Index

Contents
Articles
Management Marketing strategy Marketing plan Promotion (marketing) Brand Positioning (marketing) The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing 1 8 11 20 22 33 36
References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 38 40
Article Licenses
License 41
Management
Management
Management in all business and organizational activities is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources. Since organizations can be viewed as systems, management can also be defined as human action, including design, to facilitate the production of useful outcomes from a system. This view opens the opportunity to 'manage' oneself, a pre-requisite to attempting to manage others.
History
The verb manage comes from the Italian maneggiare (to handle especially tools), which in turn derives from the Latin manus (hand). The French word mesnagement (later mnagement) influenced the development in meaning of the English word management in the 17th and 18th centuries.[1] Some definitions of management are: Organization and coordination of the activities of an enterprise in accordance with certain policies and in achievement of clearly defined objectives. Management is often included as a factor of production along with machines, materials, and money. According to the management guru Peter Drucker (19092005), the basic task of a management is twofold: marketing and innovation. Directors and managers have the power and responsibility to make decisions to manage an enterprise when given the authority by the shareholders. As a discipline, management comprises the interlocking functions of formulating corporate policy and organizing, planning, controlling, and directing the firm's resources to achieve the policy's objectives. The size of management can range from one person in a small firm to hundreds or thousands of managers in multinational companies. In large firms the board of directors formulates the policy which is implemented by the chief executive officer.
Theoretical scope
At the beginning, one thinks of management functionally, as the action of measuring a quantity on a regular basis and of adjusting some initial plan; or as the actions taken to reach one's intended goal. This applies even in situations where planning does not take place. From this perspective, Henri Fayol(18411925)[2] considers management to consist of six functions:forecasting, planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. He was one of the most influential contributors to modern concepts of management. Another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (18681933), who wrote on the topic in the early twentieth century, defined management as "the art of getting things done through people". She described management as philosophy.[3] Some people, however, find this definition, while useful, far too narrow. The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining management, the shifting nature of definitions, and the connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or class. One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "business administration" and thus excludes management in places outside commerce, as for example in charities and in the public sector. More realistically, however, every organization must manage its work, people, processes, technology, etc. in order to maximize its effectiveness. Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments which teach management as "business schools." Some institutions (such as the Harvard Business School) use that name while others (such as the Yale School of Management) employ the more inclusive term "management."
Management English speakers may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a corporation. Historically this use of the term was often contrasted with the term "Labor" referring to those being managed.
Nature of managerial work

In for-profit work, management has as its primary function the satisfaction of a range of stakeholders. This typically involves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued products at a reasonable cost (for customers), and providing rewarding employment opportunities (for employees). In nonprofit management, add the importance of keeping the faith of donors. In most models of management/governance, shareholders vote for the board of directors, and the board then hires senior management. Some organizations have experimented with other methods (such as employee-voting models) of selecting or reviewing managers; but this occurs only very rarely. In the public sector of countries constituted as representative democracies, voters elect politicians to public office. Such politicians hire many managers and administrators, and in some countries like the United States political appointees lose their jobs on the election of a new president/governor/mayor.
Historical development
Difficulties arise in tracing the history of management. Some see it (by definition) as a late modern (in the sense of late modernity) conceptualization. On those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history, only harbingers (such as stewards). Others, however, detect management-like-thought back to Sumerian traders and to the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt. Slave-owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting/motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises, given their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically. However, innovations such as the spread of Arabic numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494) provided tools for management assessment, planning and control. Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and recording before the industrial revolution, it made sense for most owners of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with growing size and complexity of organizations, the split between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties or groups of shareholders) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more common.
Early writing
While management has been present for millennia, several writers have created a background of works that assisted in modern management theories.[4] Sun Tzu's The Art of War Written by Chinese general Sun Tzu in the 6th century BC, The Art of War is a military strategy book that, for managerial purposes, recommends being aware of and acting on strengths and weaknesses of both a manager's organization and a foe's.[4]
Management Chanakya's Arthashastra Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra around 300BC in which various strategies, techniques and management theories were written which gives an account on the management of empires, economy and family. The work is often compared to the later works of Machiavelli. Niccol Machiavelli's The Prince Believing that people were motivated by self-interest, Niccol Machiavelli wrote The Prince in 1513 as advice for the city of Florence, Italy.[5] Machiavelli recommended that leaders use fearbut not hatredto maintain control. Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations Written in 1776 by Adam Smith, a Scottish moral philosopher, The Wealth of Nations aims for efficient organization of work through Specialization of labor.[5] Smith described how changes in processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of pins. While individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed the steps involved in manufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabled production of 48,000 pins per day.[5]
19th century
Classical economists such as Adam Smith (17231790) and John Stuart Mill (18061873) provided a theoretical background to resource-allocation, production, and pricing issues. About the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney (17651825), James Watt (17361819), and Matthew Boulton (17281809) developed elements of technical production such as standardization, quality-control procedures, cost-accounting, interchangeability of parts, and work-planning. Many of these aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi-mass production. By the late 19th century, marginal economists Alfred Marshall (18421924), Lon Walras (18341910), and others introduced a new layer of complexity to the theoretical underpinnings of management. Joseph Wharton offered the first tertiary-level course in management in 1881.
20th century
By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis (see scientism for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include Henry R. Towne's Science of management in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor's The Principles of Scientific Management (1911), Frank and Lillian Gilbreth's Applied motion study (1917), and Henry L. Gantt's charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first college management textbook in 1911. In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became first management consultant of the "Japanese-management style". His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese quality assurance. The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. The Harvard Business School invented the Master of Business Administration degree (MBA) in 1921. People like Henri Fayol (18411925) and Alexander Church described the various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (18911973), Walter Scott and J. Mooney applied the principles of psychology to management, while other writers, such as Elton Mayo (18801949), Mary Parker Follett (18681933), Chester Barnard (18861961), Max Weber (18641920), Rensis Likert (19031981), and Chris Argyris (1923 - ) approached the phenomenon of management from a sociological perspective. Peter Drucker (19092005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: Concept of the Corporation (published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred Sloan (chairman of General Motors until 1956) commissioning a study of the organisation. Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein. H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (18901962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management-studies. In the 1940s, Patrick Blackett combined these statistical theories with microeconomic theory
Management and gave birth to the science of operations research. Operations research, sometimes known as "management science" (but distinct from Taylor's scientific management), attempts to take a scientific approach to solving management problems, particularly in the areas of logistics and operations. Some of the more recent developments include the Theory of Constraints, management by objectives, reengineering, Six Sigma and various information-technology-driven theories such as agile software development, as well as group management theories such as Cog's Ladder. As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for popularised systems of management ideas to peddle their wares. In this context many management fads may have had more to do with pop psychology than with scientific theories of management. Towards the end of the 20th century, business management came to consist of six separate branches, namely: Human resource management Operations management or production management Strategic management Marketing management Financial management Information technology management responsible for management information systems
21st century
In the 21st century observers find it increasingly difficult to subdivide management into functional categories in this way. More and more processes simultaneously involve several categories. Instead, one tends to think in terms of the various processes, tasks, and objects subject to management. Branches of management theory also exist relating to nonprofits and to government: such as public administration, public management, and educational management. Further, management programs related to civil-society organizations have also spawned programs in nonprofit management and social entrepreneurship. Note that many of the assumptions made by management have come under attack from business ethics viewpoints, critical management studies, and anti-corporate activism. As one consequence, workplace democracy has become both more common, and more advocated, in some places distributing all management functions among the workers, each of whom takes on a portion of the work. However, these models predate any current political issue, and may occur more naturally than does a command hierarchy. All management to some degree embraces democratic principles in that in the long term workers must give majority support to management; otherwise they leave to find other work, or go on strike. Despite the move toward workplace democracy, command-and-control organization structures remain commonplace and the de facto organization structure. Indeed, the entrenched nature of command-and-control can be seen in the way that recent layoffs have been conducted with management ranks affected far less than employees at the lower levels of organizations. In some cases, management has even rewarded itself with bonuses when lower level employees have been laid off.[6] According to leading leadership academic Manfred F.R. Kets de Vries, it seems almost inevitable these days that there will be some personality disorders in a senior management team.[7]
Management
Topics
Basic functions
Management operates through various functions, often classified as planning, organizing, staffing, leading/directing, and controlling/monitoring.i.e Planning: Deciding what needs to happen in the future (today, next week, next month, next year, over the next 5 years, etc.) and generating plans for action. Organizing: (Implementation) making optimum use of the resources required to enable the successful carrying out of plans. Staffing: Job Analyzing, recruitment, and hiring individuals for appropriate jobs.
The photo shows a training meeting with factory workers in a stainless steel ecodesign company from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Endomarketing is a part of the management and is very important to motivate the work force
Leading/Directing: Determining what needs to be done in a situation and getting people to do it. Controlling/Monitoring: Checking progress against plans. Motivation : Motivation is also a kind of basic function of management, because without motivation, employees cannot work effectively. If motivation doesn't take place in an organization, then employees may not contribute to the other functions (which are usually set by top level management).
Basic roles
Interpersonal: roles that involve coordination and interaction with employees. Informational: roles that involve handling, sharing, and analyzing information. Decisional: roles that require decision-making.
Management skills

[8]
Technical: used for specialized knowledge required for work. Political: used to build a power base and establish connections. Conceptual: used to analyze complex situations. Interpersonal: used to communicate, motivate, mentor and delegate. Diagnostic: ability to visualise most appropriate response to a situation .
Management
Formation of the business policy

