution,
[3.3]
[3.4]
Trans,
on
Circuit
Theory, CT-18, 1,
[3.5]
Gmehling, J. Collection;' 1,
"Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium
Data
[3.6]
Verfahrenstechnik,
[3.8]
2nd ed., de
P. Foldes:
in Distilla
New
3.12
References
75
[3.11] Marquardt,
W.:
"Dynamic
Process
Simulation
Recent
on
Engineering,
4th
145-
not
ODE,"
Liquids,
Destillationskolon-
Synthese
von
Regelungskonzepten," Fortschritt-Berichte
Verlag (1986)
Systems
Simu
871-
lation and
887 (1990)
[3.19] Weiss, S.
et.
al.:
Verfahrenstechnische Berechnungsmethoden,
Teil 2: "Thermisches
heim (1986)
76
3 A
4.1 Introduction
77
Chapter
Linear Models
4.1
Introduction
are
Robust controllers
designed
on
dynamic
frequency
range.
They
System identification
Linearization of
a
nonlinear model
it avoids
It is
composition dynamics
are
large.
recording
of
input/output
plant
is very time-
consuming.
Due to the
high sensitivity
of distillation columns to
for small
changes
of
of the
region.
78
4 Linear Models
Each
experiment
causes
product
qualities.
It is
practically impossible
ating
These
disadvantages and
the
other fundamental
a
of
second
method
(Skogestad,
[4.12])
the
chapter, which
are
based
on
obtained
by
an
analytical linearization of
simplified
is obtained in
nonlinear model
by
Chapter
3. In further sections the accuracy of these linear models and the role of
the flow
dynamics
are
are
discussed. Different
tion methods
compared
on
chapter.
The notation is
are
page
collected
rigorous model?
vectors
4.2.1
The
model of
as
discussed in
Chapter
consists of
high-order system
the
equations
in
principle. However,
same as
of the
high order
for
a
high computa
controller
design
or even
quently,
very
sought. This
dependent variables
are
important
dynamics
dynamics have
high influ-
rigorous model?
79
ence on
the
is
a
composition dynamics
candidate
as
in the
high-frequency range,
a
the
tray
holdup
well.
of the
to include their
dx0 dxc
dx,
x
=
dx,
or
dx
51
(4.1)
dx
dn,
51
dn
50
The
are
stimulated
by the manipu
L0 and boilup V51) and the several disturbance important disturbances are variations of the feed compo
as
variations
or
be
neglected
composition control
according
to
dxF
d
u
dF
(4.2)
dL0 dv51
directly
measure
compensated temper
80
4 Linear Models
dTPio
dTP44 dTP24
4.2.2
(4.3)
dependent
variables such
are
as
tray
pressures, vapor
flows, which
Nevertheless
the
holdup dynamics.
These
equations
elimination
by idealizing assumptions,
during linearization
an
or
numerical solution
advantage
can
merely
one
steady-state data
of the
common
set
supplied, which
be calculated
by
one
flow-
In contrast to
4.3 Linearization of
simplified
nonlinear model
4.3.1
The
simplified model
we
In this section
will derive
neglecting
flow
the
the
holdup
idealizing assumptions
subcooling
are
4.3 Linearization of
81
Idealizing assumptions
The
algebraic
can
constraints
of the
dynamics
be eliminated
by
the
constant pressure
constant and
drop
on
equal enthalpies
all trays
constant total
holdup
on
all trays
(equimolar overflow)
assumptions do
means a
assumption
pressures,
assumption implies
tray holdup
fying
constant
contains
neglect
of flow
dynamics.
in the
high frequency
range introduced
by
It has to be
emphasized here that these assumptions concern only the simplified nonlinear model as a basis for an analytical linearization.
The steady-state
operating points
must be calculated
as
using
as
model,
well
the flow
dynamic models.
The
For
composition dynamics
a
column separating
binary mixture,
it is sufficient to formulate
constant total
holdup,
the
following
material
^
Similar balances
obtain the
Lj-i+Vj i+Fj-VVj
+
(4.4)
are
following
differential equations
dynamics:
82
4 Linear Models
Condenser
7>ays (Feed
is
liquid phase, j
1.. .50)
^j[V.(vi-v+Vi^-v
Evaporator
(4.6)
"aT
4[L50(x50-x5i)-V51(y51-x5])]
are
(4.7)
an
to avoid
large
model
errors.
equations for
the
reflux tray
(tray 1) and for the feed tray (tray 20) become part of the
nonlinear model:
0
Loh'o-Ljh'j+Vjh'^-V^",
(4.8)
(4.9)
Tray temperatures
The model outputs
are
by
the
4.3 Linearization of a
simplified
nonlinear model
83
X (y)
k=l
-1=0
(4.10)
Consequently
of the
the
24
are
part
simplified
column model.
in terms of is
Usually,
the tray
efficiency
can
smaller than
the be
equilibrium
modelled
compositions. As described in
Yj
Primarily the
of the relative
vapor
O-TDyj^+Tiy'j
in
(4.11)
phase composition
x-.
equilibrium
if we
y*j
is
function
constant
For
example,
assume a
the vapor
phase composition
in
equilib
rium is calculated
ct X-
y*-
i-J
(4.12)
To
vapor
phase composition
cause no
particular problem.
Such
an
equation in
terms of the
by
phase compositions
in (4.11)
reboiler)
y50
(l-Ti)y*gi+r|y*50
(4.13)
84
4 Linear Models
y49
(l-Ti)y50 + 1iy*49
(i--n)V5i+Ti(1-1i)y*5o
(i-Ti)y49 + 1iy*48
7iy*49
(4.14)
y48
,A,E,
(l-*i)3y*5i+Ti(i-'ri)2y*5o
(4.15)
'rl(i-n)y*49 + riy*48
For
nt
evaporator)
is
y.
(l-Tl)at+1-ynt+1
nt+l-j
+
X lKl-M)nt+1-j-Vnt+,-n
n=
(4>16)
on
the composition of
efficiency
is
substantially
4.3.2
smaller than
one.
Analytical linearization
Let
us
formally represent
the
as
the vector
functions f and g:
d^l
f[x(t),u(t),d(t)]
(4.17a)
y(t)
g[x(t)]
(4.17b)
d^
Ax
Bd
(4.18a)
Cx
(4.18b)
4.3 Linearization of a
85
are
evaluated
as
partial
is calculated either solving equation system of the complete rigorous model for steady state, or
partial derivatives:
dx51
(4.19)
3f
=
3x
3x
51
IOP
"0
B 3f
=
d
u
OP
[OP
3xQ 3xj
*i '3x51
L~di OP
3g? '^Sl
3g3 '^51
(4.21)
IOP
86
4 Linear Models
can
conclude that
deviation
Lo
or
boilup V51
causes
the
same
deviation of the
liquid flow
dLn
dVj
dv51
A, B, and C
are
(4.22)
listed in the
appendix
out
of this
interactions in
it turns
suppressed by
the
idealizing assumptions
within
the
rigorous
model
thus flow
dynamics.
4.4.1
are
which
are
not of
equations (3.1)-(3.3)
^-iv.to,-^)
(4.23)
rigorous model
87
Tray holdups:
S
dx.
Li-'-VV--VFi
is
(4-24)
liquid phase, j
1.. .50)
^[Lj_1(xj_1-xj)+Vj ^-ii*j-i-'y
1(yj
1-xj)
vj 1iyj 1-xj;
+ + + +
(42g)
-vj(yrxP+Fj(xF,rxP]
Evaporator
(4-26)
assump
perfect
orator. This
loops for
loops.
With
perfect
fore constant
holdup
calculated
according
to
V,-L0
(4.27)
and B
=
L50-V51
(4.28)
The
whole
describing
and the
pressure
the composition
dynamics for
drop (3.27),
a
the
boiling
whose solution is
equations
be
88
4 Linear Models
di|P
^P
f[x(t),n(t),u(t),z(t),v(x,n,u,z)]
(4.29a)
l[x(t),n(t),u(t),z(t),v(x,n,u,z)]
(4.29b)
y(t)
0
=
g[x(t)]
n, u,
(4.29c)
k[v(x,
z)]
(4.29d)
The vector
(x,
n, u,
tion system k and consists of the tray pressures, the vapor flow rates,
the
boiling points.
4.4.2
Numerical linearization
including
flow
dynamics
d_
dt
X
=
X n
d
u
(4.30a)
Cx
(4.30b)
can
be
steady-state
be varied
tray holdup
can
by
algebraic equation
system k
can
can
be
dynamic matrix A
be calculated
a i=l
102,j
for
.51
(4.31a)
4.5
Comparison
89
(dx
dt
V
dx
a
dt
opj
for
Anj
1=1
102J
52
fdn
dt
V
1...50
(4.31b)
dn
a
dt
VAnj
opJ
can
An,
In
a
similar
manner
the
input matrix B
be evaluated.
4.5
4.5.1
design
is
good representation of
range.
the
dynamic behavior
behavior
as
in
the
mid-frequency
The
steady-state
well
as
the
high-frequency behavior
a
less
definitive
judgement
comparison
of control
designs based
on
simple
complete
inputs
rigorous model
are
step responses
to the model
(reflux L0, boilup V5i, feed composition xp, and feed flow rate F). These
shown
by the Figures
was
4.1- 4.4.
bottom level
Except
at their
are
kept constant
steady-state and
to avoid
large
nonlinearities.
step
acceptable
a
by
linearization of the
rigorous model
is
distinguished by
somewhat
low-frequency gains.
90
4 Linear Models
Tray 10
Tray
44
Nonhnear model
Figure
4.1:
Step
response to
0.3 mol/min
(0.46%)
increase in reflux
Tray
10
Tray
44
Nonlinear model
4 Time
(h)
a
Figure
4.2:
Step
response to
boilup
4.5
Comparison of the
linear models
91
Tray 10
Tray
44
Nonlinear model
Figure
4.3:
Step
response to
composition
Tray 10
Tray 44
Time
(h)
Time (h)
Tray 24
Nonlinear model
Figure
4.4:
Step
response to
92
4 Linear Models
Surprising
as
is the
linearized model
on
well.
Apparently
algebraic
constraints
the
composition dynamics
within the
substantially
composition dynamics
values
themselves.
4.5.2
Singular
high
of the
dynamics,
4.5.
respectively.
comparison
,
are
the
,
singular values
Figure
transfer functions G,
>y(jco) andGu.
(jco)
shown in
in3
Disturbance inputs
10
Magnitude
"ii
10"
ioJ
10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/min)
Control inputs
10
10'
10"
10
10
10'
Frequency (rad/min)
Figure
4.5:
Singular
Upper plots:
Solid lines:
GA^y(i<Si)
lower
plots:
Gu->y (jo)
Analytically linearized
model
Dashed lines:
4.5
Comparison
93
typical
course
of the
high
are
purity
and minimum
(jo)
<WGu-yfj>)}
K(jco)
=
(4.32)
WGu_>y(J)}
are
more
detail
by
compensated temperatures
a
to the pres
numbers indicate
tion of the control
inputs
system
can
be very sensitive to
inputs.
as
big
in
the
low-frequency
range
the
completely
different
in the
high-frequency they
high-frequency
be
calculated from:
analytical model neglects the flow dynamics. high frequency behavior is determined only by the first-order
0.1 rad/min)
are
dominated
by
negative slope
The
magnitude
per decade.
account.
Thus, considering
value
a
composition dynamics
frequency
column
per
flow dynamics
as
the column
input is different:
on
An increase of the
boilup
94
4 Linear Models
10J
'
Singular values
v ,o T3 10
.___^^
'i
10
:
-
*^^^^^
V
^
\
\ \
10
10'
10
10"
10
10
10'
Frequency (rad/mm)
io3
Condition number
1
~
'i
-~
^
J.'. 1
'
a)
"3 3
io
^^^^
2
io
r
r
^
--
/
N
/
\ \
/
10
10
10
10
10"
10'
Frequency (rad/min)
Figure
4.6:
inputs
Lower
to the
tray temperature
T10
and
T44
transfer function
plot: Condition
number K of the
same
Solid lines:
Analytically
linearized model
causes
rates
tion of the
more
light component
is
higher
in the upper
of the
component is
decrease of the
frequency
developed above
are
52 for the
analytical
modern
numerically
evaluated model.
