Trafc Injury Prevention, 9:195200, 2008 Copyright C 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 1538-9588 print

/ 1538-957X online DOI: 10.1080/15389580802040337

Fatal Drink-Driving Accidents of Young Adult and Middle-Aged Males A Risky Driving Style or Risky Lifestyle?
SIRKKU LAAPOTTI and ESKO KESKINEN
University of Turku, Department of Psychology, Turku, Finland Objective. A range of situational and lifestyle-related factors in drink-driving fatal accidents were studied involving young adult and middle-aged male drivers in Finland. Methods. Fatal drink-driving accidents were compared to fatal accidents in which the driver had been sober. The study included all 18- to 59-year-old male drivers fatal car and van accidents investigated by the Road Accident Investigation Teams in Finland between 2000 and 2002 (n = 366 accidents). The variables describing the situation included the time of the accident, the road condition, the speed, possession of a valid licence, seat-belt usage, and the presence of passengers. Results. The study found that among young adult males most of the studied situational factors bore no relation to the state of the driver (sober or drink driver). Only the time of day, seat-belt, usage, and possession of a valid licence were related to the state of the driver. Among middle-aged male drivers, drink-driving and sober driving accidents differed more clearly. Further, when the social situation in the car was examined, it was found that accidents of sober and drink drivers differed from each other within the group of middle-aged drivers but not within the group of young adult drivers. Heavy alcohol usage was found to characterize the lifestyle of the studied middle-aged drink drivers. Conclusions. It was concluded that for young adult males drink-driving was a part of a more general risky driving style. Among middle-aged males drink-driving was more related to a risky lifestyle with drinking problems. Possible countermeasures are discussed with regard to drink-driving among young adult and middle-aged males. Keywords Fatal Accidents; Social Situation; Drink Drivers; Young Adults; Middle-Aged; Males

INTRODUCTION Alcohol is an important risk factor associated with trafc fatalities. On an average, 41% of trafc fatalities were alcohol related in the United States in 2006 and 22% of drivers in fatal motor vehicle crashes had BAC .08 or above (NHTSA, 2007). Within the European Union, on an average 32% of all drivers killed on the roads had blood alcohol concentration above zero (del Ro et al., 2002). A common nding in literature is that male drivers and especially young male drivers are overrepresented in alcohol-related fatal accidents (Laapotti and Keskinen, 1998; o Mayhew et al., 1986; NHTSA, 2007; Ostr m and Erikson, 1993; Vaez and Laamme, 2005; Williams, 2003). In Finland, about 260 fatal motor vehicle accidents have occurred each year since the beginning of the decade. About one quarter of these were drink-driving accidents. The proportion of drink drivers in fatal accidents has been quite stable during this period (VALT, 2006). Drink drivers have mostly been males, although the number of female drink drivers has increased
Received 8 February 2008; accepted 9 March 2008. Address correspondence to Sirkku Laapotti, Department of Psychology, University of Turku, FIN-20014 Turku, Finland. E-mail: sirkku.laapotti@utu.

over the last few years. Of all drink drivers (BAC > .05)1 97% were males in 1998 in Finland (Rajalin, 2004). The most typical drink drivers were middle-aged males. Sixty-three percent of all drink drivers were males between 30 to 49 years old. Ten percent of drink drivers were drivers under 30 years old. However, young drivers are overrepresented in fatal alcohol-related accidents. For example, in 2000 in Finland, 31% of culpable drivers in alcohol-related fatal accidents were under 25 years old (Road Trafc Accidents, 2000, 2001). Young drivers are inexperienced both as drivers and as alcohol users: in Finland the legal age for a category B drivers licence is 18 years old and the legal age for buying alcoholic beverages is also 18. Further, the social situation among young drivers and passengers may increase trafc accident risk. Young drivers have been found to drive proportionally more at night than middleaged drivers and young drivers more often have friends as passengers (Rolls et al., 1991). Driving at night has been found to increase the risk of trafc accidents. Passenger presence has been found to have different effects on driving safety depending on the
1 Blood alcohol concentration (BAC) 0.05 (gms/dT) is equivalent to 0.5. Both denitions are used in the present article.