The mission of the business is the most obvious purposewhich may be, for example, to make soap. The vision of the business reflects its aspirations and specifies its intended direction or future destination. The objectives of the business refers to the ends or activity at which a certain task is aimed. The business's policy is a guide that stipulates rules, regulations and objectives, and may be used in the managers' decision-making. It must be flexible and easily interpreted and understood by all employees. The business's strategy refers to the coordinated plan of action that it is going to take, as well as the resources that it will use, to realize its vision and long-term objectives. It is a guideline to managers, stipulating how they ought to allocate and utilize the factors of production to the business's advantage. Initially, it could help the managers decide on what type of business they want to form. Implementation of policies and strategies All policies and strategies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff. Managers must understand where and how they can implement their policies and strategies. A plan of action must be devised for each department. Policies and strategies must be reviewed regularly. Contingency plans must be devised in case the environment changes.
Assessments of progress ought to be carried out regularly by top-level managers. A good environment and team spirit is required within the business. The missions, objectives, strengths and weaknesses of each department must be analysed to determine their roles in achieving the business's mission. The forecasting method develops a reliable picture of the business's future environment. A planning unit must be created to ensure that all plans are consistent and that policies and strategies are aimed at achieving the same mission and objectives. All policies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff that is required in the execution of any departmental policy. Organizational change is strategically achieved through the implementation of the eight-step plan of action established by John P. Kotter: Increase urgency, get the vision right, communicate the buy-in, empower action, create short-term wins, don't let up, and make change stick.
[9]
Policies and strategies in the planning process They give mid- and lower-level managers a good idea of the future plans for each department in an organization. A framework is created whereby plans and decisions are made. Mid- and lower-level management may add their own plans to the business's strategic ones.
Levels of management
In organizations, there are generally three different levels of managers: first-level managers, middle-level managers, and top-level managers. These levels of managers are classified in a hierarchy of importance and authority, and are also arranged by the different types of management tasks that each role does. In many organizations, the number of managers in every level resembles a pyramid, in which the first-level has many more managers than middle-level and top-level managers, respectively. Each management level is explained below in specifications of their different responsibilities and likely job titles.[10]
Management Top-Level Managers Typically consist of Board of Directors, President, Vice President, Chief Executive Officers, etc. These individuals are mainly responsible for controlling and overseeing all the departments in the organization. They develop goals, strategic plans, and policies for the company, as well as make many decisions on the direction of the business. In addition, top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside resources and are for the most part responsible for the shareholders and general public. According to Lawrence S. Kleiman, the following skills are needed at the top managerial level. [11] Broadening their understanding of how factors such as competition, world economies, politics, and social trends influence the effectiveness of the organization. Middle-Level Managers Typically consist of General Managers, Branch Managers, Department Managers, etc. These individuals are mainly responsible to the top management for the functioning of their department. They devote more time to organizational and directional functions. Their roles can be emphasized as executing plans of the organization in conformance with the company's policies and the objectives of the top management, they define and discuss information and policies from top management to lower management, and most importantly they inspire and provide guidance to lower level managers towards better performance. Designing and implementing effective group and intergroup work and information systems. Defining and monitoring group-level performance indicators. Diagnosing and resolving problems within and among work groups. Designing and implementing reward systems that support cooperative behavior.
First-Level Managers Typically consist of Supervisors, Section Officers, Foreman, etc. These individuals focus more on the controlling and direction of management functions. For instance, they assign tasks and jobs to employees, guide and supervise employees on day-to-day activities, look after the quantity and quality of the production of the company, make recommendations, suggestions, and communicate employee problems to the higher level above, etc. In this level, managers are the "image builders" of the company considering they are the only ones who have direct contact with employees. Basic supervision. Motivation. Career planning. Performance feedback.
References
[1] [2] [3] [4] Oxford English Dictionary Administration industrielle et gnrale - prvoyance organization - commandment, coordination contrle, Paris : Dunod, 1966 Vocational Business: Training, Developing and Motivating People by Richard Barrett - Business & Economics - 2003. - Page 51. Gomez-Mejia, Luis R.; David B. Balkin and Robert L. Cardy (2008). Management: People, Performance, Change, 3rd edition. New York, New York USA: McGraw-Hill. pp.19. ISBN978-0-07-302743-2. [5] Gomez-Mejia, Luis R.; David B. Balkin and Robert L. Cardy (2008). Management: People, Performance, Change, 3rd edition. New York, New York USA: McGraw-Hill. pp.20. ISBN978-0-07-302743-2. [6] Craig, S. (2009, January 29). Merrill Bonus Case Widens as Deal Struggles. Wall Street Journal. (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/ SB123318892645426723. html?mod=googlenews_wsj) [7] Manfred F. R. Kets de Vries The Dark Side of Leadership - Business Strategy Review 14(3), Autumn Page 26 (2003). [8] Kleiman, Lawrence S. "Management and Executive Development." Reference for Business: Encyclopedia of Business (2010): n. pag. Web. 25 Mar 2011. (http:/ / www. referenceforbusiness. com/ management/ Log-Mar/ Management-and-Executive-Development. html). [9] Kotter, John P. & Dan S. Cohen. (2002). The Heart of Change. Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing.
Management
[10] Juneja hu Juneja, FirstHimanshu, and Prachi Juneja. "Management." Management Study Guide. WebCraft Pvt Ltd, 2011. Web. 17 Mar 2011. (http:/ / www. managementstudyguide. com/ management_levels. htm). [11] Kleiman, Lawrence S. " MANAGEMENT AND EXECUTIVE DEVELOPMENT."Reference for Business:Encyclopedia of Business(2010): n. pag. Web. 25 Mar 2011. (http:/ / www. referenceforbusiness. com/ management/ Log-Mar/ Management-and-Executive-Development. html).
Marketing strategy
Marketing Key concepts Product Pricing Distribution Service Retail Brand management Account-based marketing Marketing ethics Marketing effectiveness Market research Market segmentation Marketing strategy Marketing management Market dominance Promotional content Advertising Branding Underwriting Direct marketing Personal Sales Product placement Publicity Sales promotion Sex in advertising Loyalty marketing Premiums Prizes Promotional media Printing Publication Broadcasting Out-of-home Internet marketing Point of sale Promotional merchandise Digital marketing In-game In-store demonstration Word-of-mouth marketing Brand Ambassador Drip Marketing
Marketing strategy is a process that can allow an organization to concentrate its limited resources on the greatest opportunities to increase sales and achieve a sustainable competitive advantage.[1]
Developing a marketing strategy

Marketing strategies serve as the fundamental underpinning of marketing plans designed to fill market needs and reach marketing objectives.[2] Plans and objectives are generally tested for measurable results. Commonly, marketing strategies are developed as multi-year plans, with a tactical plan detailing specific actions to be accomplished in the current year. Time horizons covered by the marketing plan vary by company, by industry, and by nation, however, time horizons are becoming shorter as the speed of change in the environment increases.[3] Marketing strategies are dynamic and interactive. They are partially planned and partially unplanned. See strategy dynamics. Marketing strategy involves careful scanning of the internal and external environments which are summarized in a SWOT analysis.[4] Internal environmental factors include the marketing mix, plus performance analysis and strategic
Marketing strategy constraints.[5] External environmental factors include customer analysis, competitor analysis, target market analysis, as well as evaluation of any elements of the technological, economic, cultural or political/legal environment likely to impact success.[3] [6] A key component of marketing strategy is often to keep marketing in line with a company's overarching mission statement.[7] Besides SWOT analysis, portfolio analyses such as the GE/McKinsey matrix [8] or COPE analysis[9] can be performed to determine the strategic focus. Once a thorough environmental scan is complete, a strategic plan can be constructed to identify business alternatives, establish challenging goals, determine the optimal marketing mix to attain these goals, and detail implementation.[3] A final step in developing a marketing strategy is to create a plan to monitor progress and a set of contingencies if problems arise in the implementation of the plan.
Types of strategies
Marketing strategies may differ depending on the unique situation of the individual business. However there are a number of ways of categorizing some generic strategies. A brief description of the most common categorizing schemes is presented below: Strategies based on market dominance - In this scheme, firms are classified based on their market share or dominance of an industry. Typically there are four types of market dominance strategies: Leader Challenger Follower Nicher Porter generic strategies - strategy on the dimensions of strategic scope and strategic strength. Strategic scope refers to the market penetration while strategic strength refers to the firms sustainable competitive advantage. The generic strategy framework (porter 1984) comprises two alternatives each with two alternative scopes. These are Differentiation and low-cost leadership each with a dimension of Focus-broad or narrow. Product differentiation (broad) Cost leadership (broad) Market segmentation (narrow) Innovation strategies - This deals with the firm's rate of the new product development and business model innovation. It asks whether the company is on the cutting edge of technology and business innovation. There are three types: Pioneers Close followers Late followers Growth strategies - In this scheme we ask the question, How should the firm grow?. There are a number of different ways of answering that question, but the most common gives four answers: Horizontal integration Vertical integration Diversification Intensification
A more detailed scheme uses the categories[10] : Prospector Analyzer Defender Reactor Marketing warfare strategies - This scheme draws parallels between marketing strategies and military strategies.
Marketing strategy
10
Strategic models
Marketing participants often employ strategic models and tools to analyze marketing decisions. When beginning a strategic analysis, the 3Cs can be employed to get a broad understanding of the strategic environment. An Ansoff Matrix is also often used to convey an organization's strategic positioning of their marketing mix. The 4Ps can then be utilized to form a marketing plan to pursue a defined strategy. There are many companies especially those in the Consumer Package Goods (CPG) market that adopt the theory of running their business centered around Consumer, Shopper & Retailer needs. Their Marketing departments spend quality time looking for "Growth Opportunities" in their categories by identifying relevant insights (both mindsets and behaviors) on their target Consumers, Shoppers and retail partners. These Growth Opportunities emerge from changes in market trends, segment dynamics changing and also internal brand or operational business challenges.The Marketing team can then prioritize these Growth Opportunities and begin to develop strategies to exploit the opportunities that could include new or adapted products, services as well as changes to the 7Ps.
Real-life marketing
Real-life marketing primarily revolves around the application of a great deal of common-sense; dealing with a limited number of factors, in an environment of imperfect information and limited resources complicated by uncertainty and tight timescales. Use of classical marketing techniques, in these circumstances, is inevitably partial and uneven. Thus, for example, many new products will emerge from irrational processes and the rational development process may be used (if at all) to screen out the worst non-runners. The design of the advertising, and the packaging, will be the output of the creative minds employed; which management will then screen, often by 'gut-reaction', to ensure that it is reasonable. For most of their time, marketing managers use intuition and experience to analyze and handle the complex, and unique, situations being faced; without easy reference to theory. This will often be 'flying by the seat of the pants', or 'gut-reaction'; where the overall strategy, coupled with the knowledge of the customer which has been absorbed almost by a process of osmosis, will determine the quality of the marketing employed. This, almost instinctive management, is what is sometimes called 'coarse marketing'; to distinguish it from the refined, aesthetically pleasing, form favored by the theorists.
References
[1] [2] [3] [4] Baker, Michael The Strategic Marketing Plan Audit 2008. ISBN 1902433998. p.3 Marketing basics Marketing strategy based on market needs, targets and goals (http:/ / perso. orange. fr/ pgreenfinch/ mkting/ mkting3. htm). Aaker, David Strategic Market Management 2008. ISBN 9780470056233 Hausman Marketing Letter Definition of Marketing Series (http:/ / hausmanmarketresearch. org/ marketing-strategy/ definition-of-marketing-series-marketing-strategy/ ) [5] Aaker, David Strategic Market Management 2008. ISBN 9780470056233. [6] http:/ / www. marketingthatworks. tv/ marketing-explained-in-short-easy-words/ definition-of-marketing-series-marketing-strategy. html MarketingThatWorks.TV Marketing Strategy. [7] Baker, Michael The Strategic Marketing Plan Audit 2008. ISBN 1902433998. p. 27 [8] (http:/ / www. mckinseyquarterly. com/ Enduring_ideas_The_GE-McKinsey_nine-box_matrix_2198) [9] COPE analysis explained (http:/ / www. copeanalysis. com) [10] Miles, Raymond (2003). Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN0804748403.
Marketing strategy
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Further reading
Laermer, Richard; Simmons, Mark, Punk Marketing, New York : Harper Collins, 2007 ISBN 978-0-06-115110-1 (Review of the book by Marilyn Scrizzi, in Journal of Consumer Marketing 24(7), 2007)
Marketing plan
A marketing plan may be part of an overall business plan. Solid marketing strategy is the foundation of a well-written marketing plan. While a marketing plan contains a list of actions, a marketing plan without a sound strategic foundation is of little use.
The marketing planning process