During
95
robust control
of the model is
inputs and outputs. Since the computation time for the controller design strongly depends
tance.
on
impor
Many
a
tion of
available in
MATLAB
sponding
al. [4.5]
to
or
MATRLXX
toolboxes
are
based
on
computing the
corre
Hankel Norm
singular
the
values and
et
a
compared
following
four
reduction of
are
implemented
of the
MATLAB
toolboxes:
Balanced Truncated
Control Tool
Balanced Truncated
minimal
Hankel Norm
significantly
better models than the other two methods. These results have to be
considered such
an
carefully:
extremely
order 10-15
very
example,
an
102
was
reduced to
order 10
perfect coincidence
the
with
supported by
singular-value
plots of the models. Figure 4.7 shows that all reduced order models
96
4 Linear Models
10J
10
I
Full order model Methods I
II
10
Method III
Method TV
10
10
10
10*
10
10
10'
Frequency (rad/min)
Figure
4.7:
Singular
value
plots
(jco)
of the
up to 1 rad/min
are
best
approximated by
Balanced Truncated
Approximation
(Method I
II).
4.7
This
Summary
chapter presented
linearization
of
a
simplified
nonlinear model
dynamics and
model is obtained by
4.8
Appendix:
Model coefficients
97
an
acceptable approximation
plots indicate
a
of the
dynamics.
The
singular
value
mid-frequency
model,
range, but
coincidence
high-frequency
range.
a
demonstrated. The relatively high order of the linear model (52 for the
analytically, and 102 for the numerically linearized models) can be reduced essentially by one of the well known order reduction methods.
All tested methods
yielded
a
frequency of 1 rad/min by
4.8
Appendix:
Model coefficients
following holds:
Analytically differentiating
A-Matrix
a, ,i
-v,
=
dx0
no
(4.34)
ai ,k
9f0
+ :
nd-rDk-iVj^
no
'"ark
(4.35)
ai ,52
_^o_.
(1-
n)50Vlk51
no
(4.36)
98
4 Linear Models
^ _v.
j+,-j_3xJ-r
_
(4.37)
ni
*j
dx
i.J
^VZi^iLVZ&^V
(4.38)
(4.39)
at
aJ+,,52
axi=(1-Ti)50-Jkk
ox51
(V^.-a-TDvp
(4.40)
Evaporator
a52,51
3f51
_
-
_ _
^50
n
ox50
ax
(4.41)
n51
df
x51
-(B
-
Vksl)
51""51J
l52,52
ox51
ax
(4.42)
n51
B-Matrix We have to consider the portion of the vapor flow which is condensed by
an
increase of the feed flow rate because of the subcooled feed. For the
rectifying
n20
-h'
'*
nF
dF
(4.43)
Vn 20_n20y
The
liquid flow
same
rate in the
stripping
by
the
amount.
4.8
99
Condenser
at,
b,
=
,
'
"
3x,
(4.44)
3fo
J.2
"
V,'
h
V,'
n
20 20
yi-xo
nn
3F~
(4.45)
Vn
n207
1... 19)
Rectifying
section
(j
af.
(4.46)
af.
h
DJ
+
'.2
20 20
X1
yj-n-yj
dF
(4.47)
Vn
n2oy
"*20
21> '
*20
n
n20
d-x
(4.48)
oxF
521,2
5f20
_ "
xF
x20
n20~^F
,
,,
11
20
n20
x20
(y20
x20j
(4.49)
"9F
section
Stripping
(j
21
...
51)
(4.50)
af.
b.
J +
1.2
-i
9F
1+rrr
"
h'n-h 20 "F
20
Vl-*j
(4.51)
n2o;
nj
If the reflux is
subcooled, the
partially
at the first
tray. The liquid stream leaving the first tray and all
100
4 Linear Models
same
amount. From
(4.8)
we
dV,
'h'i-V dL vh"i-h'iy
f,.h'i-ho
=
(4.52)
dLt
1+CV7
h"i-h'iy
dLn
(4.53)
With (4.52) and (4.53) there follows for the elements of the B matrix:
Condenser
h'j-h'g
bL3
af0 3L=
h"1-h'1(xo_yi)
n^
(4.54)
Dl>4"av"
Tray
1
9fo_yi-xo
nA
(4.55)
"
^
af,
i
x0-x1+(y1-x1)K^jl
"
h',-h'0
l
2,3
9L-
(4.56)
n,
y2-yi
n,
J2,4
av'
(4.57)
Trays (j
2...
50)
, j-"3-i
3f,
x-
x.
h'.-h'
"j
i.3
3L
1 CT
"0
(4.58)
nj
yj+i-yj
h",-h'iy
b;
9fj
'j
1,4
gy
(4.59)
4.9 Notation
101
Evaporator
f)f
X
x50
0I51
-x x51
'
1
1
u'
u'
52,3-
9Lafi
hj-h'0
l_n
(4.60)
5f
h"l-h'l7
-(yi-x,,)
b-w-^r
C-Matrix The coefficients of the measurement output matrix evaluated
are
(4-61)
numerically
increments in
tray composition.
4.9 Notation
4.9.1 A B C G
Gu
n
signals
to
output signals
[dnpdn2, ...,dn50]T
[n,,n2,
Vector of holdups
iv
u
...,n50]T
manipulated variables (L0, V51) deviations
Vector of the
u=
[dL0,dV5,]T [L0>V5l]T
102
4 Linear Models
Vector of tray
X
=
...,
y=[dTP10>dTP44'dTP24]T
Vector of pressure
y
[dxp,dF]T
inputs
Vector of disturbance i=
[xF,F]T
4.9.2
Scalar values
B
D F
[mol/s] [mol/s]
Bottom
product flow
rate
rate
[mol/s] [J/mol]
hJ
Molar
enthalpy
of liquid
phase
on
tray j
h"i
Lo
[J/mol]
[mol/s] [mol/s]
[mol]
[-] [K] [K]
Molar
Reflux
on
tray j
LJ
nJ
nt
leaving tray j
Holdup
on
tray j
Temperature
Pressure
Tpj
V
compensated temperature
[mol/s]
[mol/s]
Boilup
Rate of vapor flow
Vi
leaving tray j
4.10 References
103
Xj
xB
xF
[mol/mol] [mol/mol]
[mol/mol]
on
tray j
Composition
in column bottom
Feed composition
yj
[mol/mol] [mol/mol]
[-]
[-]
on
tray j
on
y
a
phase composition
tray j
volatility
[-]
[-]
4.10 References
[4.1]
u-
Chiang,
R.
Glover,
K.: "All
bounds," Int.
J. Con
trol, 36,1115-1193(1984)
[4.4]
Haggblom,
K. E.:
"Modeling
of Flow
1991 American
Conference,
Distillation Case
Study," Proc.
Confer
ence,
104
4 Linear Models
[4.6]
Kapoor, N.,
and T. J.
McAvoy:
"An
Analytical Approach
to
Ap
of
Distillation
Columns
and
Chemical
Reactors,
Bournemouth, UK (1986)
[4.7]
in Linear
Systems:
Controllability,
Observability
and
Model
Reduction," IEEE
Trans. Automatic
[4.8]
Balancing
Descriptor Approach,"
Dec.
Conf.
on
Decision and
9-11(1987)
[4.9]
607-617 (1987)
on
45-53 (1992)
5.1 Introduction
105
Chapter
A Structured
Uncertainty Model
5.1 Introduction
Each linear
or
nonlinear
a
dynamic model
can
only approximately
a
nonlinear
error
conditions, the
of
linear model
rapidly
to process
as
of
linear model
compared
an
exactly
determined.
Lacking
exact
description, the
as
itself is modelled
Typical
ment
sources
of
uncertainty for
actuator
are measure
errors,
limited
process
dynamics, and
occur
high-frequency
of
uncertainty
simultaneously
and
high-frequency dynamics
106
5 A Structured
Uncertainty Model
measurements
(output
uncer
This
grouping corresponds
to the
modelled where it
In this
physically
occurs.
chapter
an
covers not only a single operating point but the entire operating range of the column. It is
column is
struc
tured
singular value
5.2 Limits of
Before
we
uncertainty models
uncertainty
in the
frequency domain,
we
domain is
cients.
explained by
of any
uncertainty
within the
at the
input
certain
specified bounds.
Then the
are not
guaranteed for
input
error
Consequently,
into account.
frequency domain,
the
not taken
time-varying uncertainties
assumed, nonlinear
bounds
are
step changes of the feed flow rate. Each step change alters the
state
steady
the
a new
linear model
describing
dynamic behavior
5.3
Input uncertainty
107
models is defined
one
by
the
5.3
Input uncertainty
manipulated variables reflux
requested by
and
boilup will
match
exactly
the values
boilup
or
streams will be
The main
errors
static and
measurement
of reflux and
reboiler
duty
to pressure and
lags
actuator
lags sampling
errors
effects of
of the column
inputs
can
be
the
by
multiplicative
error
uncertainty
description
with
frequency-dependent
bound wu
matrix
for the
boilup
bound wu for the reflux L and the error V These bounds are combined in the diagonal
Wu.
As illustrated in
Figure
5.1 the
holds:
u(jco)
{I
Au(jco)Wu(j<o)}u(j()
(5.1)
1 W
Au
u
1 1
Figure
5.1:
108
5 A Structured
Uncertainty Model
with
|Au(jco)|
u
<1
loo
(5.2)
Wu(jco)
wUl(joo)
0
(5.3)
wUy(jco)
matrix
The
frequency-dependent complex
shapes only
case
Au(jco)
is limited in
magni
tude. It
the worst
the
direction of the
and is chosen to be
the
phase
behavior of the individual uncertainty bounds wu. is not significant. They should be chosen to be stable and minimum phase.
If we
assume
boilup
model:
errors are
independent,
the
matrix
Au
(jca) becomes
diagonal
single perturbations
(jco)
8Ul(jo
0
5U
uv
(jco)
Wu(jco) u(jco)
(5.4)
with
|5u.(jco)|
Both models have been used for
<1
(5.5)
u-synthesis preferred
study:
is reduced
The number of
uncertainty blocks
(Aj
or
8j)
by
one
compared
to
Any change
change
are
dynamics
5.3
Input uncertainty
109
error
bounds
et al.
by Skogestad
performance for
errors
in the
analysis
the
error
bounds
Wu
exactly
as
possible. This
condition
controller
holds
Otherwise
potential
performance
In the
is
given
away in
case
overestimation.
lower-frequency
are
range the
errors
of the
manipulated variables
parameter variation
at
the
plant input
parameter variations. As
example
for
we
boilup is controlled
indirectly by
will
change
in heat of evaporation
cause an error
assume a
are
lower
frequency
large enough.
measurement errors, range. The
errors
lags,
actuator
lags, dynamic
sampling
exceed
time
concern
the
higher frequency
caused
by these uncertainty
more
sources
frequency
and
easily
frequencies
steady-state
error,
error, is well
approximated by
s/coM
G(s)=KTT^7uf
The
withcoN<coD
(5.6)
error.
are
typically
according
to
coD
>
10coN.
110
5 A Structured
Uncertainty Model
5.4 Model
uncertainty
nonlinearity
5.4.1
Column
The
highly
composition)
nj(S)
we
LJ-i(xJ-i-xJ)+vj+i^+!-V-vJ(yJ-xj)
(5-7)
behavior
depend
on
the
rates (L and
V), and
the
composition profile within the distillation column (repre by the liquid and
vapor
sented
phase compositions)
large gains
in
low-frequency
at
on no
Therefore,
tures
steady-state
both be
can
kept
have
significant influence
in the
as
low-frequency range
as
vapor and
liquid
a
flow rates
well
the
column become
only.
depends
actual
a
distillation
column
on
substantially
on
the
actual
composition profile
and
the
liquid
can
flow rates.
Normally
a
distillation column
feed flow rate and
be bounded with
maximum and
minimum
largest feed
flow rate
and,
vice versa,
5.4 Model
uncertainty
111
steady
Figure 2.2).
Hence
we
can
low-frequency behavior by
a
of
binary
high-purity
are
introduced:
Model R
Table 5.1:
Operating
conditions for
design
Feed
purposes
Operating point
OP-N
OP-I
composition
0.8 0.7 0.9
(mol/min)
33
46
(mol/mol)
OP-R
20
The
simplest
way to
If we
that the
uncertainty
independent of the
for the
(Figure
5.2):
112
5 A Structured
Uncertainty
Model
Figure
5.2:
Multiplicative uncertainty
at
output
8
M
(jco)
0 0
0
0
y(jco)
"
8y2 (jco)
OS
3
Wy(jco)
.
y(jco)
(5.8)
(jco)
with
Nl--1
and
y(jco)
GN(jco)
d(jco)
u(jco)_
Wy
is
,
wv
^1
can
be obtained
-^3
on
the main
diagonal.
a
An upper
by
calculation of the
standardized
d-
errors
y- of the
and and
ui
-^
yj
or
AGj(jco)
[GI(jco)-GN(jco)]G^1(Jco)
(5.9)
5.4 Model
uncertainty
113
AGR(jco)
[GR(j(o)-GNa<))]GN1afl
uncertainty weights
.