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age of the driver. Overall, and especially for older drivers, driving with passengers tends to be safer than driving alone (B dard and e Meyers, 2004; Doherty et al., 1998; Vollrath et al., 2002) but for young drivers the presence of passengers tends to have negative safety effects, at least when driving at night and when there is a group of passengers in the car (Lin and Fearn, 2003; Preusser et al., 1998). This phenomenon may be linked to alcohol consumption. Passengers are more often drunk when driving at night than driving during the day. Further, it is likely that drunk passengers have different effects on a drivers behavior than sober passengers. Keskinens Hierarchical Model of Driving Behaviour (1996; Hatakka et al., 2001; Keskinen et al., 2004) consists of four levels of driving behavior: the two lowest levels are vehicle manoeuvring and mastering trafc situations. The third level is entitled goals and context of driving, which refers to the motives of driving and the driving environment. The driving environment includes both the physical and social environment; e.g., time of day of driving, passenger presence, and the social situation inside and outside the car. The highest level of the model is called goals for life and skills for living, which refers to more general elements of human behavior; e.g., motives and attitudes in life, personality structure, and skills for self-control (Keskinen et al., 2004). The higher levels direct the lower levels. The three lowest levels are directly manifested in driving situations. The highest level of the model consists of elements that inuence every form of human behavior, not just driving behavior. A persons motives, emotional stability, and personality structure are reected in human behavior as well in trafc. If, for example, safety motives are important motives in a persons life overall, it is probable that he will try to behave safely in a trafc environment too. The present study looks at whether the accidents of sober and drunk male drivers differ according to situational factors and whether sober and drunk male drivers differ according to lifestyle-related factors. Analyses are made separately for young adult and middle-aged male drivers. METHOD Study Material The study covered all fatal car and van accidents in Finland from the period of 2000 to 2002. A fatal motor vehicle accident is dened as an accident in which somebody involved dies within 30 days as a result of the accident. In Finland, all fatal motor vehicle accidents are investigated in detail by Road Accident Investigation Teams (for a description of these teams, see VALT Method, 2003, 2002). The aim of the investigation is to nd ways to prevent similar accidents from occurring in the future. The investigation teams are multidisciplinary and consist of a police ofcer, a trafc safety engineer, a car inspection engineer, a medical expert, and a psychologist. The team members produce reports that include, for example, information on the driver, the type and account of the accident, time and place, weather and road conditions, lighting conditions, speed of all parties con-

cerned, and a description of the trafc environment. The team members produce a joint nal statement for each accident. This statement includes a conclusion on the course of the accident and its probable causes and suggests means to prevent similar accidents in the future. From each fatal motor vehicle accident, at least 400 variables are encoded. Although the encoded material of fatal accidents (case les) is extensive, the researcher can gain a more accurate picture of the accident, its course, and background factors by reading the original reports. In young drivers accidents there are often passengers involved. The testimonies of passengers and other eyewitnesses include a lot of information that is not included in the case les. Further, the psychologists and medical doctors investigations include a lot of data that is not inputted. Researchers have widely used data collected by these teams (both case les and the original reports), because it allows them to use disaggregated data covering a large amount of variables. Procedure The present study used both case les and the original reports of the fatal accidents. Information was collected on the fatal accidents of young adults (18 to 29 years old) and middle-aged (30 to 59 years old) male drivers (Table I). Only the drivers who were considered by the investigation to be the most responsible party in the accident were selected for inclusion. This driver is usually, but not always, also the legally culpable party. Female drivers and drivers over 59 years were left out from the analysis because the number of drink drivers was low in these groups. There were altogether 114 accidents involving female drivers, of whom 16 drivers (14%) were drink drivers. There were 103 accidents involving drivers of 60 and older, but only 7 of them (7%) were drink drivers. The legal limit for blood alcohol concentration in Finland is 0.5. This study denes drink drivers as those drivers whose blood alcohol concentration just after the accident had been over 0.5. There were only 5 drivers of fatal accidents whose blood alcohol concentration was not tested at all. The accidents of these drivers were excluded from the study. Drivers inuenced by a substance other than alcohol were also excluded: seven drivers were under the inuence of drugs and four were inuenced by a psychoactive medicine above the medically prescribed limit. Five drivers were under the inuence of both alcohol and a drug or psychoactive medicine and these drivers were included in the study. Every report was read in-depth by the researcher. Three background or lifestyle-related factors of the drivers were studied
Table I The number of male drivers in the study Sober Drivers Age Group 1829 Years 3059 Years N 93 123 % 52.5 65.1 Drink Drivers N 84 66 % 47.5 34.9 N 177 189 Total % 100.0 100.0