Marketing process can be realized by the marketing mix in step 4. The last step in the process is the marketing controlling. In most organizations, "strategic planning" is an annual process, typically covering just the year ahead. Occasionally, a few organizations may look at a practical plan which stretches three or more years ahead. To be most effective, the plan has to be formalized, usually in written form, as a formal "marketing plan." The essence of the process is that it moves from the general to the specific, from the vision to the mission to the goals to the corporate objectives of the organization, then down to the individual action plans for each part of the marketing program. It is also an interactive process, so that the draft output of each stage is checked to see what impact it has on the earlier stages, and is amended.
Marketing planning aims and objectives

Behind the corporate objectives, which in themselves offer the main context for the marketing plan, will lie the "corporate mission," which in turn provides the context for these corporate objectives. In a sales-oriented organization, the marketing planning function designs incentive pay plans to not only motivate and reward frontline staff fairly but also to align marketing activities with corporate mission. This "corporate mission" can be thought of as a definition of what the organization is, of what it does: "Our business is ". This definition should not be too narrow, or it will constrict the development of the organization; a too rigorous concentration on the view that "We are in the business of making meat-scales," as IBM was during the early 1900s, might have limited its subsequent development into other areas. On the other hand, it should not be too wide or it will become meaningless; "We want to make a profit" is not too helpful in developing specific plans. Abell suggested that the definition should cover three dimensions: "customer groups" to be served, "customer needs" to be served, and "technologies" to be used.[1] Thus, the definition of IBM's "corporate mission" in the 1940s might well have been: "We are in the business of handling accounting information [customer need] for the larger US organizations [customer group] by means of punched cards [technology]." Perhaps the most important factor in successful marketing is the "corporate vision." Surprisingly, it is largely neglected by marketing textbooks, although not by the popular exponents of corporate strategy - indeed, it was perhaps the main theme of the book by Peters and Waterman, in the form of their "Superordinate Goals." "In Search of Excellence" said: "Nothing drives progress like the imagination. The idea precedes the deed." [2] If the organization in general, and its chief executive in particular, has a strong vision of where its future lies, then there is a good chance that the organization will achieve a strong position in its markets (and attain that future). This will be not least because its strategies will be consistent and will be supported by its staff at all levels. In this context, all of IBM's marketing activities were underpinned by its philosophy of "customer service," a vision originally promoted by the charismatic Watson dynasty. The emphasis at this stage is on obtaining a complete and accurate picture.
Marketing plan A "traditional" - albeit product-based - format for a "brand reference book" (or, indeed, a "marketing facts book") was suggested by Godley more than three decades ago: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Financial dataFacts for this section will come from management accounting, costing and finance sections. Product dataFrom production, research and development. Sales and distribution data - Sales, packaging, distribution sections. Advertising, sales promotion, merchandising data - Information from these departments. Market data and miscellany - From market research, who would in most cases act as a source for this information. His sources of data, however, assume the resources of a very large organization. In most organizations they would be obtained from a much smaller set of people (and not a few of them would be generated by the marketing manager alone).
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It is apparent that a marketing audit can be a complex process, but the aim is simple: "it is only to identify those existing (external and internal) factors which will have a significant impact on the future plans of the company." It is clear that the basic material to be input to the marketing audit should be comprehensive. Accordingly, the best approach is to accumulate this material continuously, as and when it becomes available; since this avoids the otherwise heavy workload involved in collecting it as part of the regular, typically annual, planning process itself - when time is usually at a premium. Even so, the first task of this annual process should be to check that the material held in the current facts book or facts files actually is comprehensive and accurate, and can form a sound basis for the marketing audit itself. The structure of the facts book will be designed to match the specific needs of the organization, but one simple format - suggested by Malcolm McDonald - may be applicable in many cases. This splits the material into three groups: 1. Review of the marketing environment. A study of the organization's markets, customers, competitors and the overall economic, political, cultural and technical environment; covering developing trends, as well as the current situation. 2. Review of the detailed marketing activity. A study of the company's marketing mix; in terms of the 7 Ps - (see below) 3. Review of the marketing system. A study of the marketing organization, marketing research systems and the current marketing objectives and strategies. The last of these is too frequently ignored. The marketing system itself needs to be regularly questioned, because the validity of the whole marketing plan is reliant upon the accuracy of the input from this system, and `garbage in, garbage out' applies with a vengeance. Portfolio planning. In addition, the coordinated planning of the individual products and services can contribute towards the balanced portfolio. 80:20 rule. To achieve the maximum impact, the marketing plan must be clear, concise and simple. It needs to concentrate on the 20 percent of products or services, and on the 20 percent of customers, that will account for 80 percent of the volume and 80 percent of the profit. 7 Ps: Product, Place, Price and Promotion, Physical Environment, People, Process. The 7 Ps can sometimes divert attention from the customer, but the framework they offer can be very useful in building the action plans. It is only at this stage (of deciding the marketing objectives) that the active part of the marketing planning process begins. This next stage in marketing planning is indeed the key to the whole marketing process. The "marketing objectives" state just where the company intends to be at some specific time in the future. James Quinn succinctly defined objectives in general as: Goals (or objectives) state what is to be achieved and when results are to be accomplished, but they do not state "how" the results are to be achieved.[3] They typically relate to what products (or services) will be where in what markets (and must be realistically based on customer behavior in those markets). They are essentially about the match between those "products" and "markets." Objectives for pricing, distribution, advertising and so on are at a lower level, and should not be confused with marketing objectives. They
Marketing plan are part of the marketing strategy needed to achieve marketing objectives. To be most effective, objectives should be capable of measurement and therefore "quantifiable." This measurement may be in terms of sales volume, money value, market share, percentage penetration of distribution outlets and so on. An example of such a measurable marketing objective might be "to enter the market with product Y and capture 10 percent of the market by value within one year." As it is quantified it can, within limits, be unequivocally monitored, and corrective action taken as necessary. The marketing objectives must usually be based, above all, on the organization's financial objectives; converting these financial measurements into the related marketing measurements.He went on to explain his view of the role of "policies," with which strategy is most often confused: "Policies are rules or guidelines that express the 'limits' within which action should occur."Simplifying somewhat, marketing strategies can be seen as the means, or "game plan," by which marketing objectives will be achieved and, in the framework that we have chosen to use, are generally concerned with the 8 P's. Examples are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Price - The amount of money needed to buy products Product - The actual product Promotion (advertising)- Getting the product known Placement - Where the product is located People - Represent the business
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6. Physical environment - The ambiance, mood, or tone of the environment 7. Process - How do people obtain your product 8. Packaging - How the product will be protected (Note: At GCSE the 4 Ps are Place, Promotion, Product and Price and the "secret" 5th P is Packaging, but which applies only to physical products, not services usually, and mostly those sold to individual consumers) In principle, these strategies describe how the objectives will be achieved. The 7 Ps are a useful framework for deciding how the company's resources will be manipulated (strategically) to achieve the objectives. However, they are not the only framework, and may divert attention from the real issues. The focus of the strategies must be the objectives to be achieved - not the process of planning itself. Only if it fits the needs of these objectives should you choose, as we have done, to use the framework of the 7 Ps. The strategy statement can take the form of a purely verbal description of the strategic options which have been chosen. Alternatively, and perhaps more positively, it might include a structured list of the major options chosen. One aspect of strategy which is often overlooked is that of "timing." Exactly when it is the best time for each element of the strategy to be implemented is often critical. Taking the right action at the wrong time can sometimes be almost as bad as taking the wrong action at the right time. Timing is, therefore, an essential part of any plan; and should normally appear as a schedule of planned activities.Having completed this crucial stage of the planning process, you will need to re-check the feasibility of your objectives and strategies in terms of the market share, sales, costs, profits and so on which these demand in practice. As in the rest of the marketing discipline, you will need to employ judgment, experience, market research or anything else which helps you to look at your conclusions from all possible angles.
Detailed plans and programs

At this stage,you will need to develop your overall marketing strategies into detailed plans and program. Although these detailed plans may cover each of the 7 Ps (marketing mix), the focus will vary, depending upon your organization's specific strategies. A product-oriented company will focus its plans for the 7 Ps around each of its products. A market or geographically oriented company will concentrate on each market or geographical area. Each will base its plans upon the detailed needs of its customers, and on the strategies chosen to satisfy these needs. Brochures and Websites are used effectively.
Marketing plan Again, the most important element is, indeed, that of the detailed plans, which spell out exactly what programs and individual activities will take place over the period of the plan (usually over the next year). Without these specified and preferably quantified - activities the plan cannot be monitored, even in terms of success in meeting its objectives.It is these programs and activities which will then constitute the "marketing" of the organization over the period. As a result, these detailed marketing programs are the most important, practical outcome of the whole planning process. These plans must therefore be: Clear - They should be an unambiguous statement of 'exactly' what is to be done. Quantified - The predicted outcome of each activity should be, as far as possible, quantified, so that its performance can be monitored. Focused - The temptation to proliferate activities beyond the numbers which can be realistically controlled should be avoided. The 80:20 Rule applies in this context too. Realistic - They should be achievable. Agreed - Those who are to implement them should be committed to them, and agree that they are achievable. The resulting plans should become a working document which will guide the campaigns taking place throughout the organization over the period of the plan. If the marketing plan is to work, every exception to it (throughout the year) must be questioned; and the lessons learnt, to be incorporated in the next year's .
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Content of the marketing plan

A marketing plan for a small business typically includes Small Business Administration Description of competitors, including the level of demand for the product or service and the strengths and weaknesses of competitors 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Description of the product or service, including special features Marketing budget, including the advertising and promotional plan Description of the business location, including advantages and disadvantages for marketing Pricing strategy Market Segmentation
Medium-sized and large organizations