(5.10)
earity
is not well
numerically evaluated
linear models
Gj
Gr
Gu
frequency range,
but increases
sharply
frequencies above
0.1
influence the
dynamic
behavior. An uncertainty
in the
low-frequency
prohibi
design.
are
Fortunately the
steady-state
decrease of the
errors
highly
operating points
causes
simultaneous
increase
or
singular
signals
trated
This is illus
-
by the Nyquist
plots
or
y.
(Figure
a
5.4). It
clearly shows
causes
simultaneous increase
decrease of the
open-loop gains
in the low-
we can assume
that the
dynamic behavior of
the distillation column must lie "somewhere between OP-I and OP-R."
be
represented by
and
models
Gz (jco)
GR (jco) (Figure
+ GR
5.5)
G(jco)
GTlU(jco)
=
(jco)
+
5G(jco)
GTlU(jco)
GR
(jco)
(5.11)
with
|6g|L-i
8Ge
or
8Ge
114
5 A Structured
Uncertainty
Model
Standardized
error
of T10,
Gj(s)
Standardized
error
of T44,
Gj(s)
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10'
10"
Frequency (rad/mm)
Standardized
error
Frequency (rad/min)
of T24,
Gj(s)
10
10
10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/min)
Standardized
error
of T10,
Gg(s)
Standardized
error
of T44,
1
Gr(s)
1
0.5
"""%, \
/
/
/
.
1
1
.
\ \
s^.-
-4l
i1
\
'
111
i-
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/min)
Standardized
error
Frequency (rad/min)
of
T24, Gr(s)
Legend
xF
Frequency (rad/mm)
Figure
errors
at
5.4 Model
uncertainty
115
GL-T10(Jffl)
GV^T (J>)
GL_T44(jco)
GL^ T CJ0
6
1
1
1
V
\\
/
/
<z>
/
/
\
\
y
/
/
-250
500
Figure
5.4:
Nyquist plots
R;
lxlO"3 rad/min;
o: co
lxlO"4 rad/min
116
5 A Structured
Uncertainty
Model
r-H.Gl J~^-^'
T+
r-
5G*3
1/2
u
Figure
5.5:
to
nonlinearity
in the
low-frequency
range
may be either
a
complex
or
real. If
we
define it to be
and
complex we
means
allow
GR
a
GT, that
line.
the
a
Nyquist plots
and for
frequency
required
to be
on
straight
In this way
we
generate
plant which
covers
the
properties
of the distil
lation column at low and at high feed compositions, and at different feed flow rates without introducing additional conservatism. It is
to model such
a
impossible
behavior with
an
unstructured uncertainty
description!
Effect of transients
While
an
requires
sitions
highly
structured uncertainty
During
disturbance
as
compo
the
product
a
nonlinear
functions
Gu
change
.
in different
higher
.
singular values of G
Due to the
and lower
singular values
in the
low-frequency
range, tran
cause
low-frequency
range.
However, they
117
nonlinearity
higher frequency
w
described with
in
equation
singular
higher-frequency
It is not
frequency range.
exactly.
point
possible
Each disturbance
will
variation of the
a
steady-state operating
predicted. The
selection of
tions is discussed in
Chapter
6.
5.4.2
Unmodelled
dynamics Chapter
are
2 that flow
appropriate
is necessary.
dynamics in the
< x <
same
way
as
the
delay
with 0
1 minute
approximation
for
_I5
(5.12)
e-B
This
uncertainty
can
input uncertainties
some
(Chapter
sented
point
combi
nations of
delay uncertainty are not repre using simple uncertainty weights. They developed new and more
time
cover
uncertainty
and time
design
good
using simple
first-order
weights
uncertainty
description.
118
5 A Structured
Uncertainty
Model
Model
uncertainty due
to flow
multi
well. This
can no
uncertainty bounds
longer be approximated by
delays.
5.5 Measurement
An additional
source
uncertainty
are
of uncertainty
a
The
a
dynamic
behavior of
temperature
is well
approximated by
first-order
lag:
GT(8)
The time constant
~L-
(5.13)
TT
depends
on
the tempera
ture measurement
clearly below
to
1 minute if the
is
up to 10 minutes if it is
placed
in the vapor
phase.
tion,
a
position
on
in the
liquid phase
cannot be
we
small head
the
plates.
Therefore
design.
The gain
KT
of the
sensor
model
GT depends
on
the
sensor
calibration
and
on
sensor can
easily be cali
brated with
difficult to esti
cause a
They
concern
range and
slow
rable to variations of the setpoints for the control system. The of the control system is not affected if large bias variations
are
stability
avoided.
They
would lead to
product compositions
A
which
are
those at the
temperature
Because the
is thus recommendable.
temperature
5.6
Specification
of the controller
performance
119
sensors
with
gain
KT
1 and
time constant
TT
can
be avoided. It
time constants
to the
TT
will not
endanger frequency
large output
in the
upper
uncertainties
specified
design
range.
5.6
The
Specification
of the controller
performance
design
robust
of the
structured
inputs d by the
to be in
H^-norm
i!
We(8)
/ I
Wd(s)
+o
-L
*\J 1
[*
K(s)
GA(s)
T24
T10>T44
Figure
5.6: Performance
uncertain
plant
GA(jco)
performance objective
to be in the set
making the
weighted
control
error e
120
5 A Structured
Uncertainty
Model
sup
[jWe (j co)
2
(j co)
J2
<
Vco
R+
LrJ
The
to this
specification:
(jco)
^P
We
e.
(s) is
(usually diagonal)
in
a
shapes
T
amplitude
to
We
is
large
certain
frequency
only
small control
error
is allowed there.
The matrix
of our distillation
column,
variations of the
feed composition and feed flow rate will affect the medium and lower
frequency
control
lags shape
as
the
frequency
content of these
two disturbances
loop
are
at the
position
the reference
inputs, the
corre
sponding weights
chosen
are
weighting
functions
5.7
Summary
input uncertainty (5.1), the model uncertainties (5.8) and (5.11), and the
complex
uncertainty model has the advantage that the entire operating range of
the distillation column is covered. The
large
conservatism of an unstruc
design
proce
the
u-synthesis
or
u-optimization, operating
we
can
expect high
controller
performance for
the entire
range.
5.7
Summary
121
6 Eh
rV)^ ** +
Us
0)
I
iL
iL
a t
u
a s
a
o
o
IO
Q.
122
5 A Structured
Uncertainty
Model
are
few reflec
where
100%
is to be
steady-state error and the frequency expected. However, the output uncertainties
wy.
are more
difficult to
it is often necessary to
tions
shape. During the controller design procedure adjust them iteratively until nonlinear simula
This
show
problem
is
discussed further in
5.8 References
[5.1]
Weight
30th
Selection for
on
H-Infinity
and Mu-Control
Methods," Proc.
U. K. (1991)
Conference
Brighton,
[5.2]
System Design
(1987)
and
Workshop,
ton, 279-290
[5.3]
Conference
[5.4]
on
Decision and
M.
Control, Brighton, U.
(1991)
Skogestad, S.,
matic
Conditioned Plants:
Trans. Auto
[5.5]
Skogestad, S.,
Distillation
Columns," Comp.
Chem.
6.1 Introduction
123
Chapter
6.1 Introduction
While the
singular
value
commonly considered by
engineers. One
reason
for that
previous chapter
uncer
tainty model
antee
the
resulting controllers
guar
stability
and
This
chapter presents
summary of the
design
of
state-space controllers by
u-synthesis
implementation
a
of state-
space controllers in
troublesome
structures) is considered in
special
section. A
chapter.
124
|i-Optimal
Controller
Design
singular
value
uncertainty
methods
model.
unstructured uncertainty
on
such uncertainty
design,
one
large, fully
use
the
special
can
was
be avoided
by the
of the
J. C.
structured
singular value
|i, which
introduced in 1982
by
singular value (t
so
summarized
real/complex
uncertain
ties
6.2.1
Representation
of structured uncertainties
tainty
model for
6.1. The
singular value presumes that the uncer plant is rearranged into a special form, as shown in
process models and the
Figure
weighting
functions. It has three sets of inputs and outputs: The first set of
our case
inputs
to the
uncertainty blocks
are
are
signals po,,0
corresponding outputs
the
signals
p.^i.andTii.
The second set of inputs consists of all external reference lated
signals (disturbances d,
manipu
p,
inputs
u.
inputs
The
corresponding
set of
singular value
125
A
=
Uncertainties
P
Plant
K
Controller
uncertain
plant.
5.7
and
is related to
Figure
subject
to any
performance
measure
plant outputs
y,
respectively.
more
than
one
the main
block
model for the distillation column considered in this block structure holds:
diag (A
u,
C2 * 2,
8G e C, 8y.
R, 8
C )
alternatively,
C2 x 2,8G
e
e
diag (A
u,
^i
C )
(6.1)
M-^ftl-*1
model,
the matrix A is
a
For
an
unstructured uncertainty
fully occupied
matrix without
predefined
structure.
126
(i-Optimal
Controller
Design
The rearrangement of
an
uncertainty model
always possible.
[6.1]
as
The
MATLAB p-Analysis
and
Synthesis
Toolbox
well
as
provide
efficient tools
6.2.2
singular value
a
X-
{diag
8]Ir,...,8sIr,A1,...,Af 1^
singular
C,
A.
CmJxmJ}
(6.2)
The structured
m
=
with
Yfj
min
HA(M)
'
Ae X
{omax(A)|(det(I
MA)=0)}
(6.3)
ifno(AeX)
solves
det
(I
MA) =0
Hence 1/u
A which
moves a
pole
case
Figure
destabilizing
of
Figure
singular value
127
however,
|i(M)
is
not
defined,
and
the
numerical
results
are
misleading.
Some
{diagfD!
,...,Ds,ds
1Imi,...,ds
FImF]
(6.4)
|DiCrixrsDi=D*>0,ds+jR,ds+j>0}
and let U be the set of block-diagonal unitary matrices
|Ui6
C^U^U^}
(6.5)
p(M)<u(M)<omax(M)
H(DMD->)
max
=
u(M)
inf
(6.7)
(6.8)
UeU
p(UM) <p(M)
<
ofDMD-1)
mM
DSD
Property (6.6) reflects the advantage of the structured singular value u: In the presence of structured uncertainty, usually the inequality holds.
Therefore,
u
The invariance of \i to
diagonal scaling
as
is indicated
singular
values
as
well
No direct way has been found yet to calculate for the numerical
algorithms
according
to
property (6.8).
an
optimization problem.
The
optimization
simple
<
guaranteed
to be
equal
nA (M).
128
convex
and its
upper and
always
within 15%
([6.12],
[6.14]).
6.2.3
Before
stability
and
we
singular value,
plant
and the known controller K of the standard close the control loop
configuration
a
in order to
linear fractional
transformation [6.13]:
M(P,K)
The
J,(P,K)
Pn+P]2K(I-P22K)-iP 12
outputs:
(6.9)
M M12 M21
(6.10)
d
r
M(P,K)
Figure
6.3:
singular value
129
The
input
sets
are
are
the
inputs
P-
to the
uncertainty block
performance
measures
stability
diagonal
matrices with
particular struc
infinity-norm-bounded submatrices:
BX
{diagr81Iri,...,8sIvAI,...,Afl
V
|6i6c,Ajec,.m8i|^i.hL:si}
The system shown in
(6.11)
Figure
BX if and
only
if
sup
co
uA(Mn)<l
(6.12)
Proof:
see
[6.6]
struc
we
(Mu)
frequency
|oJ
<.
1,
||Aj|
not
<
1. If p,
(M) exceeds
uA)
a
one
guaranteed
<l/(sup
m
to be stable.
II5J
ii
iii~
and |A.||
ii
Jiioo
<l/(sup
w
stability is guaranteed.
performance
supp-(M)<l
Proof:
diag[A,Ap]
(6.13)
see
[6.6]
130
For the
application of theorem
uncertainty
6.2
we
have to add
one
uncertainty block
Ap
to the
structure A
ance
specification
by
HpIL
loop
<
1 for all
with
1. If
we
close the
<
from p to
with
<
|Ap|[
1,
||Ap|
1 destabilizes
loop
[dT, rT]T,
the
specified performance
the
for all
specified
set.
Therefore,
work of the
sta
to
test for
stability.
it
stability,
usually
A 0
AP
<)
M(P,K)
performance setup for the SSV-framework
Figure
6.3 The
The
design
the
model
for the industrial distillation column
is based
5.7
on
uncertainty
model
developed
in
Chapter
5 (see
Figure
page 121). For this model, the weighting functions for the
6.3 The
design model
131
input uncertainties,
output uncertainties,
reference
controller
performance
are
to be selected.