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Table II Description of the studied variables Variable Background factors: Age of the driver Status of drinking Values Age in full years According to the statement of the medical expert or psychologist of the Road Accident Investigation Team, the driver was classied as having signs of a history of heavy drinking or no signs of a history of heavy drinking Two values: yes or no

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Table III Description of situational and background factors in fatal accidents of young adult and middle-aged males. All fatal car and van accidents in Finland in 20002002 Young Adult Males N Time of day: evening or night Day of week: weekend Road surface: non-slippery Speed: excessive speed Passengers: no passengers Safety belt usage: no Possession of valid licence: no Alcohol impairment: BAC >.05 Signs of heavy drinking: yes Earlier trafc violations: yes 112 109 141 108 88 102 25 84 88 96 % 64,4 63,0 80,1 61,4 50,0 65,4 14,7 47,5 15,9 61,9 Middle-Aged Males N 79 75 136 92 120 85 14 66 77 80 % 43,2 41,0 72,3 48,9 63,8 47,5 7,6 34,9 39,0 51,0 Stat. Dif. p< .001 .001 ns. .05 .01 .001 .05 .01 .001 .05

Earlier trafc violations Situational factors: Time of day Day of week Road surface

Speed

Passenger presence Safety belt usage of the driver Possession of a valid licence Social situation in the vehicle: Passengers age compared to drivers age

Two values: evening and night (from 6.01 pm to 6.00 am) or daytime (from 6.01 am to 6.00 pm). Two values: weekday (Mon to Thurs) or weekend (Fri to Sun) Two values: according to the nal statement of the investigation team the road surface (slippery) had some causation effect on the accident or not (non-slippery). Two values: according to the nal statement of the investigation team, the speed had some causation effect on the accident (too high speed) or not (moderate speed) Two values: no passengers or at least one passenger Two values: yes or no Two values: yes or no

car was studied by three variables and their connection to the state of the driver (sober or drink) by chi2 analysis (Table VI). RESULTS Description of Fatal Accidents of Young Adult and Middle-Aged Males The accidents of young adult male drivers were more often single-vehicle accidents (52%) than those of middle-aged male drivers (37 %, df = 1, 2 = 8.32, p < .01). With regard to the situational and background factors looked at, there were differences between the accidents of young adult and middle-aged males in all factors except road surface (Table III). Middle-aged drink drivers were more heavily drunk than young adult drink drivers (df = 121, t = 2.87, p < .01). The mean blood alcohol concentration of young adult males was 1.70, compared to 2.00 for middle-aged males. Background and Lifestyle Related Factors of Drunk and Sober Drivers The mean age of drivers in the young adult group was 21.5 years old. There was no difference in the mean age of sober and drink drivers (t = 0.41, df = 175, p = .68). The mean age of drivers in the middle-aged group was 43.7 years. The mean age of drink drivers was lower (41.0 years) than the mean age of sober drivers (45.1 years; t = 3.45, df = 187, p < .001). According to the medical experts or psychologists statement, there were signs of a history of heavy drinking found more in the groups of drink drivers than in the groups of sober drivers. Seventy-one percent (n = 47) of middle-aged drink drivers were classed as having signs of a history of heavy drinking compared to 4 % (n = 5) of middle-aged sober drivers. Signs of heavy drinking were also found more often in the cases of young drink drivers (22%) than among young sober drivers (3%). Drink drivers in both age groups were more likely to have committed previous trafc violations (72%) than sober drivers. Fifty-three percent of sober young males and 37% of sober middle-aged males had a record of previous trafc violations.