The main contents of a marketing plan are:[4] 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Executive Summary Situational Analysis Opportunities / Issue Analysis - SWOT Analysis Objectives Strategy Action Program (the operational marketing plan itself for the period under review) Financial Forecast Controls
In detail, a complete marketing plan typically includes:[4] 1. Title page 2. Executive Summary 3. Current Situation - Macroenvironment economy legal government technology ecological
Marketing plan sociocultural supply chain 4. Current Situation - Market Analysis market definition market size market segmentation industry structure and strategic groupings Porter 5 forces analysis competition and market share competitors' strengths and weaknesses market trends 5. Current Situation - Consumer Analysis [5] nature of the buying decision participants demographics psychographics buyer motivation and expectations
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loyalty segments 6. Current Situation - Internal company resources financial people time skills objectives mission statement and vision statement corporate objectives financial objective marketing objectives long term objectives description of the basic business philosophy corporate culture 7. Summary of Situation Analysis external threats external opportunities internal strengths internal weaknesses Critical success factors in the industry our sustainable competitive advantage 8. Marketing research information requirements research methodology research results 9. Marketing Strategy - Product product mix product strengths and weaknesses
Marketing plan perceptual mapping product life cycle management and new product development Brand name, brand image, and brand equity the augmented product product portfolio analysis
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B.C.G. Analysis contribution margin analysis G.E. Multi Factoral analysis Quality Function Deployment 10. Marketing Strategy [6] - segmented marketing actions and market share objectives 11. by product, by customer segment, by geographical market, by distribution channel. Marketing Strategy - Price
pricing objectives pricing method (e.g.: cost plus, demand based, or competitor indexing) 12. 13. 14. pricing strategy (e.g.: skimming, or penetration) discounts and allowances price elasticity and customer sensitivity price zoning break even analysis at various prices Marketing Strategy - promotion promotional goals promotional mix advertising reach, frequency, flights, theme, and media sales force requirements, techniques, and management sales promotion publicity and public relations electronic promotion (e.g.: Web, or telephone) word of mouth marketing (buzz) viral marketing Marketing Strategy - Distribution geographical coverage distribution channels physical distribution and logistics electronic distribution Implementation
personnel requirements assign responsibilities give incentives training on selling methods financial requirements management information systems requirements month-by-month agenda PERT or critical path analysis
Marketing plan 15. 16. monitoring results and benchmarks adjustment mechanism contingencies (What if's) Financial Summary assumptions pro-forma monthly income statement contribution margin analysis breakeven analysis Monte Carlo method ISI: Internet Strategic Intelligence Scenarios
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Prediction of Future Scenarios Plan of Action for each Scenario 17. Appendix pictures and specifications of the new product results from research already completed
Measurement of progress
The final stage of any marketing planning process is to establish targets (or standards) so that progress can be monitored. Accordingly, it is important to put both quantities and timescales into the marketing objectives (for example, to capture 20 percent by value of the market within two years) and into the corresponding strategies. Changes in the environment mean that the forecasts often have to be changed. Along with these, the related plans may well also need to be changed. Continuous monitoring of performance, against predetermined targets, represents a most important aspect of this. However, perhaps even more important is the enforced discipline of a regular formal review. Again, as with forecasts, in many cases the best (most realistic) planning cycle will revolve around a quarterly review. Best of all, at least in terms of the quantifiable aspects of the plans, if not the wealth of backing detail, is probably a quarterly rolling review - planning one full year ahead each new quarter. Of course, this does absorb more planning resource; but it also ensures that the plans embody the latest information, and - with attention focused on them so regularly - forces both the plans and their implementation to be realistic. Plans only have validity if they are actually used to control the progress of a company: their success lies in their implementation, not in the writing'.
Performance analysis
The most important elements of marketing performance, which are normally tracked, are:
Sales analysis
Most organizations track their sales results; or, in non-profit organizations for example, the number of clients. The more sophisticated track them in terms of 'sales variance' - the deviation from the target figures - which allows a more immediate picture of deviations to become evident. `Micro-analysis', which is simply the normal management process of investigating detailed problems, then investigates the individual elements (individual products, sales territories, customers and so on) which are failing to meet targets.
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Market share analysis

Few organizations track market share though it is often an important metric. Though absolute sales might grow in an expanding market, a firm's share of the market can decrease which bodes ill for future sales when the market starts to drop. Where such market share is tracked, there may be a number of aspects which will be followed: overall market share segment share - that in the specific, targeted segment relative share -in relation to the market leaders annual fluctuation rate of market share also the specific market sharing of customers.
Expense analysis
The key ratio to watch in this area is usually the `marketing expense to sales ratio'; although this may be broken down into other elements (advertising to sales, sales administration to sales, and so on).
Financial analysis
The "bottom line" of marketing activities should at least in theory, be the net profit (for all except non-profit organizations, where the comparable emphasis may be on remaining within budgeted costs). There are a number of separate performance figures and key ratios which need to be tracked: gross contribution<>net profit gross profit<>return on investment net contribution<>profit on sales There can be considerable benefit in comparing these figures with those achieved by other organizations (especially those in the same industry); using, for instance, the figures which can be obtained (in the UK) from `The Centre for Interfirm Comparison'. The most sophisticated use of this approach, however, is typically by those making use of PIMS (Profit Impact of Management Strategies), initiated by the General Electric Company and then developed by Harvard Business School, but now run by the Strategic Planning Institute. The above performance analyses concentrate on the quantitative measures which are directly related to short-term performance. But there are a number of indirect measures, essentially tracking customer attitudes, which can also indicate the organization's performance in terms of its longer-term marketing strengths and may accordingly be even more important indicators. Some useful measures are: market research - including customer panels (which are used to track changes over time) lost business - the orders which were lost because, for example, the stock was not available or the product did not meet the customer's exact requirements customer complaints - how many customers complain about the products or services, or the organization itself, and about what
Use of marketing plans

A formal, written marketing plan is essential; in that it provides an unambiguous reference point for activities throughout the planning period. However, perhaps the most important benefit of these plans is the planning process itself. This typically offers a unique opportunity, a forum, for information-rich and productively focused discussions between the various managers involved. The plan, together with the associated discussions, then provides an agreed context for their subsequent management activities, even for those not described in the plan itself. Additionally, marketing plans are included in business plans, offering data showing investors how the company will grow and most importantly, how they will get a return on investment.
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Budgets as managerial tools

The classic quantification of a marketing plan appears in the form of budgets. Because these are so rigorously quantified, they are particularly important. They should, thus, represent an unequivocal projection of actions and expected results. What is more, they should be capable of being monitored accurately; and, indeed, performance against budget is the main (regular) management review process. The purpose of a marketing budget is, thus, to pull together all the revenues and costs involved in marketing into one comprehensive document. It is a managerial tool that balances what is needed to be spent against what can be afforded, and helps make choices about priorities. It is then used in monitoring performance in practice. The marketing budget is usually the most powerful tool by which you think through the relationship between desired results and available means. Its starting point should be the marketing strategies and plans, which have already been formulated in the marketing plan itself; although, in practice, the two will run in parallel and will interact. At the very least, the rigorous, highly quantified, budgets may cause a rethink of some of the more optimistic elements of the plans.
References
[1] Abell, "Defining the Business: The Starting Point of Strategic Planning" [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] "The Marketing Imagination" J. B. Quinn, "Strategies for Change: Logical Incrementalism" (Richard D. Irwin, 1980) Baker, Michael The Strategic Marketing Plan Audit 2008. ISBN 1902433998 Quick MBA Marketing plan based on consumer and competitor analyses (http:/ / www. quickmba. com/ marketing/ plan/ ) Marketing plan basics Table of marketing targets, actions, means and results (http:/ / perso. orange. fr/ pgreenfinch/ mkting/ mkting5. htm)
H. A. Simon, Rational decision making in business organisations, 'American Economic Review' J. Pfeffer and G. R. Salancik, 'The External Control of Organizations' K. Paolo Sumagaysay, "The oversaturated world"
Promotion (marketing)
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Promotion (marketing)
Promotion is one of the four elements of marketing mix (product, price, promotion, place). It is the communication link between sellers and buyers for the purpose of influencing, informing, or persuading a potential buyer's purchasing decision.[1] The following are two types of promotion: 1. Above the line promotion: Promotion in mass media (e.g. TV, radio, newspapers, internet, mobile phones, and, historically, illustrated songs) in which the advertiser pays an advertising agency to place the advertisement 2. Below the line promotion: All other promotion. Much of this is intended to be subtle enough for the consumer to be unaware that promotion is taking place. E.g. sponsorship, product placement, testimonials, sales promotion, merchandising, direct mail, personal selling, public relations, trade shows The specification of five elements creates a promotional mix or promotional plan. These elements are personal selling, advertising, sales promotion, direct marketing, and publicity.[2] A promotional mix specifies how much attention to pay to each of the five subcategories, and how much money to budget for each. A promotional plan can have a wide range of objectives, including: sales increases, new product acceptance, creation of brand equity, positioning, competitive retaliations, or creation of a corporate image. Fundamentally, however there are three basic objectives of promotion. These are:[3] 1. To present information to consumers as well as others 2. To increase demand 3. To differentiate a product.
Promotion (marketing) There are different ways to promote a product in different areas of media. Promoters use internet advertisement, special events, endorsements, and newspapers to advertise their product. Many times with the purchase of a product there is an incentive like discounts, free items, or a contest. This is to increase the sales of a given product. The term "promotion" is usually an "in" expression used internally by the marketing company, but not normally to the public or the market - phrases like "special offer" are more common. An example of a fully integrated, long-term, large-scale promotion are My Coke Rewards and Pepsi Stuff. The UK version of My Coke Rewards is Coke Zone.
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Notes
[1] Kurtz, Dave. (2010). Contemporary Marketing Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning. [2] Rajagopal. (2007) Marketing Dynamics: Theory and Practice. New Delhi, India: New Age International. Retrieved April 5, 2010, from NJIT EBook Library: http:/ / www. njit. eblib. com. libdb. njit. edu:8888/ patron/ FullRecord. aspx?p=437711 [3] Kurtz, Dave. (2010). Contemporary Marketing Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning.
Brand
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Brand
The Coca-Cola logo is an example of a widely-recognised trademark representing a global brand.
A brand is the identity of a specific product, service, or business.[1] A brand can take many forms, including a name, sign, symbol, color combination or slogan. The word branding began simply as a way to tell one person's cattle from another by means of a hot iron stamp. A legally protected brand name is called a trademark. The word brand has continued to evolve to encompass identity - it affects the personality of a product, company or service. A concept brand is a brand that is associated with an abstract concept, like breast cancer awareness or environmentalism, rather than a specific product, service, or business. A commodity brand is a brand associated with a commodity. Got milk? is an example of a commodity brand. In the automotive industry, brands were originally called marques, and marque is still often used as a synonym for brand in reference to motor vehicles.[2]
Brand The word "brand" is sometimes used as a metonym, referring to a company that is strongly identified with a brand.
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Concepts
Brand is the personality that identifies a product, service or company (name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or combination of them) and how it relates to key constituencies: customers, staff, partners, investors etc. Some people distinguish the psychological aspect, brand associations like thoughts, feelings, perceptions, images, experiences, beliefs, attitudes, and so on that become linked to the brand, of a brand from the experiential aspect. The experiential aspect consists of the sum of all points of contact with the brand and is known as the brand experience. The psychological aspect, sometimes referred to as the brand image, is a symbolic construct created within the minds of people, consisting of all the information and expectations associated with a product, service or the company(ies) providing them. People engaged in branding seek to develop or align the expectations behind the brand experience, creating the impression that a brand associated with a product or service has certain qualities or characteristics that make it special or unique. A brand is therefore one of the most valuable elements in an advertising theme, as it demonstrates what the brand owner is able to offer in the marketplace. The art of creating and maintaining a brand is called brand management. Orientation of the whole organization towards its brand is called brand orientation. Careful brand management seeks to make the product or services relevant to the target audience. Brands should be seen as more than the difference between the actual cost of a product and its selling price - they represent the sum of all valuable qualities of a product to the consumer. A brand which is widely known in the marketplace acquires brand recognition. When brand recognition builds up to a point where a brand enjoys a critical mass of positive sentiment in the marketplace, it is said to have achieved brand franchise. One goal in brand recognition is the identification of a brand without the name of the company present. For example, Disney has been successful at branding with their particular script font (originally created for Walt Disney's "signature" logo), which it used in the logo for go.com. Consumers may look on branding as an important value added aspect of products or services, as it often serves to denote a certain attractive quality or characteristic (see also brand promise). From the perspective of brand owners, branded products or services also command higher prices. Where two products resemble each other, but one of the products has no associated branding (such as a generic, store-branded product), people may often select the more expensive branded product on the basis of the quality of the brand or the reputation of the brand owner.
Brand awareness
Brand awareness refers to customers' ability to recall and recognize the brand under different conditions and link to the brand name, logo, jingles and so on to certain associations in memory. It helps the customers to understand to which product or service category the particular brand belongs and what products and services are sold under the brand name. It also ensures that customers know which of their needs are satisfied by the brand through its products (Keller). Brand awareness is of critical importance since customers will not consider your brand if they are not aware of it.[3] 'Brand love', or love of a brand, is an emerging term encompassing the perceived value of the brand image. Brand love levels are measured through social media posts about a brand, or tweets on sites such as Twitter. Becoming a Facebook fan of a particular brand is also a measurement of the level of 'brand love'.
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Brand promise
The marketer and owner of the brand has a vision of what the brand must be and do for the consumers.[4] Brand promise is what a particular brand stands for (and has stood for in the past). It has its roots from the identity that it gains over a period of time. Usually, brand promise is an attribute common to ' Parent ' brands. Herein, the brand may broadly stand for Quality, Performance, Trust, or False promises. However, the extensions, or the brands under the parent brand umbrella, may stand individually for a particular trait which it has delivered over the years, for example, 'the best sparkling teeth', or 'the trusted bank to bank with for centuries', et al.
Global brand
A global brand is one which is perceived to reflect the same set of values around the world. Global brands transcend their origins and create strong enduring relationships with consumers across countries and cultures. They are brands sold in international markets. Examples of global brands include Facebook, Apple, Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Mastercard, Gap, Sony and Nike. These brands are used to sell the same product across multiple markets and could be considered successful to the extent that the associated products are easily recognizable by the diverse set of consumers.
Benefits of global branding