All
weighting
functions
are
chosen
as
diagonal
matrices:
Wd(s)
Wu(s)
diag[wXF(s),wp(s),wrio(s),wr44(s)]
(6.14)
=diag[wUL(s),wUv(s)]
=
(6.15)
Wy (s)
We(s)
(6.16)
(6.17)
primarily done
on
the basis
composition
frequency by
are
range. The
frequency
of these disturbances
are
modelled
first-order
design
wv
Xp
(s)
XF1
-iwithK
+ 1
S
0.1
XF
mol/mol,
T
XF
wF (s)
KF 1
*
+
with
lps
Kp
mol/min, Tp
120 min
(6.19)
r can
be used to model
are
setpoint
constant
chosen
as
measurement noise of
132
wr
(s)
wr
(s)
0.2
(6.20)
manip
wide
frequency
expected
to be much
co >
0.5 rad/minute:
wUl(s),wUv(s)=0.1i^
Output
is
(6.21)
limited.
deviation of the
pressure-compensated
to be reasonable. In the
for AT of 10%
seems
higher frequency
mismatch. An
range the
output uncertainty
a
is affected
by model
cross
assumption
of
100%
error
for
co
shown
over
good
one
results in controller
design. Adjusting
of this 100%
is
of the
behavior
wy
yiO
(s)
y44
(s)
ylA
(s)
0.liif
1 + 1.0/S
(6.22)
in the
as
first-order
lags
weights
matter of
optimization:
If the
frequency
is too
a
mance
fication
may lead to
significantly lower than the maximum attainable frequency an unsatisfactory controller design. This holds especially for the uK-iteration which is discussed later. A typical performance specifi
cation, which allows
a
0.01 C
steady-state offset,
is
given by
(6-23)
^-^-^T^Sooi
6.4 Controller
133
All
weights above
are
illustrated
by Figure 6.5
Uncertainty weights
Input
and
performance weights
10
10
10
10
10"
10
10
10"
Frequency (rad/min)
Figure
6.5:
u-synthesis
6.4 Controller
The
design
with
{i-synthesis
a
is the calculation of
stabilizing
inf stabilizing
(6.24)
>
As it is not
is
possible
exactly,
u
the
(6.8) (6.25)
Kstabilizing"
De D
amax(DM(P,K)D-1)
u-synthesis
is
maximum value
one.
134
(i-Optimal
Controller
Design
6.4.1
Synthesis algorithms
not
a
The
u-synthesis is
no
a one-step solution of the u-synthesis problem (6.24). algorithms require the repeated calculation of an H^ a
DK-Iteration
The
simultaneous
matrices
optimization problem of
an
the
frequency-dependent scaling
If we
Because
iterative
approach:
keep
the
mization of 1
||
inf
DgD
max^
Ml-
forms the
convex
problem
(6.26)
arg
infllDTUP.KJD-1!
Kll
1
II-
equation (6.26) represents a convex optimiza problem for the diagonal scaling matrices D. These scaling matrices
a
optimized by
uA
[?i (P, K) ]
inf o
DeD
(DMD-1)
(6.27)
The
frequency-dependent scaling
matrices D
.
are
approximated with
u-
is
Figure
improvement
Both of the
or
if
u <
However,
guaranteed:
lems
are
optimized scaling
mization
zation
matrices D
are an
problem (6.27),
but
they
are
minima.
6.4 Controller
design
with
u-synthesis
135
K0
arg
infl^P.K)^
ZZZ3ZZI
^[^(P.Ko)]
=D>nfDamax(DMD-i)
stable,
mm.
phase
T
K,
=arg
irfJDfsj^fP.KjD-'fB)!.
|
^[JjCP.K,)]
=D.nfD0-max(DMD-i)
Figure
6.6: DK-Iteration
ui<L-/terafJon A
new
scaling matrices D, this algorithm is based on a fit frequency-dependent SSV with a stable rational transfer func
plant is premultiplied with a diagonal u-approximating transfer function. Thus the peaks of u
of interest
are
within the
frequency range
u-curve.
proved.
136
u(jco)
^[^(P.Kq)]
Fit
|10 (jco)
.,
'..
ji0(s)
z.iz'vi"
K,
=
arg
inf|jio(s)7'1(P>K)||oo
;::_
u(jco)
:.l."._::..:
=
u-fJiCP.K,)]
' '
:::::: ::\:
*.=[?&
i
K=
arg
'
infNji. (s)(l0(s)?1(P,
"
'
K)||
J...
6.7: uK-Iteration
Figure
usually
gence
converges
more
slowly than
u
the
conver
properties
are
strongly dependent
u-curve.
Even
if convergence is
achieved,
frequencies.
6.4.2 The
design problem
was
not
algorithm
6.4 Controller
design
with
u-synthesis
137
likely, the
main
or
problem
fully occupied
2x2
or
3x3
(including
the
excluding the
measurement of
T24, respectively)
block of
D-scaling
and
repeated scalar
a
uncertainty block
8GI.
scalar,
stable,
minimum-phase
transfer function,
thereby,
since
minimum
not for the
phase behavior
single
6.4.3
is
remains to be solved.
The
apphcation
yield
convergence.
However,
it
is necessary to
the
slightly modify algorithm. premultiplication of u-curve-fitting transfer function jlj (s) increases the order of the
model at each iteration step. This
the
The
design
more
easily leads
to models with
problems
tion
an
order reduc
step after the augmentation of the plant and before the HM design.
balanced truncated realization
[6.1].
Experiences
A
typical
course
by Figure
u-
6.8. In the
<
frequency
achieved,
performance specification
(ja>)
1 is not
the upper bound of the SSV is forced down at each iteration step. After
six
no
further improvement is
possible. If we look
min,
we
frequency
range between
performance
task, but
not
"flattening"
design
This behavior of the iteration scheme may lead to strange results. Even
if the robust
performance criterion
an
is
closed-loop
insufficiently damped
138
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Convergence
of the uK-Iteration
has to be
an
performance specification.
specified
Slightly
frequency-domain
removes
increasing the
performance requirement
this
the uncertainty
specifications usually
Another
problem.
area:
problem of the
The
long computation
SUN
SPARC 2 workstation!
6.4 Controller
139
Analytically
In
or
chapter
of
in the low
frequency
is
order to achieve
an acceptable controller design (oscillation free) with analytically linearized models, the low-frequency gains of the distur
bance
must be
respect
higher frequency
dynamics does
dominate the
shape
uncertainty
weights
T10
and
T44.
kept equal for both types of linear models. However, the uncertainty
T24
to the of the
unmodelled flow
dynamics.
the
weighting functions,
identical
resulting state-space yield nearly closed-loop behavior with a small advantage from using the
real
uncertainty block
8G
8G
may be
a
uncertainty
frequency
range.
However, the
bance
weights
weights
not
superior
design obtained
with
140
(i-Optimal
Controller Design
\\K-Iteration
The
results
measurements
input vector of the controller may consist either of the pressurecompensated tray temperatures T10 and T44, or of all three tempera
tures. The
to the feed
response to
feed flow disturbances is faster than that of the other two temperatures.
Therefore,
an
improved
controller
Several
performance specification by
w
100
(6.28)
were
reduced to
an
order 20
using
control system [6.1]. The u-plot for the reduced-order controller (Figure
Figure
and
6.9:
Robust
performance
stability
for the
\i-optimal
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/min)
An
is
signals
to the controlled
(Fig.
6.10 a) y indicate
of interest. The
a good set-point tracking frequency range singular values of the individual transfer functions from
6.4 Controller
design
with
u-synthesis
141
10J
10J
10'
10
Frequency (rad/min)
Frequency (rad/min)
a)
Figure
6.10:
b)
with the
Singular values for the nominal closed-loop system state-space controller (controller inputs: Tig, T44, T24)
b) Transfer functions from disturbance signals
Dash-dotted line:
u-optimal
output signals
TF
T
solid line:
Tx
10
HUM
IIJJIL
cr-T-rrr
J 1 nil
1I
Mini.
10
10'
10'
Frequency (rad/min) Figure Singular values of the sensitivity function at u for the nominal closedloop system with the \i-optimal state-space controller (controller inputs: Tig,
6.11:
T44, T24)
142
(Fig.
6.10 b) show
maximum
of the
sensitivity
to
frequency
high-frequency
sensitivity
is
controller gains
range. The
cause an
low-frequency
(Fig. 6.11)
(6.29)
Su(s)
confirms the
[I
K(s)G(s)]-1
in the
common
unstructured
a
stability phase
The simulation of step responses using the rigorous described in Chapter 3 demonstrates the time-domain. Two disturbances
are
dynamic model
behavior in the
closed-loop
composition from
3.6 mol/min.
as
0.8 to 0.9
mol/mol, and
by
Figure
well
the control
errors
sensitivity
to
errors
in the
manipulated variables,
for the
same
10%
error
represented
in
compositions
tures
on
are
caused
trays 10 and
44 instead of the
product compositions.
espe
to
errors
in the
manipulated variables.
error
At both
is small. in feed
an increase compensation of the first disturbance reflux and boilup must be reduced. The second composition
distur
bance is
an
an
to be
compensated by
various
reasons.
boilup
steady-state has
a
are
subcooled and
liquid flow
6.4 Controller
143
Ft=0=20
0.020
mol/min
0.020
Ft=0=46
mol/min
I
g
a
o
0.015
0.010
S
o
Top composition
Bottom
Top composition
Bottom composition
composition
0.005
o
0.005
40 o 10 20 Time (h)
10
20
Time (h)
30
30
40
Ft=0=20
0.4
mol/min
Ft=0=46
mol/min
1: 0.2
'
!!
/K W'""}i
^
0.0
-8
a.
0.2
B
0.4
!! ii
*
I
error error
Control Control
T-10
T-44
06
10
20
30
40
10
20
30
40
Time (h)
Time (h)
state space controller
Figure
\i-optimal
(controller
increase in feed
composition (0.8
->
0.9 mol/mol)
L, V equal
to controller
output
error
144
|i-Optimal
Controller
Design
Ft=0=20 mol/min
70
1
Ft=0=46
140
mol/min
60
\
V
.
/'
/'
^
s
50
Boilup
Reflux
40
\
30 20
V-J
V
10
20
30
40
10
20
30
Time (h)
Time (h)
Figure
\i-optimal state-space
controller (controller in
puts:
for
an
increase in feed
composition (0.8
0.9 mol/mol) at
t=0 h and
^^-
L, V equal
output
error
trays. Second, the major part of the feed leaves the column
as
top
product.
If we compare the
we
plots for
recognize
an
performance
especially
for
at
high
in
sluggish
changes
6.4 Controller
design
with
u-synthesis
145
is
explained by the
course
of the
manipulated
variables in
Figure
6.13.
An increase in feed
composition
boilup by
=11
mol/min, while
at
by
=30 mol/min!
Since in practice
rejection of feed flow variations has much higher significance. [iK-Iteration results for
When
are
two
temperature measurements
on
trays 10 and 44
to
used
the controller
oscillation-free closedas
loop dynamics.
For
design
purpose, the
same
weights
in the
previous
design
reduced to order 20
by
u-plots
worse
robustness
properties of this
to the controller
controller in the
higher frequency
criteria.
range
as
(compared
robustness and
stability
Figure
and
6.14: Robust
performance \i-optimal
stability
for the
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/min)
An
small
maximum
e, but
an
evidently
reduced
146
u-Optimal
Controller
Design
Sensitivity
at
I
CO
10
10"
10'
Frequency (rad/min)
Sensitivity
at
u
10
10'
10
10
10
10'
Frequency (rad/min)
Figure
6.15:
Singular values
of the
sensitivity functions
at
{upper plot)
and at
{lower plot) for the nominal closed-loop system with the \i-optimal state-space
controller (controller inputs:
Tig, T^
6.4 Controller
147
stability margin
the SSV and the
at
u.
relationship between
measures.
common
unstructured robustness
high
performance, paired
with
larger sensitivity
to
input
errors.
input,
we
qualities"
in the time-domain
are
is to expect
better
faster
to
state-estimation. This is
possible
give
an
of this
chapter.
Ft=0=20
0.020
mol/min
0.020
Ft=0=46
mol/min
I
o
0.015
o
0.015
B
a
o
el
o
03
ID
S
o
0.010
a.
S
o
0.010
Top composition
Bottom
Top composition
Bottom
composition
composition
0.005 o
10 20
0.005 30
40
10
20
30
40
Time (h)
Time (h)
Figure
inputs: Ti0, T^
t=0 h and
-"
for
an
increase in feed
0.9 mol/mol) at
an
L,
equal
to controller
output
error
148
6.5
structure
are
In the process
common.
very
controller
design and
on
its
acceptance
substantially improved
control elements (such
PID
u-optimal
first-order
tuning
of
simple
a
PID
controllers,
lags)
within
arg
K
inf stabilizing
|MM)|| II A II~
(6<,o.ou;
30)
design objective is extremely difficult. Because no synthesis methods exist, (6.30) must be solved by a parameter optimiza
tion approach. During this optimization the SSV has to be calculated repeatedly for a number of frequency points. However, the maximum of the SSV may be very sensitive to the number of frequency
points calcu
lated. In order to
can
be
approximated by
frequency points:
k
arg
inf
e
u| {Jr[P, K(0) ] }
i
=
(6.31)
Summing the cube, large values of the SSV have the design objective becomes closer to (6.30).