Passengers sex Passengers relation to the driver

Two values: same age (age difference: 15 years) or different age (age difference: >15 years). If there were passengers of both the same age and a different age to the driver, the passengers were coded as different age Three values: male, female, or both sexes Two values: friend (girlfriend, boyfriend, work or school mate, friend via some activities, neighborhood, etc.) or family member (mother, father, grandmother, grandfather, sister, brother, wife, husband, daughter or son). If passengers were both friends and family members, the variable relation to the driver was coded as family member

(Table II). These factors were thought to be connected to the highest level of driving behavior; i.e., to the level of goals for life and skills for living. The comparisons between the drink and the sober drivers were done by using the chi2 analysis or t-test analysis. Seven variables connected to situational factors of the fatal accident were constructed (Table II). Situational factor were thought to be connected to the level of goals and context of driving in the hierarchy of driving behavior by Keskinen (1996; Hatakka et al., 2002). Table III presents the distribution of the situational and background factors in the groups of young adult and middle-aged males. The connections of the situational factors to drink driving accidents were studied by logistic regression analysis (Tables IV and V). Further, the social situation in the

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Table VI Passengers involved in accidents where the driver was sober or had been drinking (>.5)
Young Adult Driver Sober Drink Sober Drivers Drivers Drivers N Passenger(s) present Statistical diff. (chi2 ) Passenger(s) was (were): Same age (vs. differ. age) Statistical diff. (chi2 ) Passenger(s) was (were) Male (vs. female) Statistical diff. (chi2 ) Passenger(s) was (were) Friend (vs. family member) Statistical diff. (chi2 ) % N % N % N Middle-Aged Driver Drink Drivers % 34.9 ns.

Table IV Odds ratio estimates for young adult male drivers drink-driving fatal accidents. Drink-driving accidents (n = 73); sober driving accidents (n = 77) Wald Chi-Square Time of day Evening or night Day of week Weekend Road surface Non-slippery Speed Excessive speed Passengers No passengers Safety belt usage No Possession of valid license No 16.59 0.82 3.08 1.64 0.07 7.26 8.30 p< .001 ns. ns. ns. ns. .01 .01 Odds Ratio 6.396 1.500 2.603 1.818 1.121 3.319 7.656 95% Wald Condence Limit 2.71116.418 0.6243.630 0.9157.875 0.7364.622 0.4812.641 1.4098.165 2.16237.180

46 49.5 43 51.2 45 36.6 23 ns.

43 93.5 41 95.4 22 48.9 18 78.3 ns. 2 = 5.42, Df = 1, p < .05 26 56.5 28 65.1 13 28.9 16 69.6 ns. 2 = 10.30, Df = 1, p < .01 43 93.5 43 100.0 18 40.0 20 87.0 ns. 2 = 13.61, Df = 1, p < .001

For model the likelihood ratio chi2 = 56.89, df = 7, p < .001. R-Square = .3156, Max-rescaled R-Square = .4209, Hosmer & Lemeshow Test, p = .2034.

Situational Factors in Drink-Driving and Sober Driving Accidents In both young adult and middle-aged drivers fatal accidents, the time of the trip, drivers seat belt usage, and possession of a valid license were connected to the state of the driver (Tables IV and V). Drink-driving accidents took place more often during the evening and at night than sober driving accidents. Drink drivers used their seat belt more seldom than sober drivers both among young adults and among middle-aged drivers. Drink drivers were less likely to have a valid drivers license than sober drivers. In addition, road surface and speed differentiated accidents among middle-aged drivers but not among young adult drivers (Tables IV and V).
Table V Odds ratio estimates for middle-aged male drivers drink-driving fatal accidents. Drink-driving accidents (n = 58); sober driving accidents (n = 112). Wald ChiSquare Time of day Evening or night Day of week Weekend Road surface Non-slippery Speed Excessive speed Passengers No passengers Safety belt usage No Possession of valid licence No 19.00 2.75 10.27 9.53 0.15 19.82 7.88 p< .001 ns. .001 .01 ns. .001 .01 Odds Ratio 8.812 2.208 9.621 4.873 0.799 10.971 39.874 95% Wald Condence Limits 3.462 24.898 0.8725.755 2.62643.165 1.84513.989 0.2542.454 4.03833.897 4.554>999.999

Passengers in the Accidents of Drunk and Sober Drivers There was no difference in terms of the presence of passengers in the accidents of sober and drink drivers (Table VI). Neither did it make a difference who these passengers were, in the case of young adult male drivers accidents. Passengers were typically the same age and sex as the driver and they were friends of the driver. However, in the group of middle-aged drivers, sober and drink drivers were carrying different kinds of passengers. Sober drivers were more often carrying family members and females as passengers. Drink drivers tended to have more passengers of the same age and sex as themselves and they were more often friends of the driver. In cases where the car was carrying passenger(s), the drink driver had typically drunk passengers (at least one passenger was drunk). In 88% of the cases of young adults and in 83% of the cases of middle-aged drink drivers the passenger(s) were drunk. However, sober young male drivers also carried drunk passengers quite often. In 35% of all sober young male drivers accidents the passengers were drunk. For middle-aged male drivers the proportion was 11%. Passengers of drink drivers tended to use their seat belts less than passengers of sober drivers (among young adult males: 2 = 13.01, df = 2, p < .01; among middleaged males: 2 = 10.92, df = 2, p < .01). DISCUSSION In 48% of all fatal car or van accidents of young adult males the driver was alcohol impaired. For middle-aged males the proportion was 35%. As found in previous studies (Doherty et al., 1998), other types of risky driving (e.g., speeding, driving without seat belts, driving at nights) were found to be more typical among young drivers fatal accidents than in middle-aged drivers fatal accidents. The present study found that young adult male drivers drink-driving fatal accidents hardly differed from their sober driving fatal accidents in terms of the situational and social factors considered. There were only three variables, namely time of day, safety belt usage, and the validity of drivers license that

For model the likelihood ratio chi2 = 101.59, df = 7, p < .001. R-Square = .4499, Max-rescaled R-Square = .6222, Hosmer & Lemeshow Test, p = .5200.

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differentiated the two types of fatal accidents. Drink-driving and drink-driving accidents have been found to typically take place during (weekend) nights (Keall et al., 2005; Rajalin, 2004; Vanlaar, 2005). Accidents involving high speed, in good weather and road conditions, and during weekends were typical for young adult drivers, regardless of the drivers state. Further, about half of all young adult male drivers had passengers in the car. These passengers were typically friends of the driver and they were the same age and sex as the driver. There was no difference in the social situation in the car between the drunk and sober drivers involved in fatal accidents. It may be concluded that drink driving is part of a more general risky driving style among young adult males. In this regard, it is not very exceptional. However, there were some factors in the driving situation and in the background of the drink driver that may tell us more about the higher levels of risk acceptance among drink drivers than among sober accident involved drivers. Above all, drink-driving is in itself risk-taking. Further, safety belt usage was more rare among drink drivers than among sober drivers and drink drivers were more often driving without a valid license than sober drivers. Signs of a history of heavy drinking were also more often found among drink drivers than sober drivers. Middle-aged male drivers drink-driving fatal accidents differed from sober driving fatal accidents according to most of the situational, social, and background factors. Over 70% of drink drivers who were involved in fatal accident had signs of a history of heavy drinking, which means that most of them were alcoholics. They drove in the evening and at night. Weekend was a typical time for an accident to occur. In cases where the drink driver had one passenger or more, these passengers were drunk and male friends. Middle-aged males fatal drink-driving accidents were more connected to a risky lifestyle in general. Therefore, trafc safety countermeasures that focus only on trafc behavior are not likely to be effective in preventing drink-driving among middle-aged males. Broader socio-psychological countermeasures are needed that aim to change overall behavior, and especially drinking behavior. Drink-driving among young adult males may also, however, be a sign of larger problems in life in general. Especially, drink-driving may be a sign of a growing drinking problem. Therefore, everyone who is caught drink-driving for the rst time should be forwarded (by the police) to discussions with social workers or psychologists about ones lifestyle and life situation. The results of driver rehabilitation courses have also supported this method of early intervention (Bartl et al., 2002). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research was supported by a grant from the Foundation of Alcohol Research in Finland. REFERENCES
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