In addition to taking advantage of the outstanding growth opportunities, the following drives the increasing interest in taking brands global: Economies of scale (production and distribution) Lower marketing costs Laying the groundwork for future extensions worldwide Maintaining consistent brand imagery Quicker identification and integration of innovations (discovered worldwide) Preempting international competitors from entering domestic markets or locking you out of other geographic markets Increasing international media reach (especially with the explosion of the Internet) is an enabler Increases in international business and tourism are also enablers
Global brand variables

The following elements may differ from country to country: Corporate slogan Products and services Product names Product features Positionings Marketing mixes (including pricing, distribution, media and advertising execution)
These differences will depend upon: Language differences Different styles of communication Other cultural differences Differences in category and brand development
Different consumption patterns Different competitive sets and marketplace conditions Different legal and regulatory environments
Brand Different national approaches to marketing (media, pricing, distribution, etc.)
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Local brand
A brand that is sold and marketed (distributed and promoted) in a relatively small and restricted geographical area. A local brand is a brand that can be found in only one country or region. It may be called a regional brand if the area encompasses more than one metropolitan market. It may also be a brand that is developed for a specific national market, however an interesting thing about local brand is that the local branding is more often done by consumers than by the producers. Examples of local brands in Sweden are Stomatol, Sknemejerier, etc.[5] [6]
Ambient brand
An ambient brand is a movement, where the brand is organized around values and social needs instead of promoting a specific product. It is a virtual space, defined by values and occupied by a community of like minded people. Whereas a traditional brand is entirely dependent on products and their parent corporations, an ambient brand is an independent social movement that companies can participate in. They are not selling products, they are allowing their company to participate in a social movement and allow their brand to be identified with this. It exists as a shared values space where consumers gather, converse and ultimately transact with organizations that appear to be in alignment with the values associated with that community. Corporations do not create ambient brands. They must qualify for inclusion within them by demonstrating that they share the values and will service the interests of their associated communities. The brands develop organically as a result of emerging social and cultural codes and are materialized through people's ability to organize around them through the use of mainly virtual communities on the web. The term as it is defined here was coined by Sara Batterby, a brand strategist in San Francisco and was used in an interview [7] on the importance of successful destination branding with Bjrn Frode Moen
Brand name
The brand name is quite often used interchangeably with "brand", although it is more correctly used to specifically denote written or spoken linguistic elements of any product. In this context a "brand name" constitutes a type of trademark, if the brand name exclusively identifies the brand owner as the commercial source of products or services. A brand owner may seek to protect proprietary rights in relation to a brand name through trademark registration and such trademarks are called "Registered Trademarks". Advertising spokespersons have also become part of some brands, for example: Mr. Whipple of Charmin toilet tissue and Tony the Tiger of Kellogg's Frosted Flakes. Local branding is usually done by the consumers rather than the producers. Types of brand names Brand names come in many styles.[8] A few include: Relationship between trade marks and brand Acronym: A name made of initials such as UPS or IBM Descriptive: Names that describe a product benefit or function like Whole Foods or Airbus Alliteration and rhyme: Names that are fun to say and stick in the mind like Reese's Pieces or Dunkin' Donuts Evocative: Names that evoke a relevant vivid image like Amazon or Crest
Brand Neologisms: Completely made-up words like Wii or Kodak Foreign word: Adoption of a word from another language like Volvo or Samsung Founders' names: Using the names of real people,and founder's name like Hewlett-Packard or Disney Geography: Many brands are named for regions and landmarks like Cisco and Fuji Film Personification: Many brands take their names from myth like Nike or from the minds of ad execs like Betty Crocker The act of associating a product or service with a brand has become part of pop culture. Most products have some kind of brand identity, from common table salt to designer jeans. A brandnomer is a brand name that has colloquially become a generic term for a product or service, such as Band-Aid or Kleenex, which are often used to describe any brand of adhesive bandage or any brand of facial tissue respectively.
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Brand identity
The outward expression of a brand, including its name, trademark, communications, and visual appearance.[9] Because the identity is assembled by the brand owner, it reflects how the owner wants the consumer to perceive the brand - and by extension the branded company, organization, product or service. This is in contrast to the brand image, which is a customer's mental picture of a brand.[9] The brand owner will seek to bridge the gap between the brand image and the brand identity. Effective brand names build a connection between the brand personality as it is perceived by the target audience and the actual product/service. The brand name should be conceptually on target with the product/service (what the company stands for). Furthermore, the brand name should be on target with the brand demographic.[10] Typically, sustainable brand names are easy to remember, transcend trends and have positive connotations. Brand identity is fundamental to consumer recognition and symbolizes the brand's differentiation from competitors. Brand identity is what the owner wants to communicate to its potential consumers. However, over time, a product's brand identity may acquire (evolve), gaining new attributes from consumer perspective but not necessarily from the marketing communications an owner percolates to targeted consumers. Therefore, brand associations become handy to check the consumer's perception of the brand.[11] Brand identity needs to focus on authentic qualities - real characteristics of the value and brand promise being provided and sustained by organizational and/or production characteristics.[12] [13]
Brand
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Visual brand identity

The recognition and perception of a brand is highly influenced by its visual presentation. A brands visual identity is the overall look of its communications. Effective visual brand identity is achieved by the consistent use of particular visual elements to create distinction, such as specific fonts, colors, and graphic elements. At the core of every brand identity is a brand mark, or logo. In the United States, brand identity and logo design naturally grew out of the Modernist movement in the 1950s and greatly drew on the principles of that movement simplicity (Mies van der Rohes principle of "Less is more") and geometric abstraction. These principles can be observed in the work of the pioneers of the practice of visual brand identity design, such as Paul Rand, Chermayeff & Geismar and Saul Bass.
Brand parity
Brand parity is the perception of the customers that some brands are equivalent.[14] This means that shoppers will purchase within a group of accepted brands rather than choosing one specific brand. When brand parity is present, quality is often not a major concern because consumers believe that only minor quality differences exist.
The visual brand identity manual for Mobil Oil (developed by Chermayeff & Geismar), one of the first visual identities to integrate logotype, icon, alphabet, color palette, and station architecture to create a comprehensive consumer brand experience.
Expanding role of brand

When the technique of branding first started, it was meant to make identifying and differentiating a product easier. Over time, brands came to embrace a performance or benefit promise, for the product, certainly, but eventually also for the company behind the brand. Today, brand plays a much bigger role. Brands have been co-opted as powerful symbols in larger debates about economics, social issues, and politics. The power of brands to communicate a complex message quickly and with emotional impact and the ability of brands to attract media attention, make them ideal tools in the hands of activists.[15]
Branding approaches
Company name
Often, especially in the industrial sector, it is just the company's name which is promoted (leading to one of the most powerful statements of branding: saying just before the company's downgrading, "No one ever got fired for buying IBM"). This approach has not worked as well for General Motors, which recently overhauled how its corporate brand relates to the product brands.[16] Exactly how the company name relates to product and services names is known as brand architecture. Decisions about company names and product names and their relationship depends on more than a dozen strategic considerations.[17]
Brand In this case a strong brand name (or company name) is made the vehicle for a range of products (for example, Mercedes-Benz or Black & Decker) or a range of subsidiary brands (such as Cadbury Dairy Milk, Cadbury Flake or Cadbury Fingers in the United States).
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Individual branding
Each brand has a separate name (such as Seven-Up, Kool-Aid or Nivea Sun (Beiersdorf)), which may compete against other brands from the same company (for example, Persil, Omo, Surf and Lynx are all owned by Unilever).
Attitude branding and iconic brands

Attitude branding is the choice to represent a larger feeling, which is not necessarily connected with the product or consumption of the product at all. Marketing labeled as attitude branding include that of Nike, Starbucks, The Body Shop, Safeway, and Apple Inc.. In the 2000 book No Logo,[18] Naomi Klein describes attitude branding as a "fetish strategy". "A great brand raises the bar -- it adds a greater sense of purpose to the experience, whether it's the challenge to do your best in sports and fitness, or the affirmation that the cup of coffee you're drinking really matters." - Howard Schultz (president, CEO, and chairman of Starbucks) Iconic brands are defined as having aspects that contribute to consumer's self-expression and personal identity. Brands whose value to consumers comes primarily from having identity value are said to be "identity brands". Some of these brands have such a strong identity that they become more or less cultural icons which makes them "iconic brands". Examples are: Apple, Nike and Harley Davidson. Many iconic brands include almost ritual-like behaviour in purchasing or consuming the products. There are four key elements to creating iconic brands (Holt 2004):
The color, letter font and style of the Coca-Cola and Diet Coca-Cola
logos in English were copied into matching Hebrew logos to 1. "Necessary conditions" - The performance of the maintain brand identity in Israel. product must at least be acceptable, preferably with a reputation of having good quality. 2. "Myth-making" - A meaningful storytelling fabricated by cultural insiders. These must be seen as legitimate and respected by consumers for stories to be accepted. 3. "Cultural contradictions" - Some kind of mismatch between prevailing ideology and emergent undercurrents in society. In other words a difference with the way consumers are and how they wish they were. 4. "The cultural brand management process" - Actively engaging in the myth-making process in making sure the brand maintains its position as an icon.
"No-brand" branding
Recently a number of companies have successfully pursued "no-brand" strategies by creating packaging that imitates generic brand simplicity. Examples include the Japanese company Muji, which means "No label" in English (from "Mujirushi Ryohin" literally, "No brand quality goods"), and the Florida company No-Ad Sunscreen. Although there is a distinct Muji brand, Muji products are not branded. This no-brand strategy means that little is spent on advertisement or classical marketing and Muji's success is attributed to the word-of-mouth, a simple shopping experience and the anti-brand movement.[19] [20] [21] "No brand" branding may be construed as a type of
Brand branding as the product is made conspicuous through the absence of a brand name. "Tapa Amarilla" or "Yellow Cap" in Venezuela during the 80s is another good example of no-brand strategy. It was simply recognized by the color of the cap of this cleaning products company.
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Derived brands
In this case the supplier of a key component, used by a number of suppliers of the end-product, may wish to guarantee its own position by promoting that component as a brand in its own right. The most frequently quoted example is Intel, which positions itself in the PC market with the slogan (and sticker) "Intel Inside".
Brand extension and brand dilution