The calculation of the SSV presumes
much
more
weight and
are calculated by solving an H^ problem, which always guarantees nominal stability. However, during a
must be
supplemented with
boundary
stability:
<0
Re
Kn *,*!. K}
(6.32)
6.5
Design
149
A second
boundary condition
is the robust
stability criterion,
which
uA{^[P,K(8)]}
This constrained parameter tial
<1
(6.33)
sequen
In contrast to the
high
reliability,
at the
higher computation
times.
However, the
excellent results
6.5.1
The
most
structure (Figure 6.17) is the simplest and composition control structure for distillation
two control
loops,
this
or
setpoint changes
r10
:^j
f>!
+
PID!
Distillation
Tio
Column with
r44
J
i
_
PID2
inventory
control
T44
Figure
6.17:
Diagonal
The
design
model
same uncertainty model as u-synthesis, excluding the temperature measurement
The
150
on
are
the
same
transfer functions
as
for PI control
diagonal
PI control structure is
given by
KR
l+TI,s
1
L(s)
TI,s
KR
2
e10(s)
(6.34)
V(s).
l+TI2s e44(s)
TI2s
optimization for the
as
analytically
and
numerically linearized
column
models,
well
as
for
parameters for
mixed
real/complex u-anal
ysis. However,
and the
TIj
are
corresponding
are
low-frequency gains
smaller
are
much
higher. The
for that
the
uncertainty of the
diagonal
PI control structure
U-analysis
Complex
Mixed R/C
KRt
(mol/min/C)
-14.09 -11.27 -11.52 -14.58
TIi
(min)
137 141 49 60
KR2
(mol/minTC)
2.49 3.15
TI2
(min)
34 52
Analytical
Complex
Mixed R/C
6.92
6.36
56
41
6.5
Design
151
can
be
improved.
to those of the
u-synthesis.
is not
the
using
real/complex u-analysis
and
u-
analysis
numerically
linearized models.
linearized models,
structure
are
diagonal
PI control
shown in
specified
mance
perfor
specification performance
frequency
However,
robust
frequency range.
1.5
a
1
/T\
RP
\/\
RS^
Figure
and
6.18: Robust
stability
for
performance diagonal PI
control
0.5
\^
10" 10'
CO
10
10"
Frequency (rad/min)
The transfer functions from the reference and disturbance inputs to the
frequency
range. This
means a
high sensitivity of
inputs.
tracking behavior
152
io1
r->y
8 io
3
_____^"\
1
S
io
^\
10
,n-2 10
\
10
10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/min)
Frequency (rad/min)
a)
Figure
6.19:
b)
values for the nominal
Singular
closed-loop
with
diagonal
Pi-controller
are
confirmed
(Figure 6.20). They demonstrate the sluggish disturbance rejec optimally tuned diagonal PI control. However, performance plot, the
maximum control
tion of the
expected
is suffi
error
ciently
uncertainty.
Results The
use
design. Since true differential behavior is realizable, the parameters for PID controllers with a first order lag
are
in series
optimized (real
following
transfer
L(s)
GK1
0
o" e,0(s)
GK2 644(8)
(6.35)
V(8)_
6.5
structure
153
Ft=0=20
0.020
mol/min
0.020
Ft =o=46
mol/min
h
0.015
0.015
I
o
6
a
o
^
I V--'
H i v.--
CO
0.010
o.
0.010
6
o
Top composition
\r
0
^
Bottom composition
Bottom composition
0.005
0 10
Ft==o=20 mol/min
0.4 k
Ft=0=46
0.4
mol/min
0.2
i \
I
0.2
f
''
--
0.0
^T^=
I
U CD
0.0
! r>
0.2
!!
-
P.
-0.2
a
-0.4
error error
0.4
ControlI
Control, .It
T-10
T-44
Control Control
error error
T-10
T-44
0,6 0
-0.6
10
20 Time (h)
30
40
10
20
30
40
Time (h)
Figure
diagonal
PI control for
an
an
increase in feed
composition (0.8
error
L, V equal
to controller
output
error
154
with 1+TIs
TI.TD.s2
+
GKi^=KRi
TI^l
sTL,)
(6.36)
in
high-frequency
can
range. A
measurement
noise
be avoided
by
various methods:
Limitation of high
boundary conditions
In order to
given
in Table 6.2.
diagonal real
TI
TL
mol/min/C
PID1 -15.97 4.40
(min)
101
(min)
7.41 15.2
(min)
2.00 7.16
PID 2
39.0
numerically
complex u-analysis
The
structure show
an
performance
u-{Jr[P,K(0)]}
is
<1
(6.37)
Figure
time.
same
provement is
reduction of the
settling
6.5
Design
155
Figure
and
6.21: Robust
performance
real
stability
for
diagonal
PID control
10"J
10"
10
10
Frequency (rad/min)
Ft=0=20
0.020
mol/min
0.020
Ft_o=46
mol/min
A
o
I
S
o
0.015
l
\
!
**"
.'s*-
'_
CO
ft
6
o
0.010
jr
Top composition
Bottom
Top composition
Bottom
composition
composition
0.005
o 10 20 30
40
0.005
0
i,
10
20
30
40
Time (h)
Time (h)
Figure
diagonal
an
increase in feed
composition (0.8
-
L,
equal
to controller
output
error
156
An
Figure
6.23:
Singular
values of the
diagonal
PID controller
'"lO"5
103
10'
101
Frequency (rad/min)
high-frequency controller gains would be possible. However, decreasing high-frequency limits annihilate the
necessary. A reduction of these
improvements achieved
over
the
diagonal PI control
structure.
we
absolutely
high performance.
6.5.2
The major
loops. These
be
partially
cancelled
by
use
of
decoupling techniques.
is shown in
simple
decoupling
Figure
or
6.24.
The
decoupling elements
be static (static
decoupling)
dynamic
(dynamic decoupling).
The
tuning
of the
structure for
on an
distillation column
is difficult. Often
are
based
inversion of the
plant's
is very
The resulting
closed-loop behavior
errors.
Summarizing the
research results,
6.5
Design
157
r10
*"
PIDi
+
10
Distillation Column
with
inventory
PID,
control
l44
Figure
decoupling
piers should
never
be used for
LV-configuration. On
less sensitive to
to be
decoupling
structure is static
are
simplest decoupling
decoupling.
same
uncertainty model
ture.
decoupling.
high-frequency gains
small
criterion
were
necessary.
decouplers
are
somewhat
that the
us
optimal decoupling
is very close to
decoupling!
Let
158
Table 6.3:
u-optimal parameters
static
decoupling
TD
TL
Controller
or
KR
TI
decoupler
1 2
No.
(mol/min/C)
-5.21 3.71 -13.1 4.56
(min)
22.8
46.8 51.6 62.1
(min)
-
(min)
-
(-)
-0.0240
1.11
1
2
7.83
5.11
8.43 3.07
-0.217 1.03
The
decoupler parameter C2 is close to one. Therefore the output of the top composition controller causes
or
any variation of
a
simultaneous
increase
boilup
by almost the
The other
C}
is small.
a
of
small effect
additional
temperature
temperature
improved feedback
nor
composition profile
This
for the
tages for the closed-loop behavior. The u-plots in Figure 6.25 demon
strate
superior
robust
performance
of the
decoupling control
a
optimal tuning
peak of the
robust
performance plot
values.
frequency
singular
Using
decoupling
degrees of freedom
controller
in the controller
design allow
in
significantly better
performance, especially
the
important mid-frequency
6.5
Design
159
-a
>
,RPa
/
0.5
-
//\
/
-RS-
03
tn
0
10 10
10
10
10
10
10
10'
Frequency (rad/min)
Figure
6.25: Robust
Frequency (rad/min)
PI control
{left)
and
{right) with
static
decoupling
on
singular value plots of the loop transfers from the reference and
disturbance
signals
to the
io1
r-y
oitude
C8
10
_^\
"^\\
IO"'
\
10
,n-2
10 10 10 10 10
10
Frequency (rad/min)
Frequency (rad/min) b)
closed-loop system for
PID control
a)
Figure
6.26:
Singular
with static
decoupling
to
T
output signals
^
~*
^f
160
better controller
are
performance
as
Tr
and
the The
tracking
behavior is
simulation
results
improved
the
controller
comparable
sensitivity
to
input
uncertainty
increased,
it is still small.
Ft=0=20
0.020
mol/min
0.020
Ft_0=46
mol/min
I
o
0.015
g
a
o
XD
6
o
0.010
Top composition
Bottom composition
Top composition
Bottom composition
0.005
o 10
0.005 20
30
40
10
20
30
40
Time (h)
Time (h)
Figure
decoupling
an
for
an
in
crease
composition (0.8
>
increase of feed
L,
equal
controller output
error
6.5
Design
161
dynamic decoupling
Cx
and
C2
Ci(B)
a
Kci|g
listed in Table 6.4.
control with
(6.38)
dynamic decoupling
a
degrees
of
freedom allow
design. The
Controller
TD
TL
(mol/min/C)
PID1 -22.2
5.68
-
(-)
-
(min)
80.2 59.4
-
(min)
19.6
12.6
(min)
44.8 24.7 7.42
PID 2
CI C2
-0.138 1.07
117
53.0
71.43
numerically
complex u-analysis
performance which
a
is
insignificantly
u-optimal
a
However, the
difficult initialization of
dynamic decoupling in
disadvantage.
6.5.3
decoupling
decoupling
are
have shown
optimal
results for
In this
decoupling
section the
structures which
close to one-way
decoupling.
are
optimal
discussed.
distributed
decoupler as
simple pling.
as
162
Ft=0=20
0.020
mol/min
0.020
Ft=0=46
mol/min
fi
a
0.015
O
!i
i\
-'
'\
{\/~.
'-'
TV
CO
S
o
0.010
Top composition
Bottom composition
Bottom
composition
0.005 o 10 20
30 40
Time (h)
Figure
an
in
crease
composition (0.8
->
increase of feed
Two different
decoupler
structures
are
possible
a
if we set either
zero.
Cj
or
C2
Figure
to
6.24 to
decoupling lead
0),
no
us
expect
good performance
case
firstcase(C,
In fact, the
inference is
possible
a
(C2
0).
second
case
(C2
0). Therefore
of the
reversal of the
decoupling control
compo
structure with
shaping
moving
the
comparable
to those
decoupling
structure.
0
The tuning parameters for the controller with C j Table 6.5. The
can
be found in
us
corresponding
u-curves
expect
6.5
Design
163
Table 6.5:
control with
Controller
or
TI
TD
TL
decoupler
1
No.
(mol/min/C)
-10.5 5.35
(min)
45.7 67.4
(min)
2.18
(min)
5.01
(-)
0 1.05
13.4
13.9
numerically
complex u-analysis
CD
73
>
a
.3
T3
CD
0.5
Figure 6.29: Robust performance and stability for real PID-control with
one-way
decoupling
Frequency (rad/min)
two-
decoupling.
Figure
interpretation.
structure which is
simple and
a
easily implemented
in
sufficiently high
controller
performance.
164
u-Optimal
Controller
Design
Ft=0=20
0.020 r"1
mol/min
'
'
Ft=0=46
0.020
mol/min
0.015
0.015
0.010
0.010
Top composition
Bottom
Top composition
Bottom
composition
composition
0.005 o 10 20
Time (h)
0.005 30
40 10
20 Time (h)
30
40
Figure
an
6.30: Simulation results for PID control with static one-way increase in feed
decoupling
an
for
composition (0.8
->
increase
6.6
Summary
PID control
structures
obtained
surprising results. The frequently heard opinion that state-space controllers are much superior to PID control structures apparently is
not true for this distillation column. The PID control structures with
decoupling
structures
exhibit
nearly the
a
same
performance
as
state-space controller of
are
optimally
and
6.6
Summary
165
simulation
measures.
For
errors
ISE
J
o
[e20(t)+e|4(t)]dt,
(6.39)
time-multiplied
absolute control
errors
t=40h
ITAE
| C|eio<t>| |e44(t)|]
+ 0
* dt
(6-40>
the
performance
measure
process
industry
be found in Table
6.6. The last two columns in this table state the maximum absolute
optimization criterion
f(0)
u|{^[P,K(0)]}
i= 1
(6.41)
using
temperature
high correlation
optimization by the
criterion
are
obvious. The
single exception
state-space controller
using
may be caused
convergence
problems
mentioned before.
