1 of 29 7.0 Communications Techniques Not used for entertainment. TX and RX in same package.transceiver.

Image frequency input freq local osc freq = IF freq In this example the image frequency is 22MHz

2 of 29 Double Conversion Use two stages of IF freqs.

In the above the image frequency is 40MHz. 40-30 = 10MHz. A 40MHz signal will be greatly attenuated by the first RF amp and mixer circuits.

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Determine the image frequency for a receiver with,, input frequency 20 MHz local oscillator 30 MHz IF frequency 10 MHz image frequency = 40 MHz

4 of 29 Up conversion make the first IF freq higher than the input signal. In the circuit below the image freq is 110 MHz. The RF amp will block 110 MHz.

5 of 29 Preselector Tuned circuits prior to mixer. Image rejection (dB) = Example 7.6 Two tuned circuits Q of each is 60 IF freq = 455 kHz Signal = 680 kHz Image frequency is 680 + 2*455 = 1590 kHz Image rejection of each tuned circuit 20 log [ ( 1590/680 680/1590 )60 ] = 20 log 114.6 = 41 dB Image rejection of the two identical circuits = 82dB 20 log[ (fi/fs fs/fi)*Q ]

6 of 29 7.3 Special Techniques AGC purpose is to increase dynamic range. Special technique to improve AGC performance Delayed AGC - no gain reduction for until signal exceeds minimum

7 of 29 Minimum signal must exceed diode reverse bias voltage. Then AGC starts.

D1 is off at low signal levels. AGC level is zero (only sine wave input to C1 and average is zero). Strong signal, positive peak > AGC set level. Positive signal peaks will be attenuated. Average input to C1 is negative. Feeds back a negative DC level to the input stages (reduces their gain).

8 of 29 Auxiliary AGC - step reduction in gain when input signal level is very high

For normal signal levels diode is reverse-biased. Strong signal is detected. DC current flow into the AGC bus increases. DC voltage a base of Q2 is decreased. Collector voltage of Q2 rises. Diode turns on. This shorts it out and loads down the L1C1 mixer. Results in much lower signal coupled out of L2.

9 of 29 Variable-gain amplifier chip - 600MHz Gain is controlled by value of digital input (assumes A/D converter connected to output of the AGC circuit).

Gain range is -5dB to 40dB in 3dB increments. Evaluation board http://www.analog.com/UploadedFiles/Evaluation_Boards/Tools/499510088AD8369EB_0.pdf Datasheet http://www.analog.com/UploadedFiles/Data_Sheets/475634305AD8369_0.pdf

10 of 29 Variable Selectivity

Uses variable bandwidth tuning. As the local osc freq is changed the bandwidth is changed.

11 of 29 Noise Limiter

D2 is normally reverse-biased. A sharp increase in signal due to lightning for example causes D2 to be turned on. The signal is shorted out and blocked.

12 of 29 Squelch Mute the audio output when the matching (signal-producing) transmitter is turned off. Eliminate offending audio noise. Five techniques listed. 1. Fixed RF level threshold. 2. Variable level controlled by HF audio noise. 3. Pilot tone control signal. 4. Didtal code control signal. 5. Microprocessor controlled algorithm (SmartSquelch).

13 of 29 7.4 Receiver noise, sensitivity, and dynamic range relationships Noise Floor - thermal noise in a resistance, Pn = kTB B = bandwidth for 1 Hz, 290 deg K, Pn = 4x10-21 = -174 dBm Noise in dBm = -174dBm + 10logB Now derive sensitivity in terms of noise and desired So/No. Sensitivity (S) = (noise)dB + Si/Ni now, [(Si/Ni)/(So/No)][So/No] = Si/Ni 10log[Si/Ni] = 10log (Si/Ni)/(So/No) + 10log(So/No) = NFdB + (So/No)dB S = [-174 dBm + 10logB] + [NF] + [desired So/No] for 1 MHz, NF = 20dB, desired So/No = 10 dB S = -174dBm + 10log1000000 + 20 + 10 = -84 dBm if So/No = 1 signal = noise then S = -94.8 dBm = noise floor

14 of 29 Dynamic Range Upper power limit 1-dB compression point Output is 1 dB down from the ideal linear response

Intermod intermodulation distortion (IMD) Third-order distortion products of two signals. 2f1-f2, 2f2-f1 Response of amplifier to third-order signals.