The existing strong brand name can be used as a vehicle for new or modified products; for example, many fashion and designer companies extended brands into fragrances, shoes and accessories, home textile, home decor, luggage, (sun-) glasses, furniture, hotels, etc. Mars extended its brand to ice cream, Caterpillar to shoes and watches, Michelin to a restaurant guide, Adidas and Puma to personal hygiene. Dunlop extended its brand from tires to other rubber products such as shoes, golf balls, tennis racquets and adhesives. There is a difference between brand extension and line extension. A line extension is when a current brand name is used to enter a new market segment in the existing product class, with new varieties or flavors or sizes. When Coca-Cola launched "Diet Coke" and "Cherry Coke" they stayed within the originating product category: non-alcoholic carbonated beverages. Procter & Gamble (P&G) did likewise extending its strong lines (such as Fairy Soap) into neighboring products (Fairy Liquid and Fairy Automatic) within the same category, dish washing detergents. The risk of over-extension is brand dilution where the brand looses its brand associations with a market segment, product area, or quality, price or cachet.
Multi-brands
Alternatively, in a market that is fragmented amongst a number of brands a supplier can choose deliberately to launch totally new brands in apparent competition with its own existing strong brand (and often with identical product characteristics); simply to soak up some of the share of the market which will in any case go to minor brands. The rationale is that having 3 out of 12 brands in such a market will give a greater overall share than having 1 out of 10 (even if much of the share of these new brands is taken from the existing one). In its most extreme manifestation, a supplier pioneering a new market which it believes will be particularly attractive may choose immediately to launch a second brand in competition with its first, in order to pre-empt others entering the market. Individual brand names naturally allow greater flexibility by permitting a variety of different products, of differing quality, to be sold without confusing the consumer's perception of what business the company is in or diluting higher quality products. Once again, Procter & Gamble is a leading exponent of this philosophy, running as many as ten detergent brands in the US market. This also increases the total number of "facings" it receives on supermarket shelves. Sara Lee, on the other hand, uses it to keep the very different parts of the business separate from Sara Lee cakes through Kiwi polishes to L'Eggs pantyhose. In the hotel business, Marriott uses the name Fairfield Inns for its budget chain (and Ramada uses Rodeway for its own cheaper hotels). Cannibalization is a particular problem of a "multibrand" approach, in which the new brand takes business away from an established one which the organization also owns. This may be acceptable (indeed to be expected) if there is a net gain overall. Alternatively, it may be the price the organization is willing to pay for shifting its position in the market; the new product being one stage in this process.
Brand
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Private labels
With the emergence of strong retailers, private label brands, also called own brands, or store brands, also emerged as a major factor in the marketplace. Where the retailer has a particularly strong identity (such as Marks & Spencer in the UK clothing sector) this "own brand" may be able to compete against even the strongest brand leaders, and may outperform those products that are not otherwise strongly branded.
Individual and organizational brands

There are kinds of branding that treat individuals and organizations as the products to be branded. Personal branding treats persons and their careers as brands. The term is thought to have been first used in a 1997 article by Tom Peters.[22] Faith branding treats religious figures and organizations as brands. Religious media expert Phil Cooke has written that faith branding handles the question of how to express faith in a media-dominated culture.[23] Nation branding works with the perception and reputation of countries as brands.
Crowdsourcing Branding
These are brands that are created by the people for the business, which is opposite to the traditional method where the business create a brand. This type of method minimizes the risk of brand failure, since the people that might reject the brand in the traditional method are the ones who are participating in the branding process.
Nation Branding (Place Branding & Public diplomacy)

Nation branding is a field of theory and practice which aims to measure, build and manage the reputation of countries (closely related to place branding). Some approaches applied, such as an increasing importance on the symbolic value of products, have led countries to emphasise their distinctive characteristics. The branding and image of a nation-state "and the successful transference of this image to its exports - is just as important as what they actually produce and sell."[24]
History
The word "brand" is derived from the Old Norse brandr meaning "to burn." It refers to the practice of producers burning their mark (or brand) onto their products.[25] Although connected with the history of trademarks[26] and including earlier examples which could be deemed "protobrands" (such as the marketing puns of the "Vesuvinum" wine jars found at Pompeii),[27] brands in the field of mass-marketing originated in the 19th century with the advent of packaged goods. Industrialization moved the production of many household items, such as soap, from local communities to centralized factories. When shipping their items, the factories would literally brand their logo or insignia on the barrels used, extending the meaning of "brand" to that of trademark. Bass & Company, the British brewery, claims their red triangle brand was the world's first trademark. Lyles Golden Syrup makes a similar claim, having been named as Britain's oldest brand, with its green and gold packaging having remained almost unchanged since 1885. Another example comes from Antiche Fornaci Giorgi in Italy, whose bricks are stamped or carved with the same proto-logo since 1731, as found in Saint Peter's Basilica in Vatican City. Cattle were branded long before this. The term "maverick," originally meaning an unbranded calf, comes from Texas rancher Samuel Augustus Maverick who, following the American Civil War, decided that since all other cattle were branded, his would be identified by having no markings at all. Even the signatures on paintings of famous artists like Leonardo Da Vinci can be viewed as an early branding tool. Factories established during the Industrial Revolution introduced mass-produced goods and needed to sell their products to a wider market, to customers previously familiar only with locally-produced goods. It quickly became apparent that a generic package of soap had difficulty competing with familiar, local products. The packaged goods
Brand manufacturers needed to convince the market that the public could place just as much trust in the non-local product. Campbell soup, Coca-Cola, Juicy Fruit gum, Aunt Jemima, and Quaker Oats were among the first products to be 'branded', in an effort to increase the consumer's familiarity with their products. Many brands of that era, such as Uncle Ben's rice and Kellogg's breakfast cereal furnish illustrations of the problem. Around 1900, James Walter Thompson published a house ad explaining trademark advertising. This was an early commercial explanation of what we now know as branding. Companies soon adopted slogans, mascots, and jingles that began to appear on radio and early television. By the 1940s,[28] manufacturers began to recognize the way in which consumers were developing relationships with their brands in a social/psychological/anthropological sense. From there, manufacturers quickly learned to build their brand's identity and personality (see brand identity and brand personality), such as youthfulness, fun or luxury. This began the practice we now know as "branding" today, where the consumers buy "the brand" instead of the product. This trend continued to the 1980s, and is now quantified in concepts such as brand value and brand equity. Naomi Klein has described this development as "brand equity mania".[18] In 1988, for example, Philip Morris purchased Kraft for six times what the company was worth on paper; it was felt that what they really purchased was its brand name.[29] Marlboro Friday: April 2, 1993 - marked by some as the death of the brand[18] - the day Philip Morris declared that they were cutting the price of Marlboro cigarettes by 20% in order to compete with bargain cigarettes. Marlboro cigarettes were noted at the time for their heavy advertising campaigns and well-nuanced brand image. In response to the announcement Wall street stocks nose-dived[18] for a large number of branded companies: Heinz, Coca Cola, Quaker Oats, PepsiCo. Many thought the event signalled the beginning of a trend towards "brand blindness" (Klein 13), questioning the power of "brand value."
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References
[1] David Aaker (1991), Managing Brand Equity. [2] "marque, n./2", Oxford English Dictionary online version (July 2010 ed.) [3] Tan, Donald (2010). "Success Factors In Establishing Your Brand" Franchising and Licensing Association. Retrieved from http:/ / www. flasingapore. org/ info_branding. php [4] Kotler P., Keller K.L, Brady M., Goodman M., Hansen T. (2009). Marketing Management.ISBN 978-0-273-71856-7., pp.861 [5] Marketingpower.com (http:/ / www. marketingpower. com/ _layouts/ Dictionary. aspx?dLetter=L) [6] A study to indicate the importance of brand Awareness in Brand Choice- A Cultural Perspective By Hanna Bornmark, Asa Goransson, Christina Svensson. Department of Business Studies, Kristianstad University, Sweden [7] http:/ / www. innovationcircle. net/ importance-of-successful-destination-branding-interview-with-bjoern-frode-moen. 4867490-91226. html [8] MerriamAssociates.com (http:/ / merriamassociates. com/ 2009/ 02/ styles-and-types-of-company-and-product-names/ ) [9] Neumeier, Marty (2004), The Dictionary of Brand. ISBN 1-884081-06-1, pp.20 [10] What's in a Brand Name? (http:/ / www. brandpad. co. uk) [11] (http:/ / www. symbologo. org/ 2011/ 05/ brand-association-what-we-mean. html) [12] Diller S., Shedroff N., and Rhea D (2006) Making Meaning: How Successful Businesses Deliver Meaningful Customer Experiences. New Riders, Berkeley, CA, [13] Kunde, J., (2002) Unique Now... or Never: the Brand Is the Company Driver in the New Value Economy, Financial Times/Prentice Hall. London [14] Paul S. Richardson, Alan S. Dick and Arun K. Jain "Extrinsic and Intrinsic Cue Effects on Perceptions of Store Brand Quality", Journal of Marketing October 1994 pp. 28-36 [15] http:/ / merriamassociates. com/ 2010/ 12/ wikileaks-hacktivism-and-brands-as-political-symbols/ [16] http:/ / merriamassociates. com/ 2010/ 11/ general-motors-a-reorganized-brand-architecture-for-a-reorganized-company/ [17] http:/ / merriamassociates. com/ 2009/ 09/ brand-architecture-strategic-considerations/ [18] Klein, Naomi (2000) No logo, Canada: Random House, ISBN 0-676-97282-9 [19] Muji brand strategy, Muji branding, no name brand - VentureRepublic (http:/ / www. venturerepublic. com/ resources/ Muji_The_Japanese_No-Brand. asp) [20] Matt Heig, Brand Royalty: How the World's Top 100 Brands Thrive and Survive, pg.216 [21] Trenmatter.com (http:/ / www. trendmatter. com/ 2007/ 05/ 24/ no-brand-brand/ ) [22] Tom Peters (August 1997). "The brand Called You" (http:/ / www. fastcompany. com/ magazine/ 10/ brandyou. html). Fast Company (Mansueto Ventures LLC.) (10): pp.83. . [23] Cooke, Phil; Branding Faith: Why Some Churches and Nonprofits Impact Culture and Others Don't; Regal, 2008; ISBN 978-0830745630
Brand
[24] www.en.wikipedia/Nationbranding [25] MarketingMagazine.co.uk (http:/ / www. marketingmagazine. co. uk/ news/ 534969/ Mark-Ritson-branding-Norse-fire-smokes-bland-brands/ ?DCMP=ILC-SEARCH) [26] (U.S.) Trademark History Timeline (http:/ / www. lib. utexas. edu/ engin/ trademark/ timeline/ tmindex. html) [27] Jstor.org (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 3065004) [28] Mildred Pierce, Newmediagroup.co.uk (http:/ / newmediagroup. co. uk/ pphistory1. htm) [29] Brandpad.co.uk - Is the BRAND approach dead? (http:/ / www. brandpad. co. uk/ news-1/ isthebuyregularlyandnevereffectapproachdead)
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Bibliography
Birkin, Michael (1994). "Assessing Brand Value," in Brand Power. ISBN 0-8147-7965-4 Gregory, James (2003). Best of Branding. ISBN 0-07-140329-9 Klein, Naomi (2000) No logo, Canada: Random House, ISBN 0-676-97282-9 Fan, Y. (2002) The National Image of Global Brands, Journal of Brand Management, 9:3, 180-192, available at Brunel.ac.uk (http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/1289) Kotler, Philip and Pfoertsch, Waldemar (2006). B2B Brand Management, ISBN 3-540-25360-2. Miller & Muir (2004). The Business of Brands, ISBN 0-470-86259-9. Olins, Wally (2003). On Brand, London: Thames and Hudson, ISBN 0-500-51145-4. Schmidt, Klaus and Chris Ludlow (2002). Inclusive Branding: The Why and How of a Holistic approach to Brands. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-98079-4 Wernick, Andrew (1991). Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (Theory, Culture & Society S.), London: Sage Publications, ISBN 0-8039-8390-5 Holt, DB (2004). "How Brands Become Icons: The Principles of Cultural Branding" Harvard University Press, Harvard MA Philip Kotler (2004). "Marketing Management", ISBN 81-7808-654-9
Positioning (marketing)
33
In marketing, positioning has come to mean the process by which marketers try to create an image or identity in the minds of their target market for its product, brand, or organization. Re-positioning involves changing the identity of a product, relative to the identity of competing products, in the collective minds of the target market. De-positioning involves attempting to change the identity of competing products, relative to the identity of your own product, in the collective minds of the target market. The original work on Positioning was consumer marketing oriented, and was not as much focused on the question relative to competitive products as much as it was focused on cutting through the ambient "noise" and establishing a moment of real contact with the intended recipient. In the classic example of Avis claiming "No.2, We Try Harder", the point was to say something so shocking (it was by the standards of the day) that it cleared space in your brain and made you forget all about who was #1, and not to make some philosophical point about being "hungry" for business. The growth of high-tech marketing may have had much to do with the shift in definition towards competitive positioning. An important component of hi-tech marketing in the age of the world wide web is positioning in major search engines such as Google, Yahoo and Bing, which can be accomplished through Search Engine Optimization , also known as SEO. This is an especially important component when attempting to improve competitive positioning among a younger demographic, which tends to be web oriented in their shopping and purchasing habits as a result of being highly connected and involved in social media in general.
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Definitions
Although there are different definitions of Positioning, probably the most common is: identifying a market niche for a brand, product or service utilizing traditional marketing placement strategies (i.e. price, promotion, distribution, packaging, and competition). Also positioning is defined as the way by which the marketers creates impression in the customers mind. Positioning is a concept in marketing which was first introduced by Jack Trout ( "Industrial Marketing" MagazineJune/1969) and then popularized by Al Ries and Jack Trout in their bestseller book "Positioning - The Battle for Your Mind." (McGraw-Hill 1981) This differs slightly from the context in which the term was first published in 1969 by Jack Trout in the paper "Positioning" is a game people play in todays me-too market place" in the publication Industrial Marketing, in which the case is made that the typical consumer is overwhelmed with unwanted advertising, and has a natural tendency to discard all information that does not immediately find a comfortable (and empty) slot in the consumers mind. It was then expanded into their ground-breaking first book, "Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind," in which they define Positioning as "an organized system for finding a window in the mind. It is based on the concept that communication can only take place at the right time and under the right circumstances" (p.19 of 2001 paperback edition). What most will agree on is that Positioning is something (perception) that happens in the minds of the target market. It is the aggregate perception the market has of a particular company, product or service in relation to their perceptions of the competitors in the same category. It will happen whether or not a company's management is proactive, reactive or passive about the on-going process of evolving a position. But a company can positively influence the perceptions through enlightened strategic actions.
Product positioning process