This table
approach
has
proved
to be
an
166
Table 6.6:
Comparison of controllers
Relative
in time-domain
Control structure
Relative
ITAE
Max.
u-
Relative
ISE
2>f (j<)
0.85 1.00
State-space controller,
3
temp,
measurements
1.00
1.00
State-space controller,
2
temp,
measurements
0.82
1.05
1.04
Diagonal PI Diagonal
control
3.13
2.89
2.14
PID control
2.08
2.42
1.87
1.74
1.53
1.13
decoupling
1.55
two-way decoupling
PID control with
1.44
1.23
0.91
1.19
dynamic
two-way decoupling
PID control with static one-way
1.18
1.12
0.88
1.12
decoup. (Ci=0)
1.99
1.51
0.97
1.34
6.7 References
[6.1]
u-
Analysis
and The
and
[6.2]
Synthesis Techniques
to Momentum
Management
and Attitude
New
Orleans,
LA (1991)
Chiang, R. Y.,
6.7 References
167
[6.4]
Dailey, R.
Workshop
on
on
H and
Conference
Decision and
Doyle, J. C: "Analysis of Feedback Systems with Structured Uncertainties,"IEEProc., 129, Pt. D., No. 6,
242-250
(1982)
[6.6]
Uncertainty,"
Proc.
on
Decision and
Control, (1982)
[6.7]
on
Decision and
dale,
[6.8]
Doyle, J.,
u-
(1987)
[6.9]
as
Structured
Singular
67-73
Design Example,"
Control
Systems, 11, 4,
219-224 (1993)
168
Perspective,"
Trans.
oftheASME, 115,
Value," Automatica,
29
1, 71-109 (1993)
3rd IFAC
Symposium
on
1-25
(1992)
2330 (1987)
7.1 Introduction
169
Chapter
Controller
Unstructured
A
Comparison
7.1
A controller
operating
column (see
Chapter 6) requires
a huge computational effort. Naturally, question arises what controller performance and robustness proper
be achieved if we
use
on
just one
plant model
and classical
design methods
A few of these
simpler methods
discussed in this
applied
mance.
in
straightforward
to
are
not
guaranteed
inherent
presented
in the previous
170
7 Controller
Comparison
are
the
7.2
A
Diagonal
Pi-control
seems
diagonal
are
Pi-control scheme
to be most
frequently
used in
conventionally
lers
tion
a
Usually
these PI control
large
composi
to lead to to
use
dynamics,
cannot
tuning approach
controller
performance close
as
Ziegler-Nichols
unstable MIMO
While the
use
following
two
of the classical
cannot be
guaranteed.
7.2.1
The
was
proposed by Luyben
in 1986
criterion. The
=
closed-loop system
(s) and
a
Gu
diagonal
[I
G(s)K(s)]-1G(s)K(s)r(s)
(7.1)
The characteristic
is the scalar
equation
det(I
+
G(s)K(s))
(7.2)
7.2
Diagonal Pl-control
171
If we
plot (7.2)
as a
zeros of the
Luyben
introduces
function W(s):
W(s)
-l+det(I
G(s)K(s))
(7.3)
approaches
is to
the
system
objective is defined
L.
=
as
20
log
W(J()
1+W(ja
<
2p Voe R+
(7.4)
procedure
settings
starts
with
inputs/outputs of G(s). The proposed tuning independent Ziegler-Nichols settings for PIloops.
In
a
detuned
by
factor F
K,
Ki
ZN;
=
Tli
TIm
(7.5)
Results
The
GN (s)
of the distillation
was
process
necessary
to achieve the
design objective
too
(7.4). The
composition controller is
Table 7.1:
Tuning
Controller
KR
TI
(mol/min/C)
PI1 -47.1 6.74
(min)
95.2 171.8
PI 2
172
7 Controller
Comparison
measurement
noise attenuation. A
same
used in and
previous chapter)
any
stability
robust
However,
frequency gains of
insufficient level.
the bottom
absolutely
Figure
7.1:
u-plots
for
diagonal
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/min)
7.2.2
introduced
one
by Mayne ([7.8],
corre
[7.9]). First,
designed for
has been
design
completed, the
variables is chosen. Thus the interaction between the control taken into account. This
It is
loops
7.2.
is
design procedure
is illustrated in
Figure
be
an
can
designed
draw
may
some severe
two
input/output pairs
have
loops [7.7].
if the
plant G(s)
is not
7.2
Diagonal Pi-control
173
G3(s)
G2(s)
G^s)
Figure
7.2:
iG^aco)] >|Gij(jco)|
is not
VcoeR+
(7.6)
satisfied,
we
have to
Design Results
The
sequential loop closing idea has been applied to the composition For each control problem represented by the nominal model GN(s)
.
SISO
a
loop,
60
degrees
maximum
required.
possible
minimal inte
gral
absolute
error
respect
model)
are
summarized in
analysis
peturbations
and
shows
for the for the
Se=2.6, Se=2.4
Su=2.1 Su=1.9
Top
Bottom
design
sequence,
and of
and
174
7 Controller
Design
for Unstructured
Uncertainty
Comparison
Design
sequence
KR1
TI2
(mol/min/C)
(min)
101.9 52.6
(mol/min/C)
10.09 8.78
(min)
55.8
214.5
Top
->
Bottom
-
-18.0
-18.0
Bottom
Top
sequence Bottom
->
are
insufficient. The
are
illus
can
neither
a
a
CO
10
10
10
10
to
10"'
10
10"'
10'
Frequency (rad/min)
Frequency (rad/min) b)
a) Figure
7.3:
|l-plots
a) Top
for the
->
Bottom
>
b) Bottom
Top design
7.2.3 The
Optimized
robust
diagonal Pi-control
objective of this controller design is a maximization of the distur bance rejection capabilities with the boundary conditions of sufficient stability margins. As a measure the IAE as defined by
LEnd
of the disturbance
rejection capabilities
IAE
[]e10(t)|
|e44(t)|]dt
(7.7)
7.2
Diagonal Pi-control
175
is
suitable
measure.
closed-loop system. If we
prop
closed-loop system form boundary conditions for the Stabihty bounds in terms of the sensitivity at
are
well established. If
we
require
the
phase
margin of at least 35
(which is
relatively small),
following
Se(jco) Su(j<o)
The
[I
G(jco)K(jco)]-1
<1.7
VcogR+
(7.8)
[I
KCJoojGGffl)]-1
<1.7
VcoeR+
(7.9)
are
found
either
by
optimization.
Results
The results for this
design approach
previous
are
given in Table
7.3. The
corre
sponding u-plots (Fig. 7.4) illustrate the improved robust stabihty prop
erties
compared
to the
robust
stability, the
robust
a
performance
is
u-optimal design of
(Figure 7.5)
shows
Table 7.3:
Tuning
constants with
optimizing method
TI
Controller
KR
(mol/min/C)
PI1 PI 2
-5.10
(min)
600.0 86.2
4.92
176
7 Controller
Design
for Unstructured
Uncertainty
Comparison
Figure
7.4:
u-plots
method
for
diagonal
op
Pi-controller
designed by
timizing
10"
10
10
Frequency (rad/min)
Ft=0=20
0.020
mol/min
0.020
Ft=0=46 mol/min
"1
,MUMIIIM"MMI
"
h
0.015
o
11
o
!
V
i \
5
g
a
o
TO
i \
\.
Bottom
I
o
0.015
I1,
\
fr
g
a
o
Top composition
Bottom
composition
composition
0.010
o
s
o
0.010
^^^
0.005 0 10
20 30
l"
0.005
,
yj
10 20 30 40
40
Time (h)
Time (h)
Figure
diagonal
PI controller
(designed by optimiz
0.9 mol/mol) at t=0 h
increase in feed
composition (0.8
Upper plots:
Lower
plots:
L,
-^^^^^
equal
to controller
output
error
decoupling
177
decoupling
a
reduction of the
If we
on
diagonal
task takes
the characteristics of
emphasized already
sensitivity
a
in the
reduction of the
loop
an
to
to model and
perfor
may be
of
controller
even
strongly reduced
In the
diagonal
PI controller.
simplest
case,
or
as
plant behavior
or
is
"compensating" prepling" matrix. Different approaches for the selection of these interaction
a
altered
by
postmultiplied
"decou
reducing matrices
are
proposed:
a
process. For
G*u_y(s) =Gu^y(s)G-'u^y(0)
or
(7.10)
G*u_y(s) =G-'u_y(0)Gu^y(s)
With
a
state space
representation of the
to
process, the
decoupling matrix
is calculated
according
G"1u_>y(0)
The choice of tion
a
(CA^B)-1
or
(7.11)
premultiplication
postmultiplication
of this interac
reducing
matrix is another
degree
design.
Mayne [7.9] proposes a reduction of the high-frequency interactions of the plant. The corresponding decoupling matrix is calculated by
G-u_y(j~)
(CB)-1
(7.12)
178
7 Controller
Design
for Unstructured
Uncertainty
Comparison
pre-
or
postcompensation has
to be decided
decoupling
on
the
composition profile
temperature
of the two
sum
duty.
"implicit decoupling."
based
on a
approach,
at
steady
state, is
presented by
[7.1]. Let the SVD of the steady-state transfer matrix of the process
Gu_y(0)
be
Gu^y(0)
where U and V
are
UIVT,
X
(7.13)
is
diagonal matrix
diag(Oj,a2).
plant-inverting
VZ~'UT
(7.14)
In order to avoid
high sensitivity
to
input
errors
due to the
a
perfect
decoupling
at
et al.
[7.1] introduce
matrix F
al+ (l-a)E
(7.15)
and define
a new
compensation
D
=
matrix D
as
VFI^UT
0...1
(7.16)
allows
=
The
single parameter
a
with
continuous shift
a
between
plant-inverting compensator (a
remove
1) and
compensator
directionality
on
of the process
(a
has to be chosen
in the
errors
errors
decoupling
179
required performance
G"1^
(0) D).
are
In order to calculate
described in section
"optimal" controllers, the optimization approach 7.2.3 has been applied to the different compensated
not
plants. However,
lers
it
was
possible
to achieve any
acceptable control
using
the
distinguished by
obtained
as
a
one-way
decoupling
structure
as
we
result of the
Compensator matrices
Position of com
Type
of compensator
Compensator
matrix
pensator
Decoupling at
co
=
Plant input
or
plant output
Plant input
or
Decoupling at
0)
= oo
plant output
-0.193_
Implicit decoupling
Plant output
-1 -1 -1 1
SVD-based compen
sation (a
=
0.8)
Plant input
to
an
boundary condition
<
18 mol/
min/C)
are
performance and robust stability. (Figure 7.7) show an insufficiently higher frequencies for the minimum feed flow
is
a
robust
in the
in the
change of
180
7 Controller
Design
for Unstructured
Uncertainty
Comparison
Table 7.5:
Optimal
PI
tuning constants
for
plant
with
SVD-based Controller
compensation
KE TI
(mol/min/C)
PI1 -18.0 18.0
(min)
47.4 116.0
PI 2
1
S-c
RP1
03
1
0.5
/
-
<7\
-
RS-
**
Figure
tuned
diagonal
PI control.
s
CO
10
10
10
10'
Frequency (rad/min)
oscillations
are
allowed
by the performance
a
frequency
domain!
They require
on
detuning
of the
performance.
decoupling
181
Ft=0=20
0.020
'"1
mol/min
0.020
Ft=0=46
mol/min
|
o
0.015
\
\
"
g "a
o
en
.J v..
/
I
a
a
a
0.015
/x
i
/
X*
i
:y
\^
p.
s
o
0.010
e
o
0.010
'
Top composition
Bottom
composition
Bottom composition
0.005
0 10
_
0.005 20 Time
30 40 0
10
_
20
30
40
(h)
Time (h)
Figure
diagonal
PI
con
trol for
increase in feed
composition (0.8
an
error
L,
equal
to controller
output
error
182
7 Controller
Comparison
7.4
H^ optimal design
minimizing design ([7.2], [7.4], [7.7], [7.10]) of multivari
The H^-norm
proved
to be
based controllers.
HM Design specification
The
the
augmented
W
weighting
functions
Wd (s) We (s)
,
Wu (s)
and
weighting scheme. The matrix Wd (s) is a diagonal matrix of transfer functions and represents the frequency content of the feed composition,
feed flow rate, and reference
weighting functions
are
zfi(s)
zu(s)
Zy(s)
d(s)rOO-
Figure
7.8:
design
H^ optimal design
183
All other
weighting functions
are
chosen
as
diagonal frequency-depen
are
dent weights because the performance and robustness properties equal for all channels:
We (s)
diag
(7.17)
Wu (s)
(7.18)
Wy(s)
The
diag[wy(s),wy(s)]
is
(7.19)
performance
a
of the
closed-loop system
specified
in terms of the
We (s).