15 of 29 What is the approximate dynamic range of a receiver if the 3rd order intercept is 25dBm and the sensitivity equals -95dBm? 2/3 * (25dBm - -95dBm) = 80dB A receiver has a dynamic range of 76dB. It has 0.8 nW sensitivity. Determine the maximum allowable input signal in watts. 76dB = 10log x/0.8nW x = 0.0318W A receiver has a dynamic range of 76dB. It has 0.8 nW sensitivity. Determine the maximum allowable input signal in watts. 76dB = 10log(Sin/0.8nW) Sin = 0.0318W A receiver has the following characteristics, 25 dB noise figure 2 MHz bandwidth +3 dBm third-order intercept point 12 dB desired S/N a) What is the receivers sensitivity? Si = -174 dBm + 25 dB + 63 + 12 = -74

16 of 29 b) What is the receivers dynamic range? Dynamic range = 2/3(3 - -74) = 51.33dB

17 of 29 Intermodulation Distortion (IMD) Intermod When two frequencies are amplified, f1 & f2 Distortion vo = k0 + K1vi + K2vi2 + K3vi3 + K4vi4 + vi(t) = A1sin1t + A2sin2t 2nd order distortion products out of passband 2f1, 2f2, f1+f2, f1-f2 3rd order distortion products in passband 2f1-f2, 2f2-f1 are in passband usually K3vi3 = K3(A1sin 1t + A2sin2t)3 Intermodulation products that will fall within the passband are, 3/4 K3 A1 A2 sin(2 1 - 2)t and 3/4 K3 A1 A2 sin(2 2 - 1)t So both rise as power input rises, thus slope of plot of their power is greater than 1st order term. Input third-order intercept = 3rd order of amp minus added gain of a preamp Show how gain of preamp boosts the intermod product power plot. approximation dynamic range (dB) = 2/3(input intercept - noise floor), higher 3rd order intercept is better. MOSFET has lower values for the cube term.

18 of 29 Noise Floor = Receiver Output Noise = Noise Power + Noise Figure At 290 degrees Kelvin Bandwidth - Hz Noise Power - dBm 1 -174 1000 -144 1,000,000 -104 Sensitivity = Noise Floor + Output Signal-to-Noise Ratio (desired) + Noise Figure (Si/Ni)/(So/No) dB At 290 degree Kelvin and 1 MHz Output Signal-to-Noise Ratio Noise Figure Sensitivity - dBm (So/No) - dB 0 10 -94 10 10 -84 -70 dBm is -70 dB below a milliwatt or -100 dBW -100 = 10log(X/1W) and therefore, X/1W = 10-10 X = 10-10W For a 50 ohm system, (Vrms)2/50 = 10-10 watts Vrms = [50*10-10] 0.5 = 7.1* 10-5 For 50 ohm system, dBm -70 -90 -110 dBW -100 -120 -140 Input Voltage - V 7.1* 10-5 7.1* 10-6 7.1* 10-7 Input Voltage - uV 71 7.1 0.71

Input third-order intercept = 3 order intercept of amp minus added gain of a preamp

rd

19 of 29

dynamic range (dB) = 2/3(input intercept - noise floor),

higher 3rd order intercept is better.

Sensitivity = temp noise (dBm) + bandwidth noise (dBm) + Si/Ni) dB = noise (dBm) + Si/Ni dB So/No dB amp characteristic + So/No dB desired = noise (dBm) + (Si/Ni)/(So/No) dB amp characteristic + So/No dB desired = noise (dBm) + noise figure (dB) + output signal/noise ratio desired (dB)

20 of 29 Summary Sensitivity = temp noise + bandwidth noise + noise figure + output signal/noise ratio desired = noise (dBm) + [si/ni (dB) so/no (dB)]amp characteristic + so/no (dB) desired example 7-7 20 dB NF, 1 MHz bandwidth, 5 dBm 3rd order intercept, 0 dB S/N S = -174 dBm + 10log1000000 + 20 dB + 0 = -94 dBm dynamic range = 2/3( 5 dBm (-94 dBm)) = 66 dB