Generally, the product positioning process involves: 1. Defining the market in which the product or brand will compete (who the relevant buyers are) 2. Identifying the attributes (also called dimensions) that define the product 'space' 3. Collecting information from a sample of customers about their perceptions of each product on the relevant attributes 4. Determine each product's share of mind 5. Determine each product's current location in the product space 6. Determine the target market's preferred combination of attributes (referred to as an ideal vector) 7. Examine the fit between: The position of your product The position of the ideal vector 8. interest and started a conversation, you'll know you're on the right track.
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Positioning concepts
More generally, there are three types of positioning concepts: 1. Functional positions Solve problems Provide benefits to customers Get favorable perception by investors (stock profile) and lenders 2. Symbolic positions Self-image enhancement Ego identification Belongingness and social meaningfulness Affective fulfillment 3. Experiential positions Provide sensory stimulation Provide cognitive stimulation
Measuring the positioning

Positioning is facilitated by a graphical technique called perceptual mapping, various survey techniques, and statistical techniques like multi dimensional scaling, factor analysis, conjoint analysis, and logit analysis.
Repositioning a company
In volatile markets, it can be necessary - even urgent - to reposition an entire company, rather than just a product line or brand. When Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley suddenly shifted from investment to commercial banks, for example, the expectations of investors, employees, clients and regulators all needed to shift, and each company needed to influence how these perceptions changed. Doing so involves repositioning the entire firm. This is especially true of small and medium-sized firms, many of which often lack strong brands for individual product lines. In a prolonged recession, business approaches that were effective during healthy economies often become ineffective and it becomes necessary to change a firm's positioning. Upscale restaurants, for example, which previously flourished on expense account dinners and corporate events, may for the first time need to stress value as a sale tool. Repositioning a company involves more than a marketing challenge. It involves making hard decisions about how a market is shifting and how a firm's competitors will react. Often these decisions must be made without the benefit of sufficient information, simply because the definition of "volatility" is that change becomes difficult or impossible to predict.
References
Trout, J., (1969) ""Positioning" is a game people play in todays me-too market place", Industrial Marketing, Vol.54, No.6, (June 1969), pp.5155. Ries, A. and Trout,J. (1981) Positioning, The battle for your mind, Warner Books - McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, 1981, ISBN 0-446-34794-9 Trout, J. and Rivkin, S. (1996) The New Positioning : The latest on the worlds #1 business strategy, McGraw Hill, New York, 1996, ISBN 0-07-065291-
The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing
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The 22 Immutable Laws of Branding (1993) is a book by Al Ries and Jack Trout. These are the chapter headings from The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing, by Ries & Trout, Harper Business.
1. THE LAW OF LEADERSHIP. It is better to be first than it is to be better.
2. THE LAW OF THE CATEGORY. If you can't be first in a category, set up a new category you can be first in.
3. THE LAW OF THE MIND. It is better to be first in the mind than to be first in the marketplace.
4. THE LAW OF PERCEPTION. Marketing is not a battle of products, it's a battle of perceptions.
5. THE LAW OF FOCUS. The most powerful concept in marketing is owning a word in the prospect's mind.
6. THE LAW OF EXCLUSIVITY. Two companies cannot own the same word in the prospect's mind.
7. THE LAW OF THE LADDER. The strategy to use depends on which rung you occupy on the ladder.
8. THE LAW OF DUALITY. In the long run, every market becomes a two horse race.
9. THE LAW OF THE OPPOSITE. If you are shooting for second place, your strategy is determined by the leader.
10. THE LAW OF DIVISION. Over time, a category will divide and become two or more categories.
11. THE LAW OF PERSPECTIVE. Marketing effects take place over an extended period of time.
12. THE LAW OF LINE EXTENSION. There is an irresistible pressure to extend the equity of the brand.
13. THE LAW OF SACRIFICE. You have to give up something to get something.
14. THE LAW OF ATTRIBUTES. For every attribute, there is an opposite, effective attribute.
15. THE LAW OF CANDOR. When you admit a negative, the prospect will give you a positive.
16. THE LAW OF SINGULARITY. In each situation, only one move will produce substantial results.
17. THE LAW OF UNPREDICTABILITY. Unless you write your competitor's plans, you can't predict the future.
18. THE LAW OF SUCCESS. Success often leads to arrogance, and arrogance to failure.
19. THE LAW OF FAILURE. Failure is to be expected and accepted.
20. THE LAW OF HYPE. The situation is often the opposite of the way it appears in the press.
21. THE LAW OF ACCELERATION. Successful programs are not built on fads, they're built on trends.