A first-order
a
lag
specified
to achieve
nearly
inte
grating behavior.
The bandwidth of the
is limited
by the weighting
function W
(s)
which
T[dT)rT]T_>y
A first-
signals
to the
plant outputs.
order
A
lead-lag
As done with W
(s),
first-order
lead-lag
poles and
zeros
of the
e
weighting functions
u
were
sensitivity functions at
and at
of the
as
a
approximately the
(with 2
same
peak values
temperature measurements),
high performance,
1
(jco)
(7.20)
were
are
given by
(7.21)
We(s>
100i+^20i
184
7 Controller
Design
for Unstructured
Uncertainty
Comparison
(7.22)
,1 +1500s wy(s)=0JT+T5T
,
(7.23)
Design results Despite the fact that the singular values of sensitivity functions for the H^- design (Figure 7.10) and for the u-synthesis (Figure 6.15) are nearly
identical, the u-analysis shows significant differences. The p>plots of the
H^ design (Figure 7.9) show much higher peak values in the low and
mid-frequency sensitivity
was
closed-loop performance
A reduction of this
common
manipulated
errors
variables is
not
large.
sensitivity
to
plant input
scheme.
possible
using the
S/KS/T
weighting
Figure
7.9:
u-plots
for
H^
op
timal controller
10"
10"
10
10
Frequency (rad/min)
H optimal design
185
Sensitivity at
cs
10"
10
10
10
10"
at
ji
u
i
i
10'
1iiii
mi
1ji' i
'
j 'il
1ii
11
nj
11 in
1ir-rrrm
1r-i
11 ra
/_>=-
itude
a
2
io
/ /~
__X
10
2
/
10 10 10
"
Singular
at
186
7 Controller
Design
for Unstructured
Uncertainty
Comparison
Ft=0 =20
0.020
mol/min
0.020 r
Ft=0=46
mol/min
(mol/ )
osit on
Comp
h.
0.015
v..
..
J\
0.010
If
Af-
\
0.005
Top composition
Bottom
Top composition
Bottom
composition
composition
1,,
10
40
10
20
30
40
Time (h)
Figure 7.11:
HM-controller for
an
an
increase in feed
composition (0.8
(+ 3.6 mol/min)
at t=20 h
Upper plots:
^^^^^
Product
composition
error
L,
equal
to controller
output
error
7.5
Summary
187
7.5
The
Summary
application of design methods for unstructured uncertainty
to obtain
to the
composition (or temperature) control problem shows that it is extraordi narily difficult
the
performances which
was
are
comparable
a
to those of
robust
tuning of
possible
to achieve any
satisfactory
result.
Better results
were
H^ -minimization approach.
stability for the
The
resulting
ating
are
entire oper
nearly
simple
robust
design based
be very sensitive to
unstructured uncertainty model tends to uncertainty at operating points different from input
a
as
7.6 References
[7.1]
[7.2]
Dailey, R.
ods
on
H and ]i Meth
on
Decision and
Control, Brighton,
[7.3]
Control, AC-21,
(1976)
to
[7.4]
J. C.
HM Opti
Control,"
Information Sciences,
188
7 Controller
Comparison
[7.5]
in
Des.
Dev., 25,
654-660 (1986)
[7.6]
Luyben,
W. L.: Process
Chemical
Engineers,
2nd ed.,
[7.7]
Maciejowski,
Mayne,
D.
of linear multivariable
systems," Au-
sys
und
(1993)
vs.
implicit decoupling
in distillation
Engineers,
New
8.1 Introduction
189
Chapter
Feedforward Controller
Design
8.1 Introduction
It is
a a
vantage
be
overcome
by the
use
probably the most frequent disturbance of a distillation column is a change in the feed flow rate. Because the feed flow rate is always
measured, it
can
be used
as
controller
input. An appropriately
designed
atures
product compositions and the controlled tray temper change. However, because of model errors and other unmeasured
a
disturbances
never
be able to
yield
perfect control
Within this
controllers for
proposed design
methods take into account the wide operating range of the distillation
column and the unmeasured feed composition.
190
8 Feedforward Controller
Design
8.2 The
design problem
design objective
is
a
8.2.1
The
The
error
in
presence
problem
is the
perfect
on
rejection of
depends
may be
measured feed flow rate and the unmeasured feed composition. A controller
others.
design
for
one
operating point
unsatisfactory
a
at any
Consequently,
column.
it is
impossible
the
to
design
perfect
is
a
linear timerange of
a
operating
distillation
Hence
feedforward
makes it
an enormous
task.
Fortunately,
If
good Chapter design the feedforward controller simultaneously for the models
results:
minimum feed flow rate and maximum feed
5 lead to very
GR(s) (representing
minimum feed
rate and
composition),
obtain
One-step
or
two-step design?
in
a
one-step
or as a
second step
of
feedforward
because the affects the
feedback controller
the
uncertainty
to the
structure
presented
the
purpose, the
uncertainty
structure is
controller, i.e.,
8.2 The
design problem
191
a) One-step design
xF
F-f-
wF(s)
KF(s)
K(s)
b) Two-step design
A
*
Step
1: Feedback
design
1
A *-
P
1
K(s)
Step
2: Feedforward
design
F-f
r
-*P
wF(s)
Kp(8)
K(s)
may be
simpler uncertainty
plant
P.
192
8 Feedforward Controller
Design
certain draw
Convergence
is unattainable
our case
Using the u-optimization approach, the one-step design needs significantly more computation time than the two-step design.
(The computing
with k>2.)
cost is
proportional
to {number of
parameters)11
the feed flow
compensa
For
acceptable results,
the
signals
improvements in the
to the
performance
part result
specification. Very
therefrom.
small
in the feedforward
is focused
on
the
as a
feedforward control does not affect any stability properties of the closed-
loop system,
two
the
design
relatively simple.
It is discussed
of
examples.
8.3
H^-minimization
a
feedforward controller
design.
Before
we use
a
we
have to build up
controller K(s). As
feedback
using all
we
temperature
wish to improve the compensation of feed flow disturbances for the plant models GR (s) as well as for GT (s) we have to close the feedback
,
loops
The The
the desired
performance, and
limit the
high-frequency output
is outlined in
KF (s)
design plant
diagonal
functions
we(s)
H^-minimization
193
Wu(8)
Gr(b)
u
K3
KF(S)
uF
Jl
K(s)
6
We(s)
GT(s)
u
K3
Figure
8.2: The
K(s)
tO
a
augmented plant
for
controller
KF(s) by H^-minimization
Wp(s)
It demands the
diag[w(s),wp(s),wp(s),w(s)]
(8.1)
same
we(s)
is chosen
as
|TF _J
high pole of we (s) is adjusted 1 is achieved. The final transfer function becomes
a
static
gain. The
We(S>
If do not
100TT2380i
(8.2)
we
specify
we
any
controller output,
obtain
controller with
large high-frequency
Wu(s)
for
the
feedforward
controller output uF
according to
194
8 Feedforward Controller
Design
Wu(s)
with the
diag[wUF(s),wUF(s)]
(8.3)
104s
l+2.5s
(8.4)
singular
values of the controller and the transfer functions from the disturbance
inputs
8.3. If
to the control
we
error
are
shown
we
by Figure
compare
Figure
Figure
6.10
b,
recognize the
10J
10J
10"
10
icr
io
io
io
Frequency (rad/min)
Frequency (rad/min)
a) Figure
8.3: a)
b)
Singular
signals
G^
>
dash-dotted line: Tw
In the
in all in the
consistency, the
same
disturbances
simulated
as
previous chapters. Of
feed
changes
composition
shown in
Figure
6.12.
However,
during
H^-minimization
195
Ft=0=20 mol/min
0.020
Ft=0=46
0.020
mol/min
I
o
0.015
I
o
0.015
g
a
o
g
a
o
0.010
P.
0.010
S
o
B
o
O
-
Top composition
Bottom composition
Top composition
Bottom composition
0.005
0
10 20
0.005
30 40
i
10
20
30
40
Time (h)
Time (h)
Ft=0=20
0.4
1
.
mol/min
0.4
Ft=0=46
mol/min
}'
.
J.
-
0.2
(K)
i!
i
0.2
Tempratue
0.0
0.0
-0.2
i
Control
tfl
-0.2
-0.4
error
-0.4
T-10 T-44
Control
Control
error error
T-10
T-44
Control
error
-0.6 0 10 20
-0.6 30
40
10
20
30
40
Time (h)
Time (h)
Figure
\i-optimal
an
(controller in
puts:
increase in feed
composi
tion (0.8
min)
at t=20 h
error
L, V equal
to controller
output
error
196
8 Feedforward Controller
Design
8.4
The
Optimization approach
implementation of state-space controllers
are
in
distributed control
as
system is difficult. Of
well. Most desirable
simple
and
easily implementable
The
structure.
suggest
first-order
lag and
different
KF(s)
KRj
KR,
1 1+Ts
(8.5)
are
computed by
norm
of the
transfer function
TF
for the
plant shown
in
Figure
8.2. This
design
objective
has certain
from
to
using this
obtain
a a
simple
controller
is
not
possible
wide
frequency
range.
The H^-norm
on
the
|TF_^J
If
we
allow y>5
designs
a
with
bance compensation is insufficient Most of the feed flow disturbances entering this distillation column
are
we are
able to define
an
appropriate design
8.4
Optimization approach
197
objective
for
a
error
step change
[T,
KRL, KRV]
arg [T,
inf
(8.6)
KRL, KRV]
with
f {|e10 (tOl
|
1UR
I ^E
le^ (t)|
|e10 (t)\
I
1UI
\eu (t)|}dt.
| ^*I
I
(8.7)
The performance measure E is calculated for a step response plant input F, employing the plant illustrated by Figure 8.5.
to the
'io.
'44t
'10,
"44,
Figure
optimization
of
If we select the
feedback controller K (see section 6.5.3), and limit the time constant T
198
8 Feedforward Controller
Design
KF(s)
The
8.6
1.5
=
1
+
2.6 l
5.0s
(8.8)
singular
a.
are
shown in Figure
In
Figure
find the
singular values
tions
Td
T,
10'
d -*y
<D
'V
*>
=1
10
0
'
\\
\
\
6
s
1U
/ /
/
/
/
\v
\
\
/
,n2 /
10
10
i
\
10
10
10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/min)
Frequency (rad/min)
a) Figure
8.6:
b)
structure
b) Singular values of the transfer functions for the nominal closed loop system
from the disturbances
inputs d
to the controlled
,
output signals
(Feedback
F-*y
dash-dotted line: T
maximum
by
this
8.5
Summary
199
Ft=0=20
0.0201
'
mol/min
'
Ft=0=46
0.020
mol/min
I
o
0.015
s
a
o
a.
B
o
0.010
Top composition
-
Top composition
Bottom composition
Bottom
composition
0.005
o 10
0.005
20
30
40
10
20 Time
30
40
Time (h)
(h)
Figure 8.7: Simulation results with ^-optimal PID controller with one-way decou pling and a simple feedforward controller for an increase in feed composition
(0.8
->
an
at t=20 h
~-"-
L,
equal
to controller
output
error
8.5
The
Summary
compensation of feed flow disturbances
in the time domain
can
be
improved by using
fixed structure)
as
are
efficient
well
are
of the ISE and ITAE criteria (see section 6.6) in Table 8.1 demonstrates
200
8 Feedforward Controller
Design
improvements
tured
up to 50%! As mentioned
previously, the
maximum struc
singular
value |i is not
good performance
measure
if we include
uncertainty model.
Table 8.1:
Comparison
Control structure
Relative ITAE
1.0
Max n-
State-space controller,
3
temp,
measurements
1.0
0.85
State-space controller,
3 temp, measurements 0.63 0.51 0.86
decoupling (C 1=0)
PID control with static one-way
1.51
0.97
1.13
0.87
1.05
8.6 References
[8.1]
u-
Analysis
and
Synthesis Toolbox,
MUSYN Inc.,
Minneapolis MN,
[8.2]
Us
(1992) [8.3]
H2 and H Controllers
with Two
8.6 References
201
[8.4]
to
H, Opti
Information Science,
202
8 Feedforward Controller
Design
9.1 Introduction
203
Chapter
Practical
Experiences
9.1 Introduction
In simulations the
ronment.
performance of controllers
measurement
is tested in
sterile envi
Lacking
environmental conditions, the results of these simulations represent well established basis for
a comparison of different controller designs. However, only the implementation of a controller in the real plant
proves its
by simulations, only
implementation
at
reported.