21 of 29 Example 7.8 Preamp 24 dB gain, 5 dB NF Sensitivity & dynamic range ?? NR = log-1(NF/10) NR1 = log-1(5dB/10) = 3.16 NR2 = log-1(20dB/10) = 100 NR = NR1 + (NR2 - 1)/PG1 from 1-16 PG1 = log-1(24dB/10) = 251 NR = 3.16 + (100-1)/ 251 = 3.55 NF = 10log3.55 = 5.5dB S = -174dBm + 60dB (due to bandwidth) + 5.5dB = -108.5 dBm input third-order intercept +5dBm 24dB = -19dBm dynamic range = 2/3[ -19dBm (-108.5dBm)] = 59.7 dB

22 of 29 Example 7-9 10 dB gain preamp in place of 24 Sensitivity and dynamic range? NR = 3.16 + (100 1)/10 = 13.1 NF = 10log1.31 = 11.2 dB sensitivity = -174 dBm + 60 dB + 11.2 dB = -102.8 dBm dynamic range = 2/3[( -5dBm (-102.8dB)] = 65.2 dB Receiver Only Receiver + 10dB preamp Preamp NF 5dB NFdB 20 11.2 Sensitivity (dBm) -94 -102.8 Third-order intercept 5 -5 point (dBm) Dynamic range (dB) 66 65.2 Receiver + 24dB preamp 5dB 5.5 -108.5 -19 59.7

23 of 29
Ex 7-8 Noise at 1Hz and 290deg K Bandwidth Noise - dBm Preamp Noise Figure - dB Preamp Gain - dB Preamp Power Gain Receiver Noise Figure - dB Noise Ratio 1 Noise Ratio 2 Noise Ratio Effective Noise Figure - dB Noise Floor - dBm Desired So/No Ratio - dB Sensitivity - dBm 3rd Order Intercept - dBm Input 3rd Order Intercept - dBm Dynamic Range - dB -174 1,000,000 -114 5 24 251 20 3.16 100 3.56 5.51 -108.5 0 -108.5 5 -19 59.7 Ex 7-9 -174 1,000,000 -114 5 10 10 20 3.16 100 13.06 11.16 -102.8 0 -102.8 5 -5 65.2 Ex 7-7 -174 1,000,000 -114 0 0 1 20 1.00 100 100.00 20.00 -94.0 0 -94.0 5 5 66.0 -174 1,000,000 -114 5 24 251 20 3.16 100 3.56 5.51 -108.5 10 -98.5 5 -19 53.0

24 of 29 Intermod Testing

25 of 29 Two frequencies applied to Class AB linear power amplifier

26 of 29 Cross Modulation Two-tone test again, but allow one tone to be amplitude modulated. Third-order products of the two-tone signal include modulation of one tone causing amplitude modulation of the other tone, A1[1 + m1(t)]sinw2t 3/2 K3 A12 A2 [1 + m1(t)]2sinw2t] Passive elements may have nonlinear characteristics and produce distortion products. Metal rool with rusted joints. Toilet.

27 of 29 Frequency Synthesis

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29 of 29
Fill in the blanks in the table below. Show your work; i.e., the formulas/algebra you used for each step.
1 Noise at 1Hz and 290deg K Bandwidth Noise - dBm Preamp Noise Figure - dB Preamp Gain - dB Preamp Power Gain Receiver Noise Figure - dB Noise Ratio 1 Noise Ratio 2 Noise Ratio Effective Noise Figure - dB Noise Floor - dBm Desired So/No Ratio - dB Sensitivity - dBm 3rd Order Intercept - dBm Input 3rd Order Intercept - dBm Dynamic Range - dB -174 1,000,000 0 0 20 2 -174 1,000,000 0 20 0 3 -174 1,000,000 10 20 0 4 -174 1,000,000 10 10 20

0 5

0 5

10 5

20 5

The formula for Noise Ratio is NR = NR1 + (NR2 1)/PG1