22. THE LAW OF RESOURCES. Without adequate funding, an idea won't get off the ground.
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References
The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing (1993). Al Ries and Jack Trout.
Article Sources and Contributors
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Dunnigan, Lacrimosus, Lamro, Lbongaer, Leafyplant, LeaveSleaves, LedgendGamer, Leranedo, LesleyW, Leuko, Levineps, Liface, Life of Riley, Lightmouse, Lights, Lillingen, Lindsay.Ward, Lord of the Puns, Lova Falk, Lradrama, LudovicaMottura, Luisdelafuente, Luna Santin, M3taphysical, MC MasterChef, MER-C, MacMed, Magnus Manske, Maj IIM, Majorly, Mamawrites, ManManager, Management Culture, Mani1, Marasmusine, Marilyn Haight, Mark Renier, Marketingman, MarsRover, Martinp23, Masterpiece2000, Materialscientist, Mathewstuart, Maurreen, Maxis ftw, Mb22hk, Mberteig, Mdd, Mentifisto, Mesdaghi, Mgillett, Michaelrayw2, Mild Bill Hiccup, Misteror, Mjpieters, Mkoval, Mkubica, Mlaffs, Modeha, Modernist, MonideepGupta, Moriori, MrOllie, Mrken30, Mudash, Multijohnthomas, Mydogategodshat, Mygerardromance, NAHID, NCS2004, NERIUM, NYCCommunity, Nakos2208, Nehrams2020, NellieBly, Neostarbuck, Neptune99, Netoholic, NewWikiMan, Nibuod, Nickypunk001, Nigholith, NighthawkY10K, Nikai, Nikoned, Niteowlneils, 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Sanjaymca, Sanusi.husain, Scholzj, Seaphoto, Seraphim, Serw, Shafitvohra, Shanes, Shaunteale, Shearerbest, Sheep2000, Shomroni, Shoy, ShrekOC, Simoes, SimonP, Simple Bob, SineWave, SiobhanHansa, Skidude9950, Skomorokh, SkyWalker, Smaccatino, Snowolf, Some jerk on the Internet, Sommers, Sonal merchant, SpartanPhalanx, Spersily, Spitfire, Spliffy, SpyMagician, Squiddy, Staxoplax, Steamroller Assault, Stephenb, Steve2011, StopItTidyUp, Student317, SueHay, Suffusion of Yellow, Sugarmagnolia175, Sweet2, T@nn, Terrean, Tesakoff, The Anome, The Cunctator, The Font, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Transhumanist, The Transhumanist (AWB), Thedjatclubrock, Themanagementpractice, Theraraavis, Thetruthfinder01, Thseamon, Tim Long, Tim1357, Timb001, Tkjainbkn, Tlesher, TomPhil, Tombomp, Tradnor, Traroth, Trey314159, Triwbe, Truongvoky012345, Tyw7, Ucanlookitup, Ulbrichdj, Uloggonitor, Ulric1313, Uptor, Uriyan, V-squared, Velella, Vinsfan368, Vrenator, Wasami007, Wertuose, Wes!, Wiki4des, WikiTome, Wikidea, Willking1979, Withluvurs, Wknight94, Wookipedian, Workmanager, Worldeconomist, WpZurp, Xagent86, Xelgen, Xyzzyplugh, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yasmeen.naseem, YeahIKnow, Yhkhoo, Yidisheryid, Yiptorp, Ykhwong, Yotwen, Zeev Grin, Zigger, ZimZalaBim, Zlerman, Zzuuzz, , 1205 anonymous edits Marketing strategy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=433279542 Contributors: 1exec1, 65biscayne, Ahoerstemeier, Aksi great, Aleodor, Alexkin, Alro, AndrewCarey, AndrewHowse, Angela.hausman, Angieprk, Anna Lincoln, Auburn, Avnjay, Binary TSO, Blawrimore, Bobtrothphd, Bonadea, Cacycle, CaptainVindaloo, Carl.bunderson, Cdumas, Chrislk02, Christian75, Coastergeekperson04, CommodiCast, Craftyminion, Dancter, Darth Panda, Deli nk, DennyColt, Dreadstar, Edward, Ehheh, Ehoopman, Emitchell62000, EsheleD, Fairsing, Faradayplank, Fbooth, Felagund, Free Bear, Futureobservatory, GIBDO, Galoubet, Gazimoff, Gioto, GloriaReibin, Grochim, Herven, HyperSonic X, Intershark, Iridescent, It Is Me Here, JYi, 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Saturn, Wimt, Xcentaur, Zach425, ZamorakO o, Zip3, Zonelinks, Zundark, 366 anonymous edits Promotion (marketing) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=433366028 Contributors: ABF, Aldo samulo, Alexius08, Alfredxz, Amontron, Ampersandexplainer, Ancheta Wis, AndrewHowse, Apokryltaros, Battamer, Bobo192, Bonadea, Briaboru, Cacycle, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Cape cod naturalist, ChiragPatnaik, Ckatz, Contributor29wiki, Csus814, DMacks, DasBub, Decltype, Deor, Discospinster, DRahier, Ersajid01, Fabiv, Fenice, Flowerparty, Fourohfour, Furrykef, Futureobservatory, Gec118, Glen, Glenn.isaac, GraemeL, Grochim, Hclim65, Husond, J.delanoy, JHunterJ, JLaTondre, Jeff G., Jjjchang, Jncraton, Johnleemk, Jusdafax, Kdweck-NJITWILL, Kelly, Kingpin13, Kuru, Kwlovell, Levineps, LilHelpa, Linkspamremover, Lommer, MagnusA, Mattisse, Maurreen, Michael Devore, Milanvi, Myataya, Nartaur, NawlinWiki, ONUnicorn, Occlasty, Oxymoron83, Pangweb, Patrick, Pelangiholiday, Petr Kopa, Phynicen, RHaworth, Rosehu, Rosenjon, Rossami, Salamurai, Sesu Prime, Spiritia, Sschickel, Stevertigo, Surridge89, Tide rolls, Tom, Tree Biting Conspiracy, Utcursch, Versageek, Wafulz, Wizzzzman, Woohookitty, Zzuuzz, 131 anonymous edits Brand Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=431491615 Contributors: 10digits, 119, 130.94.122.xxx, 45strutt, AEF, AGToth, Aathira G Krishna Mallya, Accurizer, Achangeisasgoodasa, Adam.J.W.C., AdjustShift, Adraeus, Ae-a, Aeon1006, Ahoerstemeier, AjiNIMC, Alansohn, Alfpooh, Algarrobo, Allstar86, Altenmann, Ancheta Wis, Andre.Michael, Andrew c, AndrewHowse, Andrewpmk, Andychapel, Andyjsmith, Angela, Angelastic, Angie Y., Anilstrums, Anna Lincoln, Anna512, AnnaFrance, AnnalisaShanghai, Antara singhania, Anville, Apparition11, Arnoutf, Art10yoj, Arthena, Ask123, AssetInfo, Avjoska, Avoided, Ayavi, Azikate, Azim ul haq, BAKA4lyfe, BEmichael, Babrinton, Bella262, BillyPreset, Binadot, BioPupil, Bishonen, Bkwon, BlackTerror, Blanchardb, Blogtheristo, Bobfrombrockley, Boblenin, Bonadea, Boston, Bourkestephen, Brandface, Brandguru, BrandlandUSA, BrendelSignature, Brentes, Brian Crawford, Brianga, Bud08, Bunchofgrapes, BuzzWoof, Byronsharp, CTZMSC3, CWii, Calvin 1998, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Capricorn42, Cavrdg, Cbintern, Cds013, Cenarium, Ceyockey, Chalermson, Chamli Tennakoon, CharlotteWebb, Cheeseslope, Chris the speller, Christopher Mahan, Chuq, Cjs56, Ck lostsword, ClairSamoht, Clappingsimon, Clarel88, Closedmouth, Cobaltbluetony, Cochese8, Codetiger, Conversion script, Cookefilm, Cool3, Corsicanu, Crobzub, Curps, Curtisjayelectric, Cutler, CyborgTosser, D.brodale, DDerby, DS5000, DShantz, Damian Sim, Damian Yerrick, DancingPenguin, Daniel Olsen, Danlev, Dannyglix, Darren searson, Dasani, David Martland, Davidhowse, Daztaff, Delldot, Den fjttrade ankan, Dennis Bratland, Dersonlwd, Designanimal, Designforlogo, DeweyQ, Dezignr, Dionyziz, Dismas, Dmit, DocWatson42, DocendoDiscimus, Docu, Domm3000, Dorotheou, Dryusufkamal, Dublinblue, Ducheyn, Dufftech, Durgavdevi, Dwarf Kirlston, E-Kartoffel, ERcheck, EagleFan, EdwinHJ, Eeekster, Egyptianholiday, Ehheh, Eigenfrog, Eleven even, Elf, Elgraphio, Emodinol, Epbr123, Epischedda, Error -128, Esprit15d, Esrever, Ev, Ewlyahoocom, Excirial, Fabrictramp, Fairsing, Faithlessthewonderboy, Falcon8765, Fantadrink11, Faradayplank, Farside, Fbooth, Figaro, Finell, Focusfields, Forring, Fourmiz59, Franchise Consultant, Fratrep, Fredrik, Funandtrvl, Futureobservatory, G from B, GK, Gallantg, Gallantgifts, GeeJo, Geniac, Gert7, Getonyourfeet, Gilliam, Ginsengbomb, Gisle l, Gizzakk, Glidinpelican, Glutengirl, Gogo Dodo, GoingBatty, Gr1st, Gracefool, GraemeL, Greyfedora, Grstain, Grunt, Gyokomura, H Bruthzoo, Hadal, Hahnchen, HamburgerRadio, Hans Dunkelberg, Happy5214, Harami2000, Hardeak, Hardeak1, Harryboyles, Havanafreestone, Hdupont15, Hechung, Hemant bamoriya, Hetar, Hgastaldi, HiDrNick, Hiberniantears, Hillel, Himanshuking, Horrid Henry, Hotlorp, Hpfan1, Hu12, Hugh Mason, Hugh2414, Husond, Hyperbrand, IGod, IW.HG, Iain, Ievolution, Infoapex, Infrogmation, Interiot, Inwind, Iq., Iridescent, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JForget, JackPercival, Jamcib, Jameshfisher, Jbuckpitt, Jdtyler, Jeandr du Toit, Jeff3000, Jeffrey Scott Maxwell, Jennie.brass, Jeremiah Mountain, Jeronimo, Jevansen, Jimbo16454, Jkatzen, Jmcc150, Joblamma, Jodok, JoelLimberg, Jojit fb, Jokestress, Jossi, Jsmorse47, JzG, K ideas, KC Panchal, Kaeso Dio, Katieh5584, Kazzmedia, Kbh3rd, KingTT, Kingfish, Kipoc, Krusada, Kuru, Kusunose, L Kensington, LCD z, LDMerriam, Ldmerriam, Leafyplant, Lekoman, LepoRello, Lesleys, Liftarn, Lightmouse, Limpan, Linkerjpatrick, Linkspamremover, LittleDan, LizardWizard, Lo Ximiendo, Logomage, LordofPens, Lotje, Luckyluke, Lumbercutter, M.bay, MBisanz, MER-C, MFSchar, MStraw, Madhero88, Magikwilly83, Maley26, Marilyn Tong, Mark D Hardy, Mark83, MarkBuckles, Markonen, Martarius, Maryettacampbell, Matt Gies, Mattahl, MattieTK, Maurreen, Mav, Maven111, Maximus

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File:Training meeting in a ecodesign stainless steel company in brazil.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Training_meeting_in_a_ecodesign_stainless_steel_company_in_brazil.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Alex Rio Brazil File:Coca-Cola logo.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coca-Cola_logo.svg License: Trademarked Contributors: AVRS, Adambro, AnonMoos, Bryan, D2513850, Deerstop, Denniss, Editor182, Hautala, Herbythyme, Peachey88, Pmsyyz, Psantora, Rimshot, Starscream, SteveSims, 8 anonymous edits File:Relationship between trade marks and brand.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Relationship_between_trade_marks_and_brand.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: LepoRello File:Mobil manuals.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mobil_manuals.png License: Fair Use Contributors: Eigenfrog File:English & Hebrew Coke labels.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:English_&_Hebrew_Coke_labels.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Yoninah
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Contents

Nature of managerial work

Formation of the business policy

Developing a marketing strategy

The marketing planning process

Marketing planning aims and objectives

Detailed plans and programs

Content of the marketing plan

Medium-sized and large organizations

Market share analysis

Use of marketing plans

Budgets as managerial tools

The Coca-Cola logo is an example of a widely-recognised trademark representing a global brand.

Benefits of global branding

Global brand variables

Brand Different national approaches to marketing (media, pricing, distribution, etc.)

Visual brand identity

Expanding role of brand

Attitude branding and iconic brands

Brand extension and brand dilution

Individual and organizational brands

Nation Branding (Place Branding & Public diplomacy)

Product positioning process

Measuring the positioning

The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing

The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing

19. THE LAW OF FAILURE. Failure is to be expected and accepted.

The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing

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Article Sources and Contributors

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

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