This
chapter complements the simulation results presented in previous chapters with the results of a controller implementation in the distrib
uted control
implementation including
use
the
handling
of pressure and
chapter.
204
9 Practical
Experiences
9.2 Controller
implementation
objective of
any control
design
in
an
is
high
are
controller
performance.
A control
design implemented
industrial
listed below.
difficult to
on
implement
in
should be based
PID control
or on
design
drifts,
must
operating
range of the
column, including
etc.
Easy
simple and
understand.
Operators often
are
semiskilled
expected
to have
an
engineering
intensive
background.
complex
initialization
procedure
of
control scheme
an
unnecessarily
errors
and requires
operator training.
Handling of
column from
constraints: Constraints
are
necessary to
prevent the
flooding, weeping,
overpressure,
overtemperature, etc.
duty.
Performance: Despite
the
Comparing
the best
is
simple
initialize1,
Lactuai.
robust to
of the control scheme (see Figure 9.1): First, the output of the top adjusted to achieve r^
=
composition
bottom
Then the
top composition
composition
Qactuai-
9.2 Controller
implementation
205
plant uncertainty,
exhibits
a
it allows
simple handling
of constraints, and it
high performance
in simulations.
plant
are
an
inputs
estimated tray
compositions Xj, which for the operators have proved compensated temperatures.
are
The
controller inputs.
A scheme of the
implementation
is shown in
Fig.
9.1. The
handling of
constraints is realized
realized:
If the
Rmjn,
the top
composition
is allowed to rise
above the setpoint (=> top composition purer than the top composition controller must be
required),
from
and
prevented
windup.
setpoint for the reflux controller rR exceeds its maximum limit Rmax, the top composition is allowed to decrease (=> top
If the
composition less
controller all
again
possible, this
should be avoided.
hold for the
Equivalent
controller.
constraints
bottom
composition
This
composition
we
control
well
as
composition
are
control
loop. Since
decoupling, the
following four
outputs of the
composition
controllers
limited
by
the
RFBl,max
RFBl,min
Rmax_RFF
Rmin
~
(9<1)
RFF
(9-2)
L10
ei +
92<T +
TCorr)
11Q.
PIDl
+
^
"FBI
e3p
PIDR
-
rR
%
Valve
ii
n
R
FBI,
max
Rmax RFF
"
Po
vFBl,min
PlO
Po
^(P51-Po)
Rmin_RFF
Q
Composition
FBI
Kq/R
estimation
P51
Feedback controllers with constraints
Composition
Po
^44
estimation
5o(P51-P0)
Decoupling
0]+02(T +
TCml)
Q
^*
PID2
ii
FB2
i9_
PIDQ
"Valv
0,p +
04p2
n, Q
FB2,
max
Qmax^FF^FBl
Q
_Q
FB2,
mm
Qmin-^FF-^FBl
Figure
9.1: Controller
LAG
VFF
implementation
Q
Feedforward controller
Kqf/rf
FF
9.3
Composition
estimators
207
-FB2,max Q-FB2,min
"
(9-3)
(9-4)
configuration of
variable
structure
control
in
the
a
DCS.
below the
undesirable than
simulation
product quality. Fortunately, practical experiences have shown that the reboiler heat duty
as
Qm,v first.
duty
set at maximum
Qmax
duty
and top
composition
controlled
by reflux flow
as
rate.
If the reflux
well
as
constraints, both
products
9.3
Composition
problems, the
was
estimators
any partic parametrization of the composition estima
not
cause
In
estimators were calculated by regression of {Tpx} data (see Chapter 2). However, the correlation of the estimated compositions on tray 10 and
44 with the
once
day proved
to be
unsatisfactory.
Hence
operating data
was
were
composition
simulations.
almost constant, it
possible
to compare these
Minimizing
was
calculated tray
sures
compositions,
are
by
20%
sensors on
tray 10 and 44
installed, the
pressures
on
these trays
are
calculated
by
linear
pressure and
208
9 Practical
Experiences
error
in the pressure
compensation
could
might
by
this
interpolation.
or
Other
error sources
{Tpx} data
adjusted,
these
simple
estima
of the
shown in
more
detail in the
following
section.
high and
could be
the
performance of the
in
fairly by them. In
chromatographs
polymerization
inputs
preferable. However,
chromatograph
or
the
izes at temperatures
exceeding
in
a
plugs
is
gas
of pressure compen
as
sated temperatures
estimated tray
compositions
controller
indispensable.
9.4 Controller
The controller
performance
results the recorded deviations of the esti
in the presence of several
quite well.
Figures
mated tray
The
large
tray compositions is
caused
pressure
readings
in
Using
first-order
element
series
with
the
bottom
pressure
DCS there
was
was no
soon as new
were
kept
Figure
was
increased
401/h in four
9.4 Controller
performance
209
Feed
Tray
10
40
60 Time (h)
100
Tray
44
L5
>
;,
H-osS 8
.
Ml
53S
,*
*
t??^
?'
"
jj'
j;
0.5
o
i-t
a.
+a
a
0)
CO
"g
20 40 Time (h) 60
80
100
Figure
9.2: Recorded
one-way
operating data with installed PID control decoupling and feedforward control.
Deviations of estimated tray
scheme
including
Top:
Middle:
composition and
on
of pressure of pressure
compensated temperature
Bottom:
from setpoint
tray 10
composition and
tray 44
compensated temperature
on
210
9 Practical
Experiences
Feed
P 3
30
40
Time (h)
Tray
10
-a
-0.5
g
a
<a
a,
0.5 V 30 40 70
P
Time (h)
Tray
44
13
-0.5
l^^diAilw
a
-
05
>
a)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Time (h)
Figure
9.3: Recorded
one-way
decoupling
Top:
Middle:
composition
setpoint
and of pressure
compensated temperature
Bottom:
from
on
tray 10
composition
tray 44
and of pressure
compensated temperature
on
9.4 Controller
performance
211
feed
composition
was
was
approximately
0.85 mol/mol.
Although boilup
the feed
flow rate
out of the
design
by
remained
the controller
design.
In
increased
only
by 101/h.
errors
The control
separate the
of this
high performance
simple
by
day before
shown
beginning
of this
Obviously,
the average
product
compositions
the The
are
setpoints,
product compositions
very
large.
analysis results
estimators.
Clearly,
product compositions
are
are
product compositions
illustrated
by
9.2 and
tray 10 and 44
an
even
further
as
the operators
gain
more
experience
212
9 Practical
Experiences
Manual operation
0.3
Controlled
xxx
~
0.25
Xx
x
0.2
X
Xx
0.15
xx
x x X
XX
0.1
x
X
x*-xx
"
0.05
X X x
XX
*
>**
35
^
70
Days
Manual
operation
0.25
r
Controlled
0.25
0.15
0.05
Figure
9.4:
Analysis data
product
composition
xg
composition
9.4 Controller
performance
213
Manual
operation
Controlled
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
Manual
operation
Controlled
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
Figure
9.5:
Histograms
of analyzed
product qualities
composition xg
214
9 Practical
Experiences
control
some
on
the economic
In
feasibility
and to
degree
on
ecological improvements.
our case
control scheme
yields
the
following
most
important improvements:
More uniform
=>
product qualities
necessary
Less
overpurification
=>
is
an
Reduced
=>
More top
product with
market value of
>
250000
$/a
The installation of
are
an
additional column
can
be avoided
a
These pay-offs
deeper
as a
understanding
plant.
of column
a
which
consequence achieved
better
same
costs.
exclusively
for this
project total
a man
approximately 50000 $. It is
similar
project
year.
are on a
positive
side.
9.6
Summary
implementation of the PID control
on
decoupling
the real
high performance
tions. The main
problem of the implementation was, except for over coming high psychological resistances, the correct parametrization of
the
composition estimators.
A solution of this
been
possible without
an
extensive
use
compensated tempera-
9.6
Summary
215
tures
or
overall
advantages
effort
by
this
simple
by far.
216
9 Practical
Experiences
10.1
Introduction
217
Chapter
10
Conclusions and
Recommendations
10.1 Introduction
This thesis treats all the necessary steps for
composition control
design
a
for
an
industrial
binary
produced
sion, they
new
insights
into various
thematic confu
Controller
synthesis
or
State-space
PID control?
problems.
The ideas
presented
come
against
many gaps in
problems of cooper
section the most
important
aspects of these
discussed.
218
10.2 Controller
synthesis
design of robust controllers for the dual
compo
problem
are
of an industrial
Distil
lation
columns
usually operated
rates.
wide
range
of feed
Consequently,
not
stability and
high performance
operating
only
single operating
entire
tured
design methods are based on unstruc uncertainty models, for example a multiplicative uncertainty at
estimate of the
are
robust controller
plant output. An
too
design.
on
solution of the
design problem
a
is
possible.
It is based
large
unnec
essary conservatism of
unstructured
uncertainty description.
as
This
several simultaneous
oper
range.
feedback
controller
synthesis
state-
synthesis of
controllers and
constraint parameter
synthesis of controllers
mance
are distinguished by a high controller perfor stability within the entire operating range, guaranteed
paired with
low
sensitivity
to
errors
in the
manipulated variables.
A drawback of this
modelling
and
cantly
these
reduced by using
arbitrary small
design methods
plants such
10.3
State-space
or
PID control?
219
synthesis
can
be extended to the
design.
A simultaneous controller
closed-loop
practical implementation of
one-way
decoupling and
controller
satisfactory
a simple feedforward control scheme. The very performance achieved without any expensive on
line composition
analyzers leads
to
high
10.3
A
State-space
or
PID control?
unex
pected result:
only insignificantly
worse
than the
performance
of
as
well
as
distributed control
system requires
be
must
emphasized, however,
that the
high performance
The
structures with
performance
essence
is achieved with
220
the bottom
composition
is controlled
profile,
and
by intensifying
or
weakening
shape
of the
composition profile
a
at
steady-state
it
depends essentially
on
composition,
variables.
composition
or
temperature
manipulated
of the
reason,
composition profile by
better
controller
advantages. The
of freedom in the
in the low- and
higher performance
temperature measurement
this measurement
design excluding
Additional temperature
or
composition
measurements in the
no
significant
influence
performance.
The
reason
design
setpoint, which
two pressure-
depends
mance
on
the
be achieved with
two
just
tray
compensated
temperatures
control
estimated
compositions.
Dispensing
costs
the installation
of the
product
compo-
10.5
Column models
221
sitions
based
on
temperature
measurements
of great
advantage.
are
based
absolutely
necessary.
exclude flow
dynamics.
a
uncertainty model,
multiplicative uncertainty
dynamics affect
justified:
the
high-frequency
following
statement is
This has
impact
at
on
the
design effort.
If
controller
design
can
be
based
tion
not
on an
dynamics
absolutely
necessary. The
states of
lated with
common
flowsheeting
programs such
ASPEN
PLUS
or
PROCESS
designed
can
be tested
using a simpli
dynamics.
10.6 Recommendations
are
based
on
the
example of a single binary distillation column. While the adaptation of binary columns is expected to be straightforward,
222
the
[i-synthesis:
singular
for
The robustness
reliable and
outstanding
insufficient.
tool.
However, the
robust
More
algorithms
are
absolutely
necessary.
Decentralized control:
simple
structures is at
In the
case
of this
distillation column, it
was
relatively
easy to propose
potential control
many
more
with
constrained param
control
loops simultaneously,
solved. For
of the
loop pairing
is still not
loops, certainly these methods configurations. Therefore methods for the selection
are
of control structures
simple multivariable
are
control schemes. Similar arguments hold for the controller tuning. The
current methods for the
systems
Today
MATLAB or MATRLXX.
even
His first
modern
with
feelings
working
in the
a
analog computing
seems
era.
The
replacement
idea for the
computer
to be the
only
a
development
possibilities for
are
faster,
more
not
exhausted yet.
10.6
Recommendations
223
10.6.3
Cooperation industryuniversity
complains of the inadequate cooperation between
a
cooperation
were encountered during the course ofthis project. The main problem is
University researchers
tion of the actual
are
interested in
industry wants
rapid solu
industry problem. Additionally chronically overworked with everyday problems, thus unable to spend enough time to concern themselves with such a project. This leads
the contact persons in
an
to
Consequently,
both partners
speak
languages: needs,
counterpart does
not
high impor
are
spelled
as
clearly
possible
at least
one
many
problems between
224
Curriculum vitae
Hans-Eugen Musch
June 19,1965
Freiburg
German
im
Breisgau, Germany
Nationality
1971-1975 1975-1984
Primary school
Humanistic
at
Stegen
near
Freiburg
1984
Abitur
1984-1985
Military service
1985-1989 1989
Chemical
Masters
engineering studies
in Chemical
degree
Engineering CDiplom")
Since